CHAPTER 4: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Notebook work for sem 1

 Carbon is a versatile element. It belongs to the second period and group 14.
 All living structures are carbon based.

Covalent Bond in Carbon

 The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4. To attain a noble
gas configuration it requires four more electrons in its valence shell.
 It is difficult for an atom of carbon to either gain 4 electrons as it would be difficult for the
nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons. So, carbon does not
form C4- anion.
 It is unable to lose 4 electrons and form C4+ cation as this would require a large amount of
energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its
nucleus holding on to just two electrons.
 Carbon attains the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms.
Such mutual sharing of electrons between atoms to attain a stable noble gas configuration is
called Covalent bonding.
 Atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine also show sharing of
valence electrons.
Depending on the number of electron pairs shared, covalent bond is of three types:

1. Single Covalent Bond: Single covalent bond is formed because of sharing of two
electrons, i.e. one pair. Example: Hydrogen, Chlorine, Methane.
2. Double covalent bond: Double bond is formed by sharing of four electrons, i.e. two pairs of
electrons. Example: Oxygen molecule, Carbon dioxide molecule.
3. Triple Covalent Bond: Triple covalent bond is formed because of the sharing of six
electrons, three pairs of electrons. Example: Nitrogen, C2H2

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Properties of Covalent compounds.

 Covalently bonded molecules have low melting and boiling points. The low melting points are
a result of weak intermolecular forces in covalent compounds.
 These molecules are generally poor conductors of electricity since no charged particles are
formed.

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

There are two important properties which enable carbon to form enormously large number of

compounds.
 The two characteristic properties of the element carbon
which leads to the formation of a very large number of organic compounds are:

i. Catenation: The property of the element carbon due to which its atoms can join one another
to form long carbon chains is called catenation.

 Reason for catenation: The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable. This leads to
the formation of compounds having many carbon atoms linked together.

Types of Chains
 Straight chain
 Branched chains
 Closed or ring chains
a. Straight chain of carbon atoms

b. Branched chain of carbon atoms

c. Closed or ring chain of carbon atoms

ii. Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four. So, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms
of carbon or atoms of some other monovalent element.
 Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, chlorine and
many other elements, giving rise to compounds with specific properties which depend on the
elements other than the carbon present in the molecule.

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS:
Hydrocarbons are compounds which are majorly made of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Based on the number of bonds present between carbon atoms, hydrocarbons are classified as:
Saturated Hydrocarbons
 Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are connected to other carbon atoms by single
bonds are called saturated hydrocarbons.
 Saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.
 General formula of alkanes: CnH2n+2, n = number of carbon atoms
 Methane and ethane are saturated hydrocarbons, which contain only carbon-carbon single bonds.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes and Alkynes)

 Hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are connected by a double or a triple bond are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types
o Alkenes
o Alkynes

o Alkenes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are connected by a double
bond is called an alkene.

Alkenes contain the group.

General formula: CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms

o Alkynes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are connected by a triple bond
is called an alkyne.
An alkyne contains group.
General formula: CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms.
Apart from branched structures, carbon compounds may be present in cyclic structures.
Cyclic Hydrocarbons
 Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a ring are called cyclic
hydrocarbons.
 Cyclic hydrocarbons may be saturated or unsaturated.
i. Saturated cyclic hydrocarbon
o Cyclohexane is an example of a saturated cyclic hydrocarbon.
o Formula: C6H12
o Cyclohexane contains 6 carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal ring, with each carbon
atom attached to 2 hydrogen atoms.

ii. Unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon

o Benzene is an example of an unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon.
o Formula: C6H6
o Benzene is made up of 6 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms.

Electron Dot structure: Lewis structures or electron dot structures are diagrams that show the
bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule.

Steps to draw a Lewis structure:

 Decide how many valence (outer shell) electrons are possessed by each atom in the molecule.
 If there is more than one atom type in the molecule, put the most metallic or least
electronegative atom in the center. Recall that electro-negativity decreases as atom moves
further away from fluorine on the periodic chart.
 Arrange the electrons so that each atom contributes one electron to a single bond
between each atom.
 Count the electrons around each atom: are the octets complete? If so, your Lewis dot
structure is complete.
 If the octets are incomplete and more electrons to be shared, move one electron
per bond per atom to make another bond. Note that in some structures there will be open
 octets (example: the B of BF3), or atoms which have ten electrons (example: the S of SF5)
 Repeat steps 4 and 5 as needed until all octets are full.
 Redraw the dots so that electrons on any given atom are in pairs wherever possible.
Electron dot structure of a saturated carbon compound, ethane is as follows:

Electron dot structure of an unsaturated carbon compound, ethene is as follows:

Electron dot structure of Ethyne

Electron dot structure of Ammonia

Electron dot structure of water

Note: Ammonia and water contain one lone pair on Nitrogen and two on Oxygen respectively

Homologous Series

 It is a group of organic compounds having a similar structure and chemical properties in which the
successive compounds differ by a -CH2 group. In other words, it is a series of compounds in which
the same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain.
Characteristics of a Homologous Series
 Each member of the series differs from the preceding one by the addition of a -CH 2 group and
by 14 u.
 All members of a homologous series have the same general formula.
For example: the general formula for alkane is CnH2n+2 and alkene is CnH2n.
 The physical properties of the members show a gradation in properties as their molecular mass
increases.
 The chemical properties also show a gradient similarity.
 Homologous Series

 It is a group of organic compounds having a similar structure and chemical properties in which the
successive compounds differ by a -CH2 group. In other words, it is a series of compounds in which
the same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain.

Characteristics of a Homologous Series

 Each member of the series differs from the preceding one by the addition of a -CH 2 group and
by 14 u.
 All members of a homologous series have the same general formula.
For example: the general formula for alkane is CnH2n+2 and alkene is CnH2n.
 The physical properties of the members show a gradation in properties as their molecular mass
increases.
 The chemical properties also show a gradient similarity.