Network Calculations

Equivalence of Sources

VL = Eg – I L Z s ;
VL =( IS - IL) ZP =ISZP – ILZs;
Eg = ISZP
ZP = ZS
YP =1/ZP =1/ZP
A constant emf and series impedance can be replaced by a constant current source and shunt
impedance if the shunt impedance is identical to the series impedance and if the constant current equal
to the value of the emf divided by its series impedance.
Conversely, a constant-current source and shunt impedance can be replaced by a constant emf and
series impedance if the emf equal to the product of the constant current and the shunt impedance and if
the series impedance equals the shunt impedance.

Node Equations
When two or more pure elements (R, L, C, or an ideal source of voltage or current) are connected to
each other at their terminals are called nodes or junctions.
The current relation of a system can be written as follows:
N
I = ∑ Y V
k kn n
n =1
Ik is the current for kth bus. Ykn is the admittance between kth bus and nth bus. Vn is the voltage at nth
bus. N is the number of buses.
The node equations for a four buses system can be written as follows:
I = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 + Y14V4
1
I = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + Y24V4
2
I = Y31V1 + Y23V2 + Y33V3 + Y34V4
3
I = Y41V1 + Y42V2 + Y43V3 + Y44V4
4
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤
⎢I ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 ⎥⎥ ⎢V ⎥
In matrix form: ⎢ ⎥ = 2 2
I ⎢Y Y Y Y ⎥ ⎢V ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎢ 31 32 33 34 ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣V4 ⎥⎦
The diagonal admittances (Y11, Y22, Y33, and Y44) are called self-admittances at the nodes, and each
equals the sum of all the admittances terminating on the node identified by the repeated subscripts.
The other admittances are the mutual admittances of the nodes, and each equals the negative of the
sum of all admittances connected directly between the nodes identified by the double subscripts.

The above equation can be written as:

DMAM (1/22)
I = YbusV
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤
⎢I ⎥ ⎢Y ⎥ ⎢V ⎥
⎢ ⎥ Y22 Y23 Y24 ⎥
2
Where, I = ⎢ ⎥ , Ybus = ⎢ 21 , V = ⎢⎢ 2 ⎥⎥
I ⎢Y Y Y Y ⎥ V
⎢ 3⎥ ⎢ 31 32 33 34 ⎥ ⎢ 3⎥
⎢⎣ I 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V4 ⎥⎦
YBus is called the bus admittance matrix.
Formation of admittance matrix [Y]
Diagonal elements:
Ykk= sum of admittances connected to bus k
N
Y = ∑ y
kk kn
n =1
Off-diagonal elements:
Ykn= - sum of admittances connected between buses i and j (where k ≠ n)
Y = Y = −y = −y
kn nk kn nk

As an example for a four bus system as shown in Fig. 7.2. The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. 7.3.
The Fig. 7.4 illustrated the equivalent circuit of Fig. 7.3 by replacing all voltage source by current
sources and impedance by admittance.

Fig. 7.3 Reactance diagram for the system of Fog.

7.2. Reactance values are in per unit..
Fig. 7.2 One-line diagram of a simple four bus
system.

Fig. 7.4 Circuit of Fig. 7.3 with current sources

replacing the equivalent voltage sources. Values
shown are admittances in per unit.
E = 1.5∠0° ; E = 1.5∠ − 36.87° ; E = 1.5∠0°
1 2 3
1.5∠0°
I =I = = 1.2∠ − 90° = 0 − j1.2 pu
1 3 j1.25
1.5∠ − 36.87°
I = = 1.2∠ − 126.87° = −0.72 − j 0.96
2 j1.25

DMAM (2/22)
For node 1 we can write the current equation using KCL as:
I = y11V1 + y12 (V1 − V2 ) + y13 (V1 − V3 ) + y14 (V1 − V4 )
1
According to Fig. 7.5
y11 = − j 0.8; y12 = y 21 = j 0.0; y13 = y31 = − j 4.0; y14 = y 41 = − j 5.0
I = ( y11 + y12 + y13 + y14 )V1 − y12V2 − y13V3 − y14V4
1
I = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 + Y14V4
1
Thus,
Y = y11 + y12 + y13 + y14 = − j 0.8 − j 4.0 − j 0 − j 5.0 = − j9.8
11
Y = − y12 = j 0.0
12
Y = − y13 = −(− j 4.0) = j 4.0
13
Y = − y14 = −(− j 5.0) = j5.0
14

Similarly, for node 2 we can write the current equation using KCL as:
I = − y V + ( y 21 + y 22 + y 23 + y 24 )V2 − y 23V3 − y 24V4
2 21 1
Here,
y12 = y 21 = j 0.0 ; y 22 = − j 0.8 ; y 23 = y32 = − j 2.5 ; y 24 = y 42 = − j 5.0

I = Y V + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + Y24V4

2 21 1
Y21 = − y 21 = j 0.0 ;
Y = y 21 + y 22 + y 23 + y 24 = j 0.0 − j 0.8 − j 2.5 − j 5.0 = − j8.3
22
Y23 = − y 23 = j 2.5 ; Y24 = − y 24 = j 5.0

Similarly, for node 3 we can write the current equation using KCL as:
I = − y V − y V + ( y31 + y32 + y33 + y34 )V3 − y34V4
3 31 1 32 2
Here,
y13 = y31 = − j 4.0
; y32 = − j 2.5 ; y33 = − j 0.8 ; y34 = y43 = − j8.0

I = Y V + Y32V2 + Y33V3 + Y34V4

3 31 1
Y31 = − y31 = j 4.0
;
Y32 = − y32 = j 2.5
;
Y = y31 + y32 + y33 + y34 = − j 4.0 − j 0.8 − j 2.5 − j8.0 = − j15.3 ;
33
Y34 = − y34 = j8.0

Similarly, for node 4 we can write the current equation using KCL as:
I = 0 = − y V − y V − y V + ( y 41 + y 42 + y 43 + y 44 )V4
4 41 1 42 2 43 3
Here,
y14 = y 41 = − j 5.0 ; y 42 = − j 0.5 ; y 43 = − j8.0 ; y 44 = j 0.0

I = Y V + Y42V2 + Y43V3 + Y44V4

4 41 1
DMAM (3/22)
Y41 = − y 41 = j 5.0 ;
Y42 = − y 42 = j 5.0 ;
Y43 = − y 43 = j8.0
Y = y41 + y42 + y43 + y44 = − j5.0 − j5.0 − j8.0 − j 0.0 = − j18 ;
44

The bus admittance matrix is

Diagonal components:
Y11 = y11 + y12 + y13 + y14
Y22 = y21 + y22 + y23 + y24
Y33 = y31 + y32 + y33 + y34
Y44 = y41 + y42 + y43 + y44
Off-diagonal components:
Y12 = Y21 = − y12 = − y21
Y13 = Y31 = − y13 = − y31
Y14 = Y41 = − y14 = − y41

Y23 = Y32 = − y23 = − y32

Y24 = Y42 = − y24 = − y 42

Y34 = Y43 = − y34 = − y43

Y44 = y41 + y42 + y43 + y44

⎡ 0 − j1.2 ⎤ ⎡− j9.8 j 0.0 j 4.0 j5.0 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤

⎢− 0.72 − j 0.96⎥ ⎢ j 0.0 − j8.3 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ j 2.5 j5.0 ⎥⎥ ⎢V2 ⎥
⎢ 0 − j1.2 ⎥ ⎢ j 4.0 j 2.5 − j15.3 j8.0 ⎥ ⎢V3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ j5.0 j5.0 j8.0 − j18.0⎦ ⎣⎢V4 ⎦⎥

Bus Impedance Matrix

The bus admittance matrix Ybus matrix can be inverted and called the resultant matrix the bus
impedance matrix Zbus.

−1
⎡Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 ⎤ ⎡ Z11 Z12 Z13 Z14 ⎤
⎢Y Y22 Y23 ⎥
Y24 ⎥ ⎢Z Z 22 Z 23 Z 24 ⎥⎥
−1
Z bus = Ybus = ⎢ 21 = ⎢ 21
⎢Y Y32 Y33 Y34 ⎥ ⎢Z Z 32 Z 33 Z 34 ⎥
⎢ 31 ⎥ ⎢ 31 ⎥
Y Y42 Y43 Y44 ⎥ ⎢⎣ Z 41 Z 42 Z 43 Z 44 ⎥
⎣⎢ 41 ⎦ ⎦

DMAM (4/22)
 Home Work
Make the admittance matrix , Ybus, for the following networks.
Problem 1: The impedance between bus 1 and 2 is: Z12 = 0.1 +j0.5 pu.

One-line diagram for Problem 1

Problem 2: Given parameters are impedance in per-unit

One-line diagram for Problem 2

Problem 3:

One-line diagram and Dtata Table for Problem 3

Problem 4: Given parameters are impedance in per-unit.

One-line diagram for Problem 4

DMAM (5/22)
 Load (or Power) Flow Studies
We should be able to analyze the performance of power systems both in normal operating conditions
and under fault (short-circuit) condition.
The analysis in normal steady-state operation is called a power-flow study (or load-flow study) and it
targets on determining the voltages, currents, and real and reactive power flows in a system under a
given load conditions.
From a load flow study the following information are obtained: the magnitude (|V|), and phase angle
(δ) of voltage at each bus, and the real (P) and reactive (Q) power flowing in each bus.
The purpose of power flow studies is to plan ahead and account for various hypothetical situations.
For instance, what if a transmission line within the power system properly supplying loads must be
taken off line for maintenance. Can the remaining lines in the system handle the required loads without
exceeding their rated parameters?
A power-flow study (load-flow study) is an analysis of the voltages, currents, and power flows in a
power system under steady-state conditions.
In such a study, we make an assumption about either a voltage at a bus or the power being supplied to
the bus for each bus in the power system and then determine the magnitude and phase angles of the
bus voltages, line currents, etc. that would result from the assumed combination of voltages and power
flows.
The simplest way to perform power-flow calculations is by iteration:
1. Create a bus admittance matrix Ybus for the power system;
2. Make an initial estimate for the voltages at each bus in the system;
3. Update the voltage estimate for each bus (one at a time), based on the estimates for the voltages
and power flows at every other bus and the values of the bus admittance matrix: since the
voltage at a given bus depends on the voltages at all of the other busses in the system (which
are just estimates), the updated voltage will not be correct. However, it will usually be closer to
the answer than the original guess.
4. Repeat this process to make the voltages at each bus approaching the correct answers closer
and closer

The equations used to update the estimates differ for different types of busses.
At each node or bus two of the variables are specified as input and two are unknowns
Voltage magnitude: │V│
Phase angle: δ
Net real power injected: P
Net reactive power injected: Q

Each bus in a power system can be classified to one of three types:

1. Load (or PQ) bus: A buss at which the real and reactive power are specified, and for which
the bus voltage will be calculated. Real and reactive powers supplied to a power system are
defined to be positive, while the powers consumed from the system are defined to be negative.
All busses having no generators are load busses.
In practice, a voltage on a load (or PQ) bus may change with changing loads. Therefore, load
busses have specified values of P and Q, while V varies with load conditions.

2. Generator (or Voltage Controlled or PV or Regulated) bus: A bus at which the magnitude of
the voltage is kept constant by adjusting the field current of a synchronous generator on the bus
(as we learned, increasing the field current of the generator increases both the reactive power
supplied by the generator and the terminal voltage of the system). We assume that the field
current is adjusted to maintain a constant terminal voltage VT. We also know that increasing the
prime mover’s governor set points increases the power that generator supplies to the power
system. Therefore, we can control and specify the magnitude of the bus voltage and real power
supplied.
DMAM (6/22)
 Real generators work most efficiently when running at full load. Therefore, it is desirable to
keep all but one (or a few) generators running at 100% capacity, while allowing the remaining
(swing) generator to handle increases and decreases in load demand. Most busses with
generators will supply a fixed amount of power and the magnitude of their voltages will be
maintained constant by field circuits of generators. These busses have specific values of P and
|V|.
Examples are buses to which generators, switched shunt capacitor, or static var system are
connected. Maximum and minimum var limits QGkmax and QGkmin that this equipment can
supply are also input data. Another example is a bus to which a tap-changing transformer is
connected; the power flow program then computs the tap setting.
3. Slack (or swing or infinite) bus: A special generator bus serving as the reference bus for the
power system. Its voltage is assumed to be fixed in both magnitude and phase (for instance,
1∠0˚ pu). The real and reactive powers are uncontrolled: the bus supplies whatever real or
reactive power is necessary to make the power flows in the system balance.

The controls on the swing generator will be set up to maintain a constant voltage and
frequency, allowing P and Q to increase or decrease as loads change.

Types of Bus Specified quantities Quantities to be determined

Load or PQ P, Q |V|, δ
Generator or PV P, |V| Q, δ
Swing or V, δ or slack
|V|, δ P, Q
or infinite

In Load Bus: The specified load P is negative and Q is negative for inductive load positive for
capacitive Load.
In Generator Bus: The specified load P is positive and calculated Q must be positive. So it is better
to use absolute value of calculated Q.

Either the bus self- and mutual admittances which compose the bus admittance matrix Ybus or the
driving point and transfer impedance which compose may be used in solving the power flow problem.
The admittance. For each line numerical values for the series impedance Z and the total line-charging
admittance Y (usually in terms of the line charging megavars at nominal voltage of the system) are
necessary.
A typical element of Ybus matrix can be written as
Ykn = Y ∠θ = Y cosθ kn + j Y sin θ kn = Gkn + Bkn
kn kn kn kn
The voltage at a typical bus k of the system is given in polar coordinate by
Vk = V ∠δ = V cosδ + j V sin δ
k k k k k k
The net current injected into the network at bus k is given by:
N
I = Y V + Y V + Y V + ........ + Y V = ∑ Y V
k k1 1 k 2 2 k 3 3 kN N kn n
n =1
Where, Vn = V ∠δ = V cos δ + j V sin δ , Ykn = Y ∠θ kn = Y cosθ kn + j Y sin θ kn
n n n n n n kn kn kn
The power
N N
P − jQ = V * I = V * ∑ Y V = ∑ Y V V ∠θ + δ − δ
k k k k k kn n kn n k kn n k
n =1 n =1
N
P = ∑ Y V V cos(θ + δ − δ )
k kn n k kn n k
n =1
DMAM (7/22)
 N
Q = − ∑ Y V V sin(θ + δ − δ )
k kn n k kn n k
n =1
The above two equations of real and reactive power constitute the polar form of the power-flow
equations; they provide calculated values for the net real power Pk and reactive power Qk entering the
network at typical bus k.

Example 6.9 [Ref. 3, p. 307] Fig, 6.2 shows a single-line diagram of a five bus power system. Input
Data are given in Table 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3. As shown in Table 6.1, bus 1, to which a generator is
connected, is the swing bus. Bus 3, to which a generator and a load are connected, is a voltage
cotrolled (or PV) bus. Buses 2, 4, and 5 are load buses. Note that the loads at bus 2 and 3 are inductive
since Q2= - QL2= - 2.8 and - QL3= - 0.4 are negative. For each bus k, determine which of the variables
Vk, δk, Pk, and Qk are input data and which are unknowns. Also, compute the elements of the second
row of Ybus.

Fig. 6.2 [Ref. 3, p. 307]

Table 6.1 Bus input data for example 6.9

V Pg Qg PL QL Qgmax Qgmin
Bus Type δ pu
pu pu pu pu pu pu pu
1 Swing 1.0 0 …... …... 0 0 …... …...
2 Load …... …... 0 0 8.0 2.8 …... …...
Constant
3 1.05 …... 5.2 …... 0.8 0.4 4.0 -2.8
Voltage
4 Load …... …... 0 0 0 0 …... …...
5 Load …... …... 0 0 0 0 …... …...
Sbase = 100 MVA, Vbase = 15 kV at bus 1,3 and 345 at buses 2, 4, 5
DMAM (8/22)
 Table 6.2 Line input data for Example 6.9
Maximum
Bus-to-Bus R pu X pu G pu B pu
MVA pu
2–4 0.0090 0.100 0 1.72 12.0
2–5 0.0045 0.050 0 0.88 12.0
4–5 0.00225 0.025 0 0.44 12.0

Table 6.3 Transformer input data for Example 6.9

Maximum
Bus-to-Bus R pu X pu Gc pu Bm pu
MVA pu
1–5 0.00150 0.02 0.02 0 6.0
3–4 0.00075 0.02 0.02 0 10.0

Table 6.4 Input and unknows for Example 6.9

Bus Type Input Data Unknowns
1 Swing V1= 1.0, δ1 = 0 P1, Q1
P2 = Pg2 – PL2 = – 8
2 Load V2, δ2
Q2 = Qg2 – QL2 = – 2.88
Constant V1= 1.05
3 Q3, δ3
Voltage P3 = Pg3 – PL3 = 4.4
4 Load P4 = 0, Q4 = 0 V4, δ4
5 Load P5 = 0, Q5 = 0 V5, δ5
B 1.72
y 21 = y 23 = 0 Y21 = Y23 = y 21 = y 23 = 0 y24(shunt) = j 24 = j = j 0.86 pu
; ; 2 2
1 1
y24 = = = 0.89276 − j9.91964 pu
R + jX 0.009 + j 0.1
24 24
Y24 = − y24 = −0.89276 + j9.91964 = 9.95972∠95.143° pu

B 0.88
y25(shunt) = j 25 = j = j 0.44 pu
2 2 ;
1 1
y25 = = = 1.78552 − j19.83932 pu
R + jX 0.0045 + j 0.05
25 25
Y25 = − y25 = −1.78552 + j19.83932 = 19.9195∠95.143° pu
y 22 = y 24(shunt ) + y 25(shunt ) = j (0.86 + 0.44) = j1.3 pu
Y22 = y + y + y + y + y = 0 + j1.3 + 0 + (0.89276 − j9.91964) + (1.78552 − j19.83932)
21 22 23 24 25
Y22 = 2.67828 − j 28.4590 = 28.5847∠ − 84.624° pu

DMAM (9/22)
 The Gauss-Seidel Method [1, 8.2, 194]
Real loads are specified in terms of real and reactive powers, not as currents. The relationship between
per-unit real and reactive power supplied to the system at a bus and the per-unit current injected into
the system at that bus is:

With the swing bus designated as number 1, computations start with bus 2. Real loads are specified in
terms of real and reactive powers, not as currents.
The relationship between per-unit real (P2) and reactive power (P2) supplied to the system at bus 2 and
the per-unit current injected into the system at bus 2 is:
S = V I * = P + jQ (8.1)
2 2 2 2
From which I2 is expressed as
P + jQ
I* = 2 2
2 V
2
P − jQ
I = 2 2 (8.2)
2 *
V
2
For a four bus systems, I2 can be written as follows
P − jQ
I = 2 2 =Y V +Y V +Y V +Y V (8.3)
2 * 21 1 22 2 23 3 24 4
V
2
Solving for V2 gives
⎡ ⎤
V =
2 Y ⎢
1 ⎢ P2 − jQ2
*
(
− Y V +Y V +Y V ⎥
21 1 23 3 24 4 ⎥
) (8.4)
22 ⎢⎣ V ⎥⎦
2
Similar equations can be created for each load bus in the power system as Eq. (8.4-1) and (8.4-2) for
four bus system.
⎡ ⎤
V =
3 Y ⎢
1 ⎢ P3 − jQ3
*
(
− Y V +Y V +Y V ⎥
31 1 32 2 34 4 ⎥
) (8.4-1)
33 ⎣⎢ V
3 ⎦⎥

⎡ P − jQ ⎤
V =
4 Y
1 ⎢ 4
⎢ *
(
4 − Y V +Y V +Y V
41 1 42 2 43 3
)⎥⎥ (8.4-2)
44 V
⎣⎢ 4 ⎦⎥

Eq. (8.2) gives updated estimate for V2 based on the specified values of real and reactive powers and
the current estimates of all the bus voltages in the system. Note that the updated estimate for V2 will
not be the same as the original estimate of V2* used in (8.2) to derive it.
We can repeatedly update the estimate while substituting current estimate for V2 back to the equation.
The values of V2 will converge; however, this would NOT be the correct bus voltage since voltages at
the other nodes are also needed to be updated. Therefore, all voltages need to be updated during each
iteration!
The iterations are repeated until voltage values no longer change much between iterations. This
method is known as the Gauss-Siedel iterative method.

The basic procedure of Gauss-Siedel iterative method is:

DMAM (10/22)
 1. Calculate the bus admittance matrix Ybus including the admittances of all transmission lines,
transformers, etc., between busses but exclude the admittances of the loads or generators
themselves.
2. Select a slack bus: one of the busses in the power system, whose voltage will arbitrarily be
assumed as 1.0∠0˚.
3. Select initial estimates for all bus voltages: usually, the voltage at every load bus assumed as
1.0∠0˚ (flat start) lead to good convergence.
4. Write voltage equations for every other bus in the system. The generic form is:

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
1 ⎢ Pk − jQk N ⎥
V = ⎢ − ∑ Y V ⎥ (8.5)
k Y * kn n
kk ⎢ Vk n =1 ⎥
⎢ n≠k ⎥
⎣ ⎦

5. Calculate an updated estimate of the voltage at each load bus in succession using (8.5) except
for the slack bus.
⎡ ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ Pk − jQk N (i − 1) ⎥
V = − ∑ Y V
k Y ⎢ V (i − 1) * n = 1 kn n ⎥
kk ⎢⎣ k ⎥⎦

6. Compare the differences between the old and new voltage estimates: if the differences are less
than some specified tolerance for all busses, stop. Otherwise, repeat step 5.

(i + 1) (i )
V −V ≤ε
k k
where, i is number of iteration and ε is tolerance which value is very smal

Acceleration Factor: the rate of convergence is increased by applying an acceleration factor to

the approx. solution obtained from each iteration. For kth bus, the acceleration value of the
voltage at the (i+1)th iteration is given by,
(i ) (i−1) (i ) (i−1) ⎞ (i −1) (i )
V =V + α ⎛⎜V − V ⎟ = (1 − α )Vk + αV
k , acc k ⎝ k k ⎠ k
where, α is a real number known as acceleration factor.
If α =1, then the Gauss-Seidel computed value of Vk is stored as the current value.
If 0 ≤ α ≤ 1, then the value to be stored is a weighted average of the Gauss-Seidel value and the
value stored from the previous iteration.
If 1 ≤ α ≤ 2, then the value to be stored is essentially an extrapolated value.
In power flow studies α is generally set 1.6 and cannot exceed 2 if convergence is to occur.
A generally recommended value is 1.6. A wrong choice of α may slow down the convergence
or lead to diverge.

7. Confirm that the resulting solution is reasonable: a valid solution typically has bus voltages,
whose phases range in less than 45˚ and the difference between nearby buses less than about
10˚ and often very small.

At a bus where voltage magnitude rather than reactive power is specified [PV or generator bus], the
real and imaginary components of the voltage for each iteration are found by first computing a value
for the reactive power from Eq. (8.5)

DMAM (11/22)
 N ⎛ N ⎞
P − jQ = V * I = V * ∑ Y V = V * ⎜ Y V + ∑ Y V ⎟
k k k k k kn n k ⎜ kk k kn n ⎟
n =1 ⎝ n = 1; n ≠ k ⎠
N ⎡ N ⎤
Q = − ∑ Y V V sin(θ + δ − δ ) = − Im⎢V * ∑ Y V ⎥ (8.8)
k kn n k kn n k ⎢⎣ k n = 1 kn n ⎥⎦
n =1
Reactive power Qk is evaluated by (8.8) for the best previous voltage values at the buses and this value
of Qk is substitute in Eq. (8.5) to find a new Vk. The components of new Vk are then multiplied by the
ratio of the specified constant magnitude of Vk to the magnitude of the Vk found by Eq. (8.5).
V
k (PV_bus), specified
That means, V =V here k is the PV or generator bus.
k (PV_bus) k (PV_bus) V
k (PV_bus)
The result is the corrected complex voltage of the specified magnitude.

Either voltage magnitude or reactive power must be specified at every bus except the slack bus, where
voltage is specified by both voltage magnitude and angle. At buses with generation the voltage
magnitude is specified as well as the real power P supplied by the generator. The reactive power Q
entering the network from the generation is then determined by the computer in solving the
power-flow problem. From a practical viewpoint the Q output of the generator must be within definite
limits given by the inequality:
Q ≤Q≤Q
min max
where Qmin is the minimum and Qmax is the maximum limit imposed on the reactive power
output of the generator at the bus.
In the course of power-flow solution if the calculated value of Q is outside either limit, then Q is
set equal to the limit violated, the originally specified voltage magnitude at the bus is relaxed,
and the bus is then treated as a PQ bus for which a new voltage is calculated by the computer
program.
In subsequent iterations the program endeavors to sustain the originally specified voltage at the
bus while ensuring that Q is within the permitted range of values. This could well be possible
since other changes may occur elsewhere in the system to support the local action of the
generator excitation as it adjusts to satisfy the specified terminal voltage.

Example (L1):
In a 2-bus power system, a generator attached to bus 1 and loads attached to bus 2. The series
impedance of a single transmission line connecting them is (0.1 + j0.5) pu. The shunt admittance of the
line may be neglected. Assume that bus 1 is the slack bus and that it has a voltage V1 = 1.0∠0˚ pu.
Real and reactive powers supplied to the loads from the system at bus 2 are P2 = 0.3 pu, Q2 = 0.2 pu
(powers supplied to the system at each busses is negative of the above values). Determine voltages at
each bus for the specified load conditions.

Solution:
1. We start from calculating the bus admittance matrix Ybus.
The impedance between bus 1 and 2 is: Z12 = 0.1 +j0.5.
In this problem, there are only two busses, thus Ybus is (2×2) matrix.
y11= 0.0; y12= y12 = 1/(0.1+j0.5) = 0.3846 – j1.9231, y22= 0.0
DMAM (12/22)
 Y11= y11 + y12 = 0.3846 - j1.9231
Y12=Y21= - y12= - y21= - 0.3846 + j1.9231
Y22= y11 + y22 = 0.3846 - j1.9231
⎡ 0.3846 − j1.9231 − 0.3846 + j1.9231⎤
=⎢
bus ⎣− 0.3846 + j1.9231 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎥⎦
Y

2. Next, we select bus 1 as the slack bus since it is the only bus in the system connected to the
generator. The voltage at bus 1 will be assumed 1.0∠0˚.
3. We select initial estimates for all bus voltages. Making a flat start, the initial voltage estimates
at every bus are 1.0∠0˚.
4. Next, we write voltage equations for every other bus in the system. For bus 2:
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ P2 − jQ2
V = −Y V ⎥
2 Y ⎢ * 21 1 ⎥
22 ⎢⎣ V2 ⎥⎦
Since the real and reactive powers supplied to the system at bus 2 are P2 = -0.3 pu and Q2 = -
0.2 pu and since V1 are known, we may reduce the last equation:

⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ P2 − jQ2
V = −Y V ⎥
2 Y ⎢ * 21 1 ⎥
22 ⎢⎣ V2 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ P2 − jQ2 (i − 1) ⎥
V = −Y V
2 Y ⎢ V (i − 1) * 21 1 ⎥
22 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ − 0.3 + j 0.2 (i − 1) ⎥
V = − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)V
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎢ V (i − 1) * 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

5. Next, we calculate an updated estimate of the voltages at each load bus in succession. In this
problem we only need to calculate updated voltages for bus 2, since the voltage at the slack bus
(bus 1) is assumed constant. We repeat this calculation until the voltage converges to a constant
value. The initial estimate for the voltage is V2(0) = 1∠0˚. The next estimate for the voltage is
First iteration:
⎡ ⎤
(1) 1 ⎢ − 0.3 + j 0.2 (0) ⎥
V = − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)V ⎥
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎢ V (0) * 1
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
(1) 1 ⎡ − 0.3 + j 0.2 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎣ 1∠0° ⎦
(1) 1 ⎡ 0.3603∠146.3° ⎤
V = ⎢ − (1.9612∠101.3°)⎥
2 1.9612∠ − 78.8° ⎣ 1∠0° ⎦
(1)
V = 0.87 − j 0.13 = 0.8797∠ − 8.4985°
2

Second iteration:
This new estimate for V2 substituted back to the equation will produce the second estimate:

DMAM (13/22)
 ⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ − 0.3 + j 0.2
− (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥⎥
(2)
V =
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎢ V (1) *
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
(2) 1 ⎡ − 0.3 + j 0.2 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎣ 0.87 + j 0.13 ⎦
(2)
V = 0.832 − j 0.1243 = 0.8412∠ − 8.4985°
2

Third iteration:
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ − 0.3 + j 0.2
− (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥⎥
(3)
V = ⎢
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ( 2) *
⎢⎣ V2 ⎥⎦
(3) 1 ⎡ − 0.3 + j 0.2 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎣ 0.832 + j 0.1243 ⎦
(3)
V = 0.8243 − j 0.13 = 0.8345∠ − 8.962°
2

Fourth iteration:
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ − 0.3 + j 0.2
− (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥⎥
(4)
V = ⎢
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 (3) *
⎢⎣ V2 ⎥⎦
(4) 1 ⎡ − 0.3 + j 0.2 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎣ 0.8243 + j 0.13 ⎦
( 4)
V = 0.8219 − j 0.1296 = 0.832∠ − 8.962°
2

Fifth iteration:
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ − 0.3 + j 0.2
− (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥⎥
(5)
V =
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎢ V (5) *
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
(5) 1 ⎡ − 0.3 + j 0.2 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎣ 0.8219 + j 0.1296 ⎦
(5)
V = 0.8213 − j 0.13 = 0.8315∠ − 8.9942°
2

Sixth iteration:
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ − 0.3 + j 0.2
− (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥⎥
(6)
V = ⎢
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 (5) *
⎢⎣ V3 ⎥⎦
(6) 1 ⎡ − 0.3 + j 0.2 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−0.3846 + j1.9231)(1∠0°)⎥
2 0.3846 − j1.9231 ⎣ 0.8213 + j 0.13 ⎦
( 6)
V = 0.8211 − j 0.13 = 0.8314∠ − 8.9942°
2

DMAM (14/22)
 Iter V2 Mag Ang
1 0.8700 - 0.1300i 0.8797 -8.4985
2 0.8320 - 0.1243i 0.8412 -8.4985
3 0.8243 - 0.1300i 0.8345 -8.9620
4 0.8219 - 0.1296i 0.8320 -8.9620
5 0.8213 - 0.1300i 0.8315 -8.9942
6 0.8211 - 0.1300i 0.8314 -8.9942
7 0.8211 - 0.1300i 0.8313 -8.9965
8 0.8211 - 0.1300i 0.8313 -8.9965

6. We observe that after 7th iterations the magnitude of the voltage is barely changing and may
conclude that this value is close to the correct answer and, therefore, stop the iterations.
This power system converged to the answer in five iterations. The voltages at each bus in the
power system are:
V1 = 1∠0° = 1.0 + j 0.0
V2 = 0.8313∠ − 8.9965° = 0.8211 − j 0.13

7. Finally, we need to confirm that the resulting solution is reasonable. The results seem
reasonable since the phase angles of the voltages in the system differ by only 10˚. The current
flowing from bus 1 to bus 2 is
V − V2 1.0 + j 0.0 − 0.8211 + j 0.13
I2 = 1 = = 0.3188 − j 0.2940 = 0.4337∠ − 42.6862°
Z 12 0.1 + j 0.5

The power supplied by the transmission line to bus 2 is

S = V2 I 2* = (0.8211 − j 0.13)(0.3188 + j 0.294) = 0.3000 + j 0.2000
This is the amount of power consumed by the loads; therefore, this solution appears to be correct.
This voltage is correct only for the assumed conditions; another amount of power supplied by bus 2
will result in a different voltage V2.
Therefore, we usually postulate some reasonable combination of powers supplied to loads, and
determine the resulting voltages at all the busses in the power system. Once the voltages are known,
currents through each line can be calculated.
The relationship between voltage and current at a load bus as given by (9) is fundamentally nonlinear.
Therefore, solution greatly depends on the initial guess.

Example [L2]
For the following diagram reactances are given in per-unit on a 100 MVA base.

Admittance diagram [values are marked in per-

Reactance diagram [values are marked in per-unit] unit]

Bus No Type P [MW] Q [MVAR] V [pu] δ

1 Swing ……. ……. 1 0
2 Generator 60 ……. 1 …….
3 Load -80 -60 ……. …….

Find Q2, V2, V3 using Gauss-Seidal iteration method.

DMAM (15/22)
Solution:
Y11= -j7.0; Y12= Y21= j2.0; Y13= Y31= j5.0;
Y22= - j6.0; Y23= Y32= j4.0;
Y33= - j9.0

⎡− j 7.0 j 2.0 j5.0 ⎤

Ybus = ⎢ j 2.0 − j 6.0 j 4.0 ⎥⎥
⎢

⎣⎢ j5.0 j 4.0 − j 9.0⎦⎥

60
P2 = = 0.6 pu
100
80
P3 = − = −0.8 pu
100
60
Q3 = − = −0.6 pu
100

2
⎡ N ⎤
(
Q = − Im⎢V * ∑ Y V ⎥ = − Im⎡V * Y V + Y V + Y V ⎤
⎢⎣ 2 21 1 22 2
)
23 3 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 2 n = 1 2n n ⎥⎦
(i) ⎡ (i − 1) * ⎛ (i − 1) (i − 1) ⎞⎤
Q = − Im⎢V ⎜ j 2.0V1 − j 6.0V2 + j 4.0V ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ P2 − jQ2
V = −Y V −Y V ⎥
2 Y ⎢ * 21 1 23 3 ⎥
22 ⎣⎢ V2 ⎦⎥
⎡ (i ) ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ 0.6 − jQ2 (i − 1) ⎥
V = − j 2.0V − j 4.0V
2 − j 6.0 ⎢ V (i − 1) * 1 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

V
2, specified
V =V
2 2 V
2
V
(i ) (i ) 2, specified
V =V
2, new 2, old (i )
V
2, old
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ P3 − jQ3
V = −Y V −Y V ⎥
3 Y ⎢ * 21 1 32 2 ⎥
33 ⎢⎣ V3 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ − 0.8 + j 0.6 (i − 1) ⎥
V = − j 2.0V − j 4.0V
3 − j 0.9 ⎢ V (i − 1) * 1 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦

(0) (0)
Let, V2 = 1∠0° = 1.0 + j 0.0 pu , V3 = 1∠0° = 1.0 + j 0.0 pu

DMAM (16/22)
First Iteration:
(1) ⎡ (0) * ⎛ (0) (0) ⎞⎤
Q = − Im⎢V ⎜ j 2.0V1 − j 6.0V2 + j 4.0V3 ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎝ ⎠⎦
(1)
Q = − Im[(1 − j 0.0)( j 2.0(1 − j 0.0) − j 6.0(1 − j 0.0) + j 4.0(1 − j 0.0) )] = 0
2
⎡ (1) ⎤
(1) 1 ⎢ 0.6 − jQ2 (0) ⎥
V = − j 2.0V − j 4.0V
2 − j 6.0 ⎢ V (0) * 1 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
(i) 1 ⎡ 0.6 − j 0 ⎤
V = ⎢ − j 2.0(1 + j 0.0) − j 4.0(1 + j 0.0)⎥ = 1.0 + j 0.1 = 1.00499∠5.71059°
2 − j 6.0 ⎣ (1 − j 0.0) ⎦
V
(i ) (i ) 2, specified 1
V =V = (0.99504 + j 0.0995) = (0.99504 + j 0.0995)
2, new 2, old (i ) 1
V
2, old
⎡ ⎤
(1) 1 ⎢ − 0.8 + j 0.6 (0) ⎥
V = − j 2.0V − j 4.0V
3 − j 0.9 ⎢ V (0) * 1 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦

(1) 1 ⎡ − 0.8 + j 0.6 ⎤

V = ⎢ − j 2.0(1 + j 0.0) − j 4.0(1 + j 0.0)⎥ = 1.0 + j 0.1 = 1.00499∠5.71059°
3 − j 0.9 ⎣ (1 − j 0.0) ⎦

Second Iteration:

Iter Q2, MagV2, AngleV2, MagV3, AngleV3

1 0 1.0050 5.7106 0.9344 -2.7263
2 0.3444 1.0053 4.2822 0.9271 -3.6032
3 0.3658 1.0054 3.7000 0.9258 -3.8606
4 0.3674 1.0054 3.5149 0.9254 -3.9381
5 0.3675 1.0054 3.4582 0.9253 -3.9615
6 0.3675 1.0054 3.4411 0.9253 -3.9685
7 0.3675 1.0054 3.4359 0.9253 -3.9707
8 0.3675 1.0054 3.4343 0.9253 -3.9713
9 0.3675 1.0054 3.4339 0.9253 -3.9715
10 0.3675 1.0054 3.4337 0.9253 -3.9715

Example 6.7[Ref. 4]: The following figure shows the one line diagram of a siple three-bus power
system with generation bus 1. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 pu. The scheduled
loads at busses 2 and 3 are as marked on the diagram. Line impedances are marked in per-unit on a
100 MVA base and the charging susceptances are neglected.

DMAM (17/22)
 (a) Using the Gauss-Seidel method, determine the phasor values of the voltage at the load buses 2
and 3 (PQ busses) accurate to four decimal places.
(b) Find the slack bus real and reactive power.

Solution:
Z12 = 0.02+j0.04; Z13 = 0.01+j0.03; Z23 = 0.0125+j0.025;
y12 = y21 = 1/Z12= 1/( 0.02+j0.04) = 10-j20;
y13 = y31 = 1/Z13 = 1/(0.01+j0.03) = 10 –j30;
y23 = y32 = 1/Z23 = 1/(0.0125+j0.025) = 16 –j32;
y11=0.0; y22=0.0; y33=0.0;

Y11= y11 + y12 + y13 = 20 – j50

Y12=Y21= - y12= - y21= -10+j20
Y13=Y31= - y13= - y31= -10 +j30
Y22= y21 + y22 + y23 = -26 +j52
Y23=Y32= - y23= - y32= 16 –j32
Y33= y31 + y32 + y33 = 26 -j62

S2= P2+jQ2= - (256.6+j110.2)/100 = -2.566 – j 1.102 pu

S3= P3+jQ3 =- (138.6+j45.2)/100 = - 1.386 – j 0.452 pu

S2*= P2-jQ2= -2.566 + j 1.102 pu

S3*= P3-jQ3 = -1.386 + j 0.452 pu

⎡ P − jQ ⎤ ⎡ S* ⎤
V
(i )
=
1
⎢ 2 2 − Y V − Y V (i − 1) ⎥ = 1 ⎢ 2 −Y V −Y V
(i − 1) ⎥
2 Y⎢ (i − 1) * 21 1 23 3 ⎥ Y ⎢ (i − 1) * 21 1 23 3 ⎥
22
⎢⎣ 2
V ⎥⎦ 22 ⎢⎣ 2
V ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ * ⎤
(i) 1 ⎢ P3 − jQ3 (i) ⎥ 1 ⎢ S2 (i) ⎥
V = −Y V −Y V ⎥ = −Y V −Y V
3 Y ⎢ V (i − 1) * 31 1 32 2 Y ⎢V (i − 1) * 31 1 32 2 ⎥
33 ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ 33 ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦

(0) (0)
V = 1.05 − j 0.1 V = 1 − j 0.1 V3 = 1 − j 0.1
1 ; 2 ;

First iteration:
(1) 1 ⎡ − 2.566 + j1.102 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−10 + j 20)(1.05 + j 0.0) − (−16 + j 32)(1 − j 0.0)⎥
2 26 − j52 ⎣ (1 − j 0.0) ⎦
(1)
V = 0.9825 − j 0.0310
2
(1) 1 ⎡ − 1.386 + j 0.452 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−10 + j 30(1.05 + j 0.0) − (−16 + j 32)(0.9825 − j 0.0310)⎥
3 26 − j 62 ⎣ 1.0 − j 0.0 ⎦
(1)
V = 1.0011 − j 0.0353
3

Second iteration:

DMAM (18/22)
 (2) 1 ⎡ − 2.566 + j1.102 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−10 + j 20)(1.05 + j 0.0) − (−16 + j 32)(1.0011 − j 0.0353)⎥
2 26 − j 52 ⎣ (0.9825 + j 0.0310) ⎦
(2)
V = 0.9816 − j 0.0520
2
(2) 1 ⎡ − 1.386 + j 0.452 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−10 + j 30(1.05 + j 0.0) − (−16 + j 32)(0.9816 − j 0.0520)⎥
3 26 − j 62 ⎣1.0011 + j 0.0353 ⎦
(2)
V = 1.0008 − j 0.0459
3

With the knowledge of all bus voltage, the slack bus power is obtained from
(
P − jQ = V * Y V + Y V + Y V
1 1 1 11 1 12 2 13 3
)
P − jQ = (1.05)[(20.0 − j 50)1.05 + (−10 + j 20)(0.98 − j 0.06) + (−10 + j 30)(1.0 − j 0.05)]
1 1
P − jQ = 4.095 − j1.890
1 1
The slack bus real and reactive powers are 4.095 pu or 409.5 MW and 1.89 pu or 189 MVar.

Example 6.8[Ref. 4, p. 216]:

S2= P2+jQ2= - (400+j250)/100 = -4 – j2.5 pu

P3 = 200/100 = 2.0 pu

S2*= P2-jQ2= -4 + j 2.5 pu

⎡ P − jQ ⎤ ⎡ S* ⎤
(i )
V =
1 ⎢ 2 2 − Y V − Y V (i − 1) ⎥ = 1 ⎢ 2 −Y V −Y V
(i − 1) ⎥
2 Y ⎢ (i − 1) * 21 1 23 3 ⎥ Y ⎢ (i − 1) * 21 1 23 3 ⎥
22 ⎢⎣ 2
V ⎥⎦ 22 ⎢⎣ 2
V ⎥⎦
(i ) ⎡ (i − 1) * ⎛ (i ) (i − 1) ⎞⎤
Q = − Im⎢V ⎜ Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 ⎟⎥
3 ⎣ 3 ⎝ ⎠⎦
S3*= P3-jQ3*.

DMAM (19/22)
 ⎡ (i ) ⎤ ⎡ * ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ P3 − jQ3 (i ) ⎥ 1 ⎢ S3 (i ) ⎥
V = −Y V −Y V ⎥ = ⎢ (i − 1) * − Y31V1 − Y32V2 ⎥
3c Y ⎢ (i − 1) * 31 1 32 2 Y
33 ⎢⎣ V3 ⎥⎦ 33 ⎢⎣V3 ⎥⎦

V
(i ) (i) 3, specified
V =V
3 3c (i )
V
3c

First iteration:
(1) 1 ⎡ − 2.566 + j1.102 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−10 + j 20)(1.05 + j 0.0) − (−16 + j 32)(1 − j 0.0)⎥
2 26 − j52 ⎣ (1 − j 0.0) ⎦
(1)
V = 0.9825 − j 0.0310
2
(1) 1 ⎡ − 1.386 + j 0.452 ⎤
V = ⎢ − (−10 + j 30(1.05 + j 0.0) − (−16 + j 32)(0.9825 − j 0.0310)⎥
3 26 − j 62 ⎣ 1.0 − j 0.0 ⎦
(1)
V = 1.0011 − j 0.0353
3
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ * ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ P3 − jQ3 (i) ⎥ 1 ⎢ S2 (i) ⎥
V = −Y V −Y V = −Y V −Y V
3c Y ⎢ (i − 1) * 31 1 32 2 ⎥ Y ⎢ (i − 1) * 31 1 32 2 ⎥
33 ⎢⎣ 3
V ⎥⎦ 33 ⎢⎣ 3
V ⎥⎦

V
(i ) (i) 2, specified
V =V
3 3c (i )
V
3c

Example 6.5 (Ref.5, p. 188)

One line diagram of a four bus system shown below. All the line impedance are given in per-unit.

DMAM (20/22)
 Bus No Type P [MW] Q [MVAR] V [pu] δ
1 Swing ……. ……. 1.04 0
2 Generator 0.5 ……. 1.04 …….
3 Load -1.0 0.5 ……. …….
4 Load 0.3 -0.1 ……. …….

Find Q2, δ2, V3, V4 using Gauss-Seidal iteration method for 0.2 ≤ Q2 ≤1.

Line (Bus to Bus) Impedance Admittance

1-2 Z12=0.05+j0.15 y12=2.0-j6.0
1-3 Z13=0.10+j0.30 y13=1.0-j3.0
2-3 Z23=0.15+j0.45 y23=0.666-j2.0
2-4 Z24=0.10+j0.30 y13=1.0-j3.0
3-4 Z34=0.05+j0.15 y12=2.0-j6.0

⎡3 − j 9.0 − 2 + j6 − 1 + j3 0 ⎤
⎢− 2 + j 6 3.666 − j11 − 0.666 + j 2 − 1 + j 3 ⎥
Ybus =⎢ ⎥
⎢ − 1 + j3 − 0.666 + j 2 3.666 − j11 − 2 + j 6⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 − 1 + j3 − 2 + j6 3 − j 9.0 ⎦

P2 = 0.5 pu
S3= P3+jQ3= -1+j0.5 pu; S3*= P3-jQ3= -1-j0.5 pu
S4= P4+jQ4= 0.3-j0.1 pu; S4*= P4-jQ4= 0.3+j0.1 pu

(i) ⎡ (i − 1) * ⎛ (i − 1) (i − 1) (i − 1) ⎞⎤
Q = − Im⎢V ⎜ Y21V1 + Y22V2 +Y V +Y V ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎝ 23 3 24 4 ⎠⎦
S2*= P2-jQ2*
⎡ ⎤
(i) 1 ⎢ P2 − jQ2 (i − 1) (i − 1) ⎥
V = −Y V −Y V −Y V
2c Y ⎢ (i − 1) * 21 1 23 3 24 4 ⎥
22 ⎢⎣ 2
V ⎥⎦

V
(i) (i) 2, specified
V =V
2 2c (i )
V
2c
⎡ ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ P3 − jQ3 (i) (i − 1) ⎥
V = −Y V −Y V −Y V
3 Y ⎢ V (i − 1) * 31 1 32 2 34 4 ⎥
33 ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
(i ) 1 ⎢ P4 − jQ4 (i ) (i) ⎥
V = −Y V −Y V −Y V
4 Y ⎢ V (i − 1) * 41 1 42 2 43 3 ⎥
44 ⎣⎢ 4 ⎦⎥

First iteration satisfied the condition 0.2 ≤ Q2 ≤1. So we do not need to advance from first iteration.

Now, suppose the permissible limits on Q2 are revised as follows:

DMAM (21/22)
 0.25 ≤ Q2 ≤1
It is clear, that the other data remaining the same, the calculated Q2 (0.208) is now less than the Q2,min.
Hence Q2 is set equal to Q2,min i.e.
Q2 = 0.25 pu
Bus 2, therefore, becomes a PQ bus from a PV bus. Therefore, V2 can no longer remain fixed at 1.04.

Example (L3)
One line diagram of a four bus system shown below. All the line impedance are given in per-unit. Each
line has a total shunt admittance of j0.2 pu.

Bus No Type P [MW] Q [MVAR] V [pu] δ

1 Swing ……. ……. 1.04 0
2 Generator 0.5 ……. 1.04 …….
3 Load -1.0 0.5 ……. …….
4 Load 0.3 -0.1 ……. …….

Find Q2, δ2, V3, V4 using Gauss-Seidal iteration method for 0.2 ≤ Q2 ≤1.

Line (Bus to Bus) Impedance Admittance

1-2 Z12=0.05+j0.15 y12=2.0-j6.0
1-3 Z13=0.10+j0.30 y13=1.0-j3.0
2-3 Z23=0.15+j0.45 y23=0.666-j2.0
2-4 Z24=0.10+j0.30 y24=1.0-j3.0
3-4 Z34=0.10+j0.30 y34=1.0-j3.0
yshunt=j0.2;
y11=2×(yshunt/2)=j0.2; y22=3×(yshunt/2)= j0.3; y33=3×(yshunt/2)= j0.3; y44=2×(yshunt/2)= j0.2

DMAM (22/22)
 ⎡ 3 − j8.8 − 2 + j6 − 1 + j3 0 ⎤
⎢− 2 + j 6 3.666 − j10.7 − 0.666 + j 2 − 1 + j 3 ⎥
Ybus =⎢ ⎥
⎢ − 1 + j 3 − 0.666 + j 2 3.666 − j10.7 − 2 + j 6⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 − 1 + j3 − 2 + j6 3 − j8.8 ⎦

The Newton Rapson Method [Ref. 1, p. 196]

A typical element of Ybus matrix can be written as
Ykn = Y ∠θ = Y cosθ kn + j Y sin θ kn = Gkn + Bkn
kn kn kn kn
The voltage at a typical bus k of the system is given in polar coordinate by
Vk = V ∠δ = V cos δ + j V sin δ ;
k k k k k k
The net current injected into the network at bus k is given by:
N
I = Y V + Y V + Y V + ........ + Y V = ∑ Y V
k k1 1 k 2 2 k3 3 kN N kn n
n =1
Where, Vn = V ∠δ = V cos δ + j V sin δ
n n n n n n
The power
N N
P − jQ = V *I = V * ∑ Y V = ∑ Y V V ∠θ + δ − δ (8.17)
k k k k k kn n kn n k kn n k
n =1 n =1
N
P = ∑ Y V V cos(θ + δ − δ ) (8.18)
k kn n k kn n k
n =1
N
Q = − ∑ Y V V sin(θ + δ − δ ) (8.19)
k kn n k kn n k
n =1

It is considered that P and Q at all buses are specified except swing bus and estimate voltage
magnitude and angle at alll buses except swing the swing bus where voltage magnitude V and angle
δ are specified.

∂f (V ,δ ) ∂f (V , δ )
P = f (V , δ ) = f ⎛⎜ V + ∆ V , δ + ∆δ ⎞⎟ = f ⎛⎜ V , δ ⎞⎟ + ∆δ
p p
+ ∆V
k p p⎝ 0 0 ⎠ p⎝ 0 0 ⎠ ∂δ ∂V
0 0

∂f (V ,δ ) ∂f (V ,δ )
Q = f (V , δ ) = f ⎛⎜ V + ∆ V , δ + ∆δ ⎞⎟ = f ⎛⎜ V , δ ⎞⎟ + ∆δ
q q
+ ∆V
k q q⎝ 0 0 ⎠ q⎝ 0 0 ⎠ ∂δ ∂V
0 0

DMAM (23/22)
 ∂f (V ,δ ) ∂f (V , δ )
P − f ⎛⎜ V , δ ⎞⎟ = ∆δ
p p
+ ∆V
k p⎝ 0 0 ⎠ ∂δ ∂V
0 0

∂f (V ,δ ) ∂f (V ,δ )
Q − f ⎛⎜ V , δ ⎞⎟ = ∆δ
q q
+ ∆V
k q⎝ 0 0 ⎠ ∂δ ∂V
0 0

⎡ ∂f (V , δ ) ∂f (V , δ )⎤
p
⎡ P − f ⎛⎜ V , δ ⎞⎟ ⎤ ⎢ p ⎥
⎡ ∆Pk ⎤ ⎢ k p ⎝ 0 0 ⎠⎥ ⎢ ∂δ ∂ V ⎥ ⎡ ∆δ ⎤
⎢∆Q ⎥ = ⎢ =
⎢⎣ k ⎥⎦ ⎢Q − f ⎛⎜ V , δ ⎞⎟⎥ ⎢ ∂f q (V , δ ) ∂f q (V , δ ) ⎥ ⎣∆ V ⎦
⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ k q ⎝ 0 0 ⎠⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂δ ∂V ⎦
∆P = P −P
k k , spec k , calc
∆Q = Q −Q
k k , spec k , calc

If the swing bus is number 1, calculations are started from bus 2. In matrix form

⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤

⎢ ∂δ ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ∂ V3 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎡ ∆P2 ⎤ ⎢ ∂P3 ∂P3 ∂P3 ∂P3 ⎥ ∆δ 2
⎢ ∆P ⎥ ⎢ ∂δ ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ∂ V3 ⎥ ∆δ 3
⎢ 3⎥=⎢ 2 ⎥ (8.20)
⎢∆Q2 ⎥ ⎢ ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ⎥ ∆V2
⎢ ∆Q ⎥ ⎢ ∂δ ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ∂ V3 ⎥ ∆V3
⎣ 3⎦ 2
⎢ ∂Q ∂Q3 ∂Q3 ∂Q3 ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ∂ V3 ⎥⎦
⎡ ∆P ⎤ ⎡ J Pδ J PV ⎤ ∆δ
⎢∆Q ⎥ = ⎢J ⎥ (8.20.1)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ Qδ J QV ⎦ ∆V
⎡ ∆P ⎤ ∆δ
⎢∆Q ⎥ = J ∆V
⎣ ⎦
∆y = J∆x
⎡P⎤ δ
y=⎢ ⎥; x=
⎣Q ⎦ V

The Jcobian Matrix:

⎡ J Pδ J PV ⎤
J =⎢ ⎥
⎣J Qδ J QV ⎦
⎡∆P ⎤ ⎡∆Q ⎤ ⎡∆δ ⎤ ⎡∆V ⎤
∆P = ⎢ 2 ⎥; ∆Q = ⎢ 2 ⎥; ∆δ = ⎢ 2 ⎥; ∆V = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣∆P3 ⎦ ⎣ ∆Q3 ⎦ ⎣∆δ 3 ⎦ ⎣ ∆V3 ⎦

DMAM (24/22)
 ⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤
⎢ ∂δ ∂δ 3 ⎥ ⎢∂ V ∂ V3 ⎥
J Pδ =⎢ 2 ⎥ J PV =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ∂P3 ∂P3 ⎥ ⎢ ∂P3 ∂P3 ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ∂ V2 ∂ V3 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ⎤
⎢ ∂δ ∂δ 3 ⎥ ⎢∂ V ∂ V3 ⎥
J Qδ =⎢ 2 ⎥ J =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ∂Q3 ∂Q3 ⎥ QV ⎢ ∂Q3 ∂Q3 ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ∂ V2 ∂ V3 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ ∆P2 ⎤ ⎡ ∆Q2 ⎤ ⎡ ∆δ 2 ⎤ ⎡ ∆V2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ∆δ = ⎢⎢ ..... ⎥⎥; ∆V = ⎢⎢ ..... ⎥⎥
For N number of bus: ∆P = ⎢ ..... ⎥; ∆Q = ⎢ ..... ⎥;
⎢⎣∆PN ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣∆QN ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣∆δ N ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣∆VN ⎥⎦
⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤
⎢ ∂δ ..... ∂δ ⎥ ⎢ ∂V ..... ∂δV ⎥
⎢ 2 N
⎥ ⎢ 2 N
⎥
J Pδ = ⎢ ..... ..... ..... ⎥ J PV = ⎢ ..... ..... ..... ⎥
⎢ ∂PN ..... ∂PN ⎥ ⎢ ∂PN ..... ∂PN ⎥
⎢ ∂δ 2 ∂δ N ⎥ ⎢ ∂V2 ∂VN ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ⎤
⎢ ∂δ ..... ∂δ ⎥ ⎢ ∂V ..... ∂V ⎥
⎢ 2 N
⎥ ⎢ 2 N
⎥
J Qδ = ⎢ ..... ..... ..... ⎥ J QV = ⎢ ..... ..... ..... ⎥
⎢ ∂QN ..... ∂QN ⎥ ⎢ ∂QN ..... ∂QN ⎥
⎢ ∂δ 2 ∂δ N ⎥ ⎢ ∂V2 ∂VN ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Table
Where n≠k
∂P
J =k = − Y V V sin(θ + δ − δ ) = Y V V sin(δ − δ − θ )
Pδ , kn ∂δ kn n k kn n k kn n k k n kn
n
∂Q
J = k = − YknVnVk cos(θ kn + δ n − δ k ) = − YknVnVk cos(δ k − δ n − θ kn )
Qδ , kn ∂δ
n
∂P
J = k = Y V cos(θ + δ − δ ) = Y V cos(δ − θ − δ )
PV , kn ∂ V kn k kn n k kn k k kn n
n
∂Q
J == k = − Y V sin(θ + δ − δ ) = Y V sin(δ − θ − δ )
QV , kn ∂V kn k kn n k kn k k kn n
n
Where n=k
∂P N N
J = k = ∑ Y V V sin(θ + δ − δ ) = −Vk ∑ Y V sin(δ − θ − δ )
Pδ , kk ∂δ kn n k kn n k kn n k kn n
k n =1 n =1
but n ≠ k but n ≠ k
∂Q N N
J = k = ∑ Y V V cos(θ + δ − δ ) = V ∑ Y V cos(δ − θ − δ )
Qδ , kk ∂δ kn n k kn n k k kn n k kn n
k n = 1 n = 1
but n ≠ k but n ≠ k

DMAM (25/22)
 ∂P N
J = k = Y V cosθ + ∑ Y V cos(θ + δ − δ )
PV , kk ∂V kk k kk kn n kn n k
k n =1
∂P N
J = k = Y V cosθ + ∑ Y V cos(δ − θ − δ )
PV , kk ∂V kk k kk kn n k kn n
k n =1
∂Q N
J = k = Y V sinθ − ∑ Y V sin(θ + δ − δ )
QV , kk ∂V kk k kk kn n kn n k
k n =1
∂Q N
J = k = Y V sinθ + ∑ Y V sin(δ − θ − δ )
QV , kk ∂V kk k kk kn n k kn n
k n =1

We now apply the power (or Load) flow problrm the four Newton-Rephson steps, staring with at ith
δ (i )
iteration x (i ) =
V (i )
⎡ ∆P (i ) ⎤ ⎡ Pspec − Pcal (i ) ⎤
Step 1: Calculate: ∆y = ⎢ (i ) ⎥ = ⎢(i )
(i ) ⎥
⎣∆Q ⎦ ⎣⎢Qspec − Qcal ⎦⎥
Step 2: Calculate the Jacobian Matrix using the previous Table.
Step 3: Use Gauss elimination and back substitue to solve
−1
∆δ (i ) ⎡ J Pδ J PV ⎤ ⎡ ∆P (i ) ⎤
(i ) (i )

= ⎢ (i ) (i ) ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∆V (i ) ⎣⎢J Qδ J QV ⎦⎥ ⎣∆Q (i ) ⎦
Step 4: Comput
( i +1) δ (i +1) δ (i ) ∆δ (i )
x = (i+1) = (i ) +
V V ∆V (i )
⎡ N (i) (i) ⎡ (i) (i) ⎤ ⎤
⎢ ∑ Y2nVn )V2 cos⎢θ 2n + δ n − δ 2 ⎥ ⎥
⎢ n =1 ⎣ ⎦⎥
⎢ ................................................................... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ N ⎡ (i) ⎥
+δ −δ ⎤ ⎥
(i) (i) (i)
⎢ ∑ Y V V cos⎢θ
⎡P ⎤
( i +1) Nn n N ⎣ Nn n N ⎦⎥ ⎥
( i +1)
ycal = ⎢ cal(i +1) ⎥ = ⎢⎢ n = 1 ⎥
⎣Qcal ⎦ ⎢ − ∑ N
Y V V sin ⎡θ + δ − δ ⎤ ⎥
(i) (i) (i) (i)
⎢ n = 1 2n n 2 ⎢⎣ 2 n n 2 ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢................................................................... ⎥
⎢ N ⎥
⎢− ∑ Y V (i)V (i) sin ⎡θ + δ − δ ⎤⎥
(i) (i)
⎢⎣ n = 1 Nn n N ⎢⎣ Nn n N ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎦

Starting with initial value x(0) = [δ (0) V (0)] , the procedur continue until convergence is obtained
T

or until the number of iteration exceeds a specified maximum. Convergence criteria are often based on
∆y(i) (called power mismatches) rather than on ∆x(i) (phase angle and voltage magnitude mismatches).

For each voltage-controlled (PV) bus, the magnitude Vk is already known, and the function Qk is not
needed.

DMAM (26/22)
Therefore, we could omit Vk from the x vector and Qk from y vector. We could also omit from the
Jacobian matrix the column corresponding to partial derivatives with respect to Vk and the row
corresponding to partial derivatives of Qk.
Alternatively, rows and corresponding columns for voltage controller (PV) bus can be retained in the
Jacobian matrix. Then during each iteration, the voltage magnitude Vk(i+1) of each voltage controlled
bus is reset to Vk, which is input data for that bus.
At the end of each iteration, we compute Qk from (8.19) and Qgk = Qk+QLk for each voltage-controlled
bus. If the computed value of Qgk exceeds its limits, then the bus type is changed to a load bus with Qgk
set to its limit value. The power-flow program also computes a new value for Vk.

Let bus 3 is PV bus then:

⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤
⎢ ∂δ .....⎥ ⎡ ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ⎤
∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ⎥ ∆δ 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎡ ∆P2 ⎤ ⎢ 2
⎢ ∆P ⎥ ⎢ ∂P3 ∂P3 ∂P3 ⎡ ∆P2 ⎤ ⎢ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ∂V2 ⎥ ⎡∆δ ⎤
.....⎥ ∆δ 3
2
⎢ 3 ⎥ = ⎢ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ⎥ ⎢ ∆P ⎥ = ⎢ ∂P3 ∂P3 ∂P3 ⎥ ⎢
∆δ 3 ⎥⎥
; ⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎢ ∂δ ⎥ ⎢
⎢∆Q2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ∆V2 ∂δ 3 ∂V2
⎢ ..... ⎥ ⎢ ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2 .....⎥ .....
⎢⎣∆Q2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 ⎢
∂Q2 ⎥⎥ ⎣∆V2 ⎦
⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ∂δ ∂δ 3 ∂ V2 ⎥ ⎢ ∂Q2 ∂Q2
⎣⎢ ∂δ 2 ∂δ 3 ∂V2 ⎦⎥
2
⎢ ..... ..... ..... .....⎥⎦
⎣
Example:

It is given V1=1‫ס‬0 pu at the bus-bar 1 (slack bus) and at the bus-bar 2 (PQ bus) real power demand, P
= 1pu and reactive power demand, Q=0.2 pu. The reactance of the transmission line is, X12= j 0.2. So
y12 = y21 = 1/X12 = 1/0.2j = -5j, y11 = y22 = 0, Y11= Y22= -j5.0 = 5.0∠-90o; Y12=Y21= j5.0 = 5.0∠90o.

⎡− 5 j 5 j ⎤
Ybus = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 5 j − 5 j⎦
⎡− 5 j 5 j ⎤
=⎢
bus ⎣ 5 j − 5 j ⎥⎦
Y

|V1|=1 pu; δ1= 0o; P2 = 1pu. Q2 = 0.2 pu.

P = Y21V1V2 cos(θ 21 + δ1 − δ 2 ) + Y22V2V2 cos(θ 22 )
2
Q = − Y21V1V2 sin(θ 21 + δ1 − δ 2 ) − Y22V2V2 sin(θ 22 )
2

∂P
2 = Y V V sin(θ + δ − δ ) = 5.0 V sin(90° − δ )
∂δ
21 1 2 21 1 2 2 2
2

DMAM (27/22)
∂P
2 = Y V cos(θ + δ − δ ) + Y V cos(θ ) = 5.0 cos(90° − δ )
21 1 21 1 2 22 2 22 2
∂V
2

∂Q
2 = Y V V cos(θ + δ − δ ) = 5.0 V cos(90° − δ )
∂δ
21 1 2 21 1 2 2 2
2
∂Q
2 = − Y V sin(θ + δ − δ ) − Y V sin(θ ) = −5.0 sin(90° − δ ) + 5.0 V
21 1 21 1 2 22 2 22 2 2
∂V
2

−1
∆δ 2
(i )
⎡ 5.0 V2 sin(90° − δ 2 ) 5.0 cos(90° − δ 2 ) ⎤ ⎡ ∆P2 (i ) ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ (i ) ⎥
⎣5.0 V2 cos(90° − δ 2 ) − 5.0 sin(90° − δ 2 ) + 5.0 V2 ⎦ ⎣∆Q2 ⎦
(i )
∆V2

cos ⎡⎢90° − δ ⎤⎥
(i ) (i ) (i )
P = 5V
2, cal 2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
= −5 V sin ⎡90° − δ ⎤ + 5 V V
(i ) (i ) (i ) (i ) (i )
Q
2, cal 2 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 2 2

(0)
P = 5 × 1.0 × 1.0 cos(90° + 0 − 0) + 5 × 1.0 × 1.0 cos(−90°) = 0.0
2, cal
Q = − 5 ×1.0 ×1.0 sin(90°) − 5 ×1.0 ×1.0 sin(−90°) = 0
2
(0) (0)
∆P =P −P = −1 − 0 = −1 pu
2 2, spec 2, cal
(0) (0)
∆Q =Q −P = −0.2 − 0 = −0.2 pu
2 2, spec 2, cal
−1
∆δ 2
(0)
⎡ 5.0 sin(90°) 5.0 cos(90°) ⎤ ⎡ ∆P2 ( 0) ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ( 0) ⎥
⎣5.0 cos(90°) − 5.0 sin(90°) + 5.0⎦ ⎣∆Q2 ⎦
(0)
∆V2
∆δ 2 = 0.2∆P2 = −0.2
(0) ( 0)

( 0)
∆V2 =0
⎡δ 2 (1) ⎤ ⎡δ 2 ( 0) ⎤ ⎡∆δ 2 ( 0) ⎤ ⎡− 0.2⎤
⎢ (1) ⎥ = ⎢ ( 0) ⎥ + ⎢ ( 0) ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
⎣V2 ⎦ ⎣V2 ⎦ ⎣∆V2 ⎦ ⎣ 1.0 ⎦
P
(1)
2, cal
[
= 5V2(1) cos 90° − δ 2(1) ]
Q
(1)
2, cal
[ ]
= −5 V2(1) sin 90° − δ 2(1) + 5V2(1)V2(1)

Example 6.9 [Ref. 3, p. 307] Fig, 6.2 shows a single-line diagram of a five bus power system. Input
Data are given in Table 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3. As shown in Table 6.1, bus 1, to which a generator is
connected, is the swing bus. Bus 3, to which a generator and a load are connected, is a voltage
cotrolled (or PV) bus. Buses 2, 4, and 5 are load buses. Note that the loads at bus 2 and 3 are inductive
since Q2= - QL2= - 2.8 and - QL3= - 0.4 are negative. For each bus k, determine which of the variables

DMAM (28/22)
Vk, δk, Pk, and Qk are input data and which are unknowns. Also, compute the elements of the second
row of Ybus.

Fig. 6.2 [Ref. 3, p. 307]

Table 6.1 Bus input data for example 6.9

V δ Pg Qg PL QL Qgmax Qgmin
Bus Type
pu pu pu pu pu pu pu pu
1 Swing 1.0 0 …... …... 0 0 …... …...
2 Load …... …... 0 0 8.0 2.8 …... …...
Constant
3 1.05 …... 5.2 …... 0.8 0.4 4.0 -2.8
Voltage
4 Load …... …... 0 0 0 0 …... …...
5 Load …... …... 0 0 0 0 …... …...
Sbase = 100 MVA, Vbase = 15 kV at bus 1,3 and 345 at buses 2, 4, 5

Table 6.2 Line input data for Example 6.9

Maximum
Bus-to-Bus R pu X pu G pu B pu
MVA pu
2–4 0.0090 0.100 0 1.72 12.0
2–5 0.0045 0.050 0 0.88 12.0
4–5 0.00225 0.025 0 0.44 12.0

Table 6.3 Transformer input data for Example 6.9

Maximum
Bus-to-Bus R pu X pu Gc pu Bm pu
MVA pu
1–5 0.00150 0.02 0.02 0 6.0
3–4 0.00075 0.02 0.02 0 10.0

Table 6.4 Input and unknows for Example 6.9

Bus Type Input Data Unknowns
1 Swing V1= 1.0, δ1 = 0 P1, Q1
P2 = Pg2 – PL2 = – 8
2 Load V2, δ2
Q2 = Qg2 – QL2 = – 2.88
Constant V1= 1.05
3 Q3, δ3
Voltage P3 = Pg3 – PL3 = 4.4
4 Load P4 = 0, Q4 = 0 V4, δ4
5 Load P5 = 0, Q5 = 0 V5, δ5

y 21 = y 23 = 0
DMAM (29/22)
Y21 = Y23 = y 21 = y 23 = 0
B 1.72
y24(shunt) = j 24 = j = j 0.86 pu
2 2
1 1
y24 = = = 0.89276 − j9.91964 pu
R + jX 0.009 + j 0.1
24 24
Y24 = − y24 = −0.89276 + j9.91964 = 9.95972∠95.143° pu

B 0.88
y25(shunt) = j 25 = j = j 0.44 pu
2 2
1 1
y25 = = = 1.78552 − j19.83932 pu
R + jX 0.0045 + j 0.05
25 25
Y25 = − y25 = −1.78552 + j19.83932 = 19.9195∠95.143° pu
y22 = y24(shunt ) + y25(shunt ) = j (0.86 + 0.44) = j1.3 pu
Y22 = y + y + y + y + y = 0 + j1.3 + 0 + (0.89276 − j9.91964) + (1.78552 − j19.83932)
21 22 23 24 25
Y22 = 2.67828 − j 28.4590 = 28.5847∠ − 84.624° pu

Example 6.11 [Ref. 3, p. 317] Determine the dimension of the Jacobian matrix for the power system
in Example 6.9. Also calculate ∆P2(0) in step 1 and JPδ24(0) in step 2 of the first Newton-Raphson
iteration. Assume zero initial phase angles and 1.0 pu initial voltage magnitudes (excepts V3 = 1.05).

Solution:
Since there are N=5 buses for Example 6.9, the dimension of Jacobian matrix is [2(N-1)× 2(N-1)] i.e
8×8. However, there is one voltage-controlled bus. Therefore, V3 and the equation for Q3 could be
eliminated. Thus the dimension of Jacobian Matrix is 7×7.

P = Y21V1V2 cos(θ 21 + δ1 − δ 2 ) + Y22V2V2 cos(θ 22 ) + Y23V3V2 cos(θ 23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )

2
+ Y24V4V2 cos(θ 24 + δ 4 − δ 2 ) + Y25V5V2 cos(θ 25 + δ 5 − δ 2 )
⎡ Y21V1 cos(θ 21 + δ1 − δ 2 ) + Y22V2 cos(θ 22 ) + Y23V3 cos(θ 23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )⎤
P = V2 ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢⎣+ Y24V4 cos(θ 24 + δ 4 − δ 2 ) + Y25V5 cos(θ 25 + δ 5 − δ 2 ) ⎥⎦

P = V2 [Y22V2 cos(θ 22 ) + Y24V4 cos(θ 24 + δ 4 − δ 2 ) + Y25V5 cos(θ 25 + δ 5 − δ 2 )]

2, cal
(0) ⎡ 28.5847 × 1.0 cos(84.624°) + 9.95972 × 1.0 cos(−95.143°)⎤ −4
P = 1.0⎢ ⎥ = −2.89 × 10
2, cal ⎢⎣+ 19.9159 × 1.0 cos(−95.143°) ⎥⎦
(0) (0)
∆P =P −P = −8 − (−2.89 ×10−4 ) = −7.99972 pu
2 2, spec 2, cal

(0)
⎛ ∂P ⎞
J
(0)
[
= ⎜ 2 ⎟ = − Y24V4(0) (0)V2( 0) sin θ 24 + δ 4(0) − δ 2(0)
Pδ ,24 ⎜ ∂δ ⎟
]
⎝ 4⎠
(0)
J = − 9.95972×1.0 ×1.0 sin[− 95.143 + 0 − 0] = −9.91964 pu
Pδ ,24

DMAM (30/22)
Example 8.1 [Ref. 1, p. 200] Fig. 8.1 shows the one-line diagram of a very simple power system.
Generators are connected at buses 1 and 3. Loads are indicated at buses 2, 4, and 5. Base values for the
system are 100 MVA, 138 kV in the high-tension lines considered here. Table 8.1 gives impedances
for the six lines where are identified by the buses on which they terminate. The charging megavars
listed in the table account for the distributed capacitance of the lines and will be neglected. Table 8.2
listed values of P, Q, and V at each bus. Since values of P and Q are positive for real power and
inductive reactive voltamperes input to the network at each bus, net values of P and Q are negative at
buses 2, 4, and 5. Generated Q at bus 3 is not specified where voltage magnitude is constant. In the
voltage column the values for the load buses are the original estimates. Listed values of voltage
magnitudes and angles are to be constant at the swing bus, and the listed voltage magnitude is to
remain constant at bus 3. A load flow study is to be made by the Newton-Raphson method using the
polar form of the equations for P and Q. Determine the number of rows and columns in the Jacobian.
Calculate ∆P2(0) and the value of the second element in the first row of the Jacobian using the specified
values or initial estimates of the voltages.

Fig. 8.1 One-line diagram for Example 8.1

Table 8.1
Line, bus Length R X R X Charging
to bus km mi Ω Ω pu pu Mvar
1-2 64.4 40 8 32 0.042 0.168 4.1
1–5 48.3 30 6 24 0.031 0.126 3.1
2–3 48.3 30 6 34 0.031 0.126 3.1
3–4 128.7 85 16 64 0.084 0.336 8.2
3–5 80.5 50 10 40 0.053 0.210 5.1
4–5 96.5 60 12 48 0.063 0.252 6.1

At 138 kV

Table 8.2
Generator Load
P Q P Q V
Bus MW Mvar MW Mvar pu Remarks
1 …... …... 65 30 1.04∠0o Swing bus
2 0 0 115 60 1.00∠0o Load bus (inductive)
DMAM (31/22)
 3 180 …... 70 40 1.02∠0o Voltage magnitude constant
4 0 0 70 30 1.00∠0o Load bus (inductive)
5 0 0 85 40 1.00∠0o Load bus (inductive)

Solution: Since the swing bus does no require a row and column of the Jacobian an 8×8 matrix would
be necessary if P and Q are specified for the remaining four buses. However, voltage magnitude is
specified (held constant) at bus 3, and the Jacobian will be a 7×7 matrix.
In order to calculate P2(0) for the estimated voltage and fixed voltage values of Table 8.2 we need only
the admittances
1 1
y21 = = = 1.4006 − j5.6022 = 5.7747∠ − 104.04° pu
R + jX 0.042 + j 0.168
21 21
1 1
y23 = = = 1.8412 − j 7.4835 = 7.7067∠ − 103.82° pu
R + jX 0.031 + j 0.126
23 23
Y21 = − y21 = −1.4006 + j5.6022 = 5.7747∠104.04° pu
Y23 = − y 23 = −1.8412 + j 7.4835 = 7.7067∠103.82° pu
Y24 = Y25 = 0
Y22 = y 21 + y 23 = 1.4006 − j 5.6022 + 1.8412 − j 7.4835 = 3.2417 − j13.0858 = 13.4813∠ − 76.0862° pu
⎡ Y21V1 cos(θ 21 + δ1 − δ 2 ) + Y22V2 cos(θ 22 ) + Y23V3 cos(θ 23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )⎤
P = V2 ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢⎣+ Y24V4 cos(θ 24 + δ 4 − δ 2 ) + Y25V5 cos(θ 25 + δ 5 − δ 2 ) ⎥⎦
Since Y24 = Y25 = 0 and δ1 = δ 2 = δ 3 = δ 4 = δ 5 = 0
( 0) ( 0) (0) ( 0) (0)

P = V2 [Y21V1 cos(θ 21 ) + Y22V2 cos(θ 22 ) + Y23V3 cos(θ 23 )]

2
⎡(5.7747 ×1.04) cos(10404°) ⎤
⎢
= (1.0) ⎢+ (13.4813×1.0) cos(−76.0862°)⎥⎥ = −0.0928 pu
(0)
P
2, cal
⎢⎣+ (7.7067 ×1.02) cos(103.82°) ⎥⎦
Scheduled power into the network at bus 2 is
115
P = −P = − = −1.15 pu
2, spec L2 100
(0) (0)
So ∆P =P −P = −1.15 − (−0.0928) = −1.0572 pu
2 2, spec 2, cal
(0)
⎛ ∂P ⎞
J
(0)
[
= ⎜ 2 ⎟ = − Y23V2(0) (0)V3( 0) sin θ 23 + δ 3(0) − δ 2( 0)
Pδ ,23 ⎜ ∂δ ⎟
]
⎝ 3⎠
(0)
(0) ⎛ ∂P ⎞
J = ⎜ 2 ⎟ = −(7.067 ×1.0 ×1.02) sin[103.82°] = 7.6333 pu
Pδ ,23 ⎜ ∂δ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
The Newton Raphson method is summarized in the following steps:
1. Determine values Pk,calc and Qk,calc flowing into the system at every bus for the specified or
estimated values of voltage magnitudes and angles for the firs iteration or the most recently
determined voltages for subsequent iterations.
2. Calculate ∆P at every bus.
3. Calculate values for the Jacobian using estimated or specified values of voltage magnitude and
angle in the equations for partial derivatives determined by differentiating of Eqs. (8.18) and
(8.19).
4. Invert the Jacobian matrix and calculate voltage corrections ∆δk and ∆⎪Vk⎪ at every bus.
5. Calculate new values of δk and ⎪Vk⎪ by adding ∆δk and ∆⎪Vk⎪ to the previous values.
DMAM (32/22)
 6. Return to step 1 and repeat the process using the most recently determined values of voltage
magnitudes and angles until either all values of ∆P and ∆Q or all values of ∆δ and ∆⎪V⎪ are
less than a chosen precision index.
P and Q at the swing bus and Q at voltage controlled buses can be determined from Eqs. (8.18) and
(8.19). Line flow can be determined from the differences in bus voltages.
The number of iterations required by the Newton-Raphson method using bus admittance is practically
independent of the bus numbers of buses. The time for the Gauss-Seidel method (bus admittance)
increases almost directly with the number of buses.
On the other hand, computing the elements of the Jacobian is time-consuming, and the time per
iteration is considerably longer for the Newton-Raphson method.
The advantage of shorter computer time for a solution of the same accuracy is in view favor of the
Newton-Raphson method for all but very small systems.

References
[1] Willaim D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis, Fouth Edition, McGraw-Hill
International Editions, Civil Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill Inc.
[2] John J. Grainger, William D. Steevnson, Jr., Power System Analysis, McGraw-Hill Series in
Electrical and Conputer Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc.
[3] J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sharma, Thomas J. Overbye, Power System Analysis and Design,
Fouth Edition (India Edition), Course Technology Cengage Learning
[4] Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
[5] I J Nagrath, D P Lothari, Modern Power System Analysis, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Liited
[6] V. K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Principles of Power System, Multicolor Illustrative Edition, S. Chand
and Company Limited

DMAM (33/22)