Fundamental Theory of Traffic Flow

TRAFFIC SYSTEM Road traffic system consists of road users ,

COMPONENTS & vehicles and road network that interact
between one and another.
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY
OF TRAFFIC FLOW It is important to study each of these
elements for the planning, design, and
othman che puan
analysis of an efficient, safe road traffic
fka, utm system.

1) Road Users Physical Factors

• Consist of drivers, passengers, motorcyclists,
cyclists, pillions, and pedestrians. • Two main factors considered are:

• Characteristics and behaviour of a driver are

influenced by three factors: 1. Perception–Reaction Time
1. Physical 2. Cone of vision
2. Environment
3. psychology

Perception–Reaction Time of a driver

It is a combination of four consecutive tasks: Environmental Factors
1. Perception
2. Identification These include:
3. Emotion
4. Volition
Perception-Reaction time of a driver varies and is influenced • Weather & lighting
by factors such as:
• Traffic volumes
Age, fatigue, complexity of a situation, drivers physical
characteristics, alcohol or drugs, etc. • Road geometry
Average time: 0.5 – 3.0 seconds

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Fundamental Theory of Traffic Flow

2) Vehicles
Psychological Factors
• Characteristics of vehicles on roads vary
• Motive of the journey in terms of shape, dimension,
• Emotion performance, etc.

• Road must be designed to cater almost all

types of vehicles.

3) Road Network

• Varies in terms of standards and geometry Fundamental theory of

• Categorised into 5 for administrative purposes:
traffic flow
1. Toll highway
2. Federal highway
3. State road
4. Urban road
5. Rural road

Common traffic parameters that are of

traffic engineers / planners interest
(1) Traffic Flow or Volume (q)
include: Define as the number of
vehicles passing a
• Traffic Flow or Volume
specific reference point on
• Speed a road section within a
• Density or Concentration specified period of time.
• Headway

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Fundamental Theory of Traffic Flow

Traffic Flow or Volume (q)

(cont’d)
The count can be directional or all
directions.
Typical units:
vehicles/hour (hourly traffic) (vph),
vehicles/day (daily traffic),
vehicles/year (annual traffic), etc.
Traffic flow data is usually collected to obtain
factual data concerning the movement of
vehicles at selected points on the street.,
example:
(a) Annual Traffic
(i) To compute crash rates
(ii) To indicate trends in volume

(b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) &

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

(i) To measure present demand

Traffic composition:
(ii) To programme capital improvements
Vehicular traffic consists of various types of vehicle –
(c) Hourly Traffic i.e. various sizes, performances, and characteristics.
(i) To determine peak periods A vehicle is converted into an Equivalent Passenger
(ii) To evaluate capacity deficiencies Car unit (PCU or UKP) For consistency in interpreting
(iii) To establish traffic controls road traffic performance, congestion, road geometry
(iv) To determine geometric design parameters and traffic signal analysis and design.

Typical PCU values for roadways

Types of vehicle Rural road Urban road Example application of PCU values:
Cars 1.0 1.0 • Traffic volumes on a section of rural road during morning peak hour
is 500 veh/h and during the evening peak hour is also 500 veh/h.
Utilities & small vans 2.0 2.0
Can you comment on the traffic flow conditions for both situations? (e.g.
Medium lorries & large 2.5 2.5 which peak hour traffic would you think is the busiest or congested
vans condition compare to the other?)
Large lorries & heavy 3.0 3.0
vehs Answer:
It would be difficult for us to say which peak hour is representing the
Buses 3.0 3.0 congested situation as both traffic volumes are equal in terms of
veh/h.
Motorcycles 1.0 0.75

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Fundamental Theory of Traffic Flow

Now,
If information of traffic compositions for both peak-hours
are available as follows:
For AM Peak: 50% cars, 20% medium lorries, 10% buses,
and 20% m/cycles.
For PM Peak: 30% cars, 25% medium lorries, 15% heavy
lorries, 15% buses, 15% m/cycles.
Can you describe the differences between the two peak
hour traffic in terms of traffic flow conditions?
Answer:
Let us express the peak hour traffic in terms of pcu/h, i.e.
AM Peak: (0.5x1+0.2x2.5+0.1x3.0+0.2x1) x 500 = 1.5 x
500 = 750 pcu/h
PM Peak: (0.3x1 + 0.25x2.5 + 0.15x3.0 + 0.15x3.0 +
0.15x1) x 500 = 1.975x500 = 988 pcu/h
This shows that the evening peak hour traffic is
busiest compare to the morning traffic.

(2) Speed (u)

Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. The

parameter is usually used to describe the quality of journey (a) Spot Speed
and the performance of road network in accommodating
traffic demand.
This speed is the instantaneous speed of a
vehicle passing a point on the roadway. If the data
Types of speed:
for a group of vehicles is collected properly,
» spot speed,
results from the sample should represent the
» journey speed,
speed characteristics of the entire population of
» running speed,
vehicles passing the site.
» time mean speed, and
» space mean speed.

Definition of spot speed (cont’d)

Typical use of Spot Speed data:

• To establish speed trends
Time taken from A to B = t
• Traffic control planning
- establish speed limits
A Distance = S B - determine safe speeds at curves
- establish proper location for traffic signs
S - establish lengths of no–passing zones
Speed = Distance/Time, i.e. speed =
t - evaluate intersection sight distance
• Before–and–after studies
If S ≤ 100 meters, then the speed measured is known as Spot Speed.
• Accident analysis
• Geometric design – i.e. road alignments and stopping
sight distance

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Fundamental Theory of Traffic Flow

Example:
Evaluate journey & running speeds for the following situation
& interpret the result:

(b) Journey speed & Running Speed A B

J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
Journey speed is the distance divided by total journey time. Total
journey time includes all delays due to traffic. Mathematically, 8 km

Journey speed = distance/total journey time
Running speed is the distance divided by running time, i.e. total
journey time minus delays. (Running time is the time that the vehicle is
actually in motion.)
Running speed = distance/(total journey time – delays)
Both speeds are usually as a result of travel time and delay study –
used to evaluate road performance.
Average Total travel time including delay due to traffic = 32 minutes
Average Delays at each junction: J1 = 5 min, J2 = 5 min, J3 = 3 min, J4 = 4 min,
& J5 = 6 min.
Answer:
Average Journey Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min) /32 min = 15 km/h.
Average Running Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min)/(32 – 23)min = 53.3 km/h.
Interpretation:
Since Journey speed <<< running speed
drivers experience heavy traffic flow &
inefficient traffic control system at junctions. System requires improvements.

(3) Density (k) (4) Headway (h)

Concentration or density of traffic is the number of
vehicles in a given length of roadway or a lane, i.e.
vehicles/km.
It is also a common parameter used to describe road
performance.
It is defined as the time between successive
vehicles past a point. Headway and spacing (which
is the distance between successive vehicles past a
point) are microscopic measures of flow as they
apply to pairs of vehicles in the traffic stream.

Headway if measured in terms of time, or

Spacing if measured in terms of distance

Reference point

To summarise,
(4) Headway (h) (cont’d) Basic Traffic Stream Parameters are:
These parameters are important in determining the
number of gaps in a traffic stream for vehicles or
Typical Typical
pedestrians to cross and for measuring operations Parameter Symbol units Reciprocal Symbol Units
at junctions.
Flow q veh/h Headway h sec/veh

Speed u km/h Travel time T sec/km

Density k veh/km Spacing s m/veh

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Fundamental Theory of Traffic Flow

Example:

1. What is the average headway of vehicles if the traffic

volume in a lane is 1800 veh/h assuming there is no Speed, Flow, Density Relationships
m/cycle in the system? What is the average inter-vehicle and their interpretations
spacing if the average vehicle’s speed is 60 km/h?
Answer:
h = 1/q = 1 x 3600 sec/1800 = 2 sec.
Flow rate = Speed x Density
How to compute Spacing? Headway = 2 sec. u = 60 km/h
Spacing = ?? meter
or
u = 60 km/h
q=uxk
Reference point

(i) u-k relationship (ii) q-u relationship

k 
u  q = u × kJ −  J  × u 2
uF u = uF −  F  × k uF  uF 
A
 kJ  A
u1

theoretical flow
____

maximum
Stable flow
uC = uF/2 ------- Unstable flow uC = uF/2
u (km/h)
u (km/h)

B u2
B

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ q (vph) q1 qC

(iii) q-k relationship Example:

Traffic volume during a stable free-flowing condition is 600 veh/h with an
maximum u  2 average speed of 75 km/h. Estimate the average speed of traffic under
q = k × uF −  F × k congested situation for the same volume of traffic if speed & density are
qC theoretical flow  kJ  linearly related. The maximum free-flow speed for the road section is 90
km/h.
Solution:
First, sketch the parabolic curve for q–u relationship.
A B
q1 (ii) q-u relationship
q1 = 600 veh/h; uf = 90 km/h
uF Point A represent the stable flow
q (vph)

A
u1 region with the corresponding
maximum capacity

speed u1 = 75 km/h.
uC = uF/2
Point B represent congested flow
u (km/h)

k1 k2 u2 for q1 = 600 veh/h.

B
kC = kJ/2 ∴ u2 = 90-75 = 15 km/h
k (veh/km) kJ q (vph) q1 qC

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Fundamental Theory of Traffic Flow

Example 1.7
Vehicles in a traffic stream moved at an average headway
of 2.2 sec. The average speed is 80 km/h. Estimate the
flow rate & density of that traffic stream.
Solution:
Using q = uk = 1/h, then
q = 1/h = 1/(2.2/3600) = 1636 veh/h.
Using q = uk, then k = q/u
∴ density of the flow, k = 1636/80 = 20.45 veh/km
Example 1.8
Free-flow speed of vehicles on a road section is 88 km/h.
Jammed density is 228 veh/km. Estimate the traffic density
on the road if traffic flow is at a maximum level. Estimate also
the possible maximum flow for the road section and the
average speed of vehicles at that maximum traffic volume.
Solution:
Density when traffic flow reaches the maximum volume,
kc = kj/2 = 228/2 = 114 veh/km.
Expected maximum flow, qc = ufkj/4 = (88 x 228)/4
= 2508 veh/h
Average speed at qc, uc = uf/2 = 88/2 = 44 km/h

Example:
Data collected on a stretch of highway reveals that the free-flow
speed is 90 km/h, jammed density is 112 veh/km/lane, and the
observed maximum flow is 2000 veh/h/lane.

a) Establish the mathematical relationships between flow &

speed for the given characteristics.
b) Estimate the average speed & density when the flow is at
the maximum theoretical flow.
c) Estimate the maximum theoretical flow & why it is different
from the observed volume?
d) Estimate the average speed of vehicles if traffic flow is 1000
veh/h.

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