The Nautical Institute Mooring and Anchoring Ships Vol 1 Principles and Practice I. C. Clark BSc, MSc, Master Mariner, MNI Foreword by Mr EE Mitropoulos Secretary General IMOThe Nautical Weer Institute MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS VOLUME 1 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE LC. Clark BSc MSc MNI Supported by ICS — The International Chamber of Shipping IFSMA ~The International Federation of Shipmasters’ Associations IMPA — The International Maritime Pilots’ Association, BIMCO - The Baltic International Maritime Council,MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS VOLUME 1 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE by 1.C. Clark BSc MSc MNI Published by ‘The Nautical Institute 202 Lambeth Road, London SE1 7LQ, England Tel: +44 (0)20 7928 1351 Fax: +44 (0)20 7401 2817 Web: www.nautinst.org First edition published 2009 © The Nautical Institute 2009 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the publisher, except for quotation of brief passages in reviews. ‘The author and publisher have used their best efforts in collecting and preparing material for inclusion in Mooring and Anchoring Ships, Volume 1, Principles and Practice. They do not assume, and hereby disclaim, any liability to any party for any loss or damage caused by errors or omissions in. Mooring and Anchoring Sbips, Volume 1, Principles and Practice, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident or any other cause. This book has been prepared to ackdress the subject of mooring and anchoring, principles and practice. ‘This should not, however, be taken to mean that this document deals comprehensively with all of the concerns that will need to be addressed or even, where a particular matter is addressed, that this document sets out the only definitive view for all situations. The opinions expressed are those of the author only and are not necessarily to be taken as the policies or views of any organisation with which he has any connection, Reaclers of Mooring and Anchoring Ships, Volume 1, Principles and Practice are advised to make themselves aware of any applicable local, national or international legislation or administrative requirements or advice which may affect decisions taken on board. ‘Typesetting and layout by J.A. Hepworth FNI and Jacamar (UIK) Ltd - wwwjacamar-co.uk Cover design by Jim Judd, Tradeset UK Printed in England by Newnorth Print Ltd. T: 01234 333718 ISBN 978 1 906915 93 4Foreword Foreword By Efthimios E. Mitropoulos Secretary-General, International Maritime Organisation Every time a ship enters port, a mooring operation ensues. Perhaps, because of its routine nature, there: has been little formal presentation of this essential activity, and practices have been handed down from one generation of owners and seafarers to the next. However, when new ship types evolve and new equipment is developed or innovative port and terminal design ideas see the light of day, becomes essential to have definitive guidance from which to introduce new and appropriate working practices. tn this context, designers need to know the properties of the wires and ropes that are going to be used for mooring before they can specify the performance standards of the mooring equipment and the way the lines are to be deployed. On the other hand, seafarers, when confronted with new mooring equipment, need to know how it operates and the key factors relating to safe working practices. There are issues, t00, for port operators who need to provide safe berths with adequate mooring facilities which are compatible with the type of ship using the port and the ship's own mooring methods. ‘To take one example concerning the interface between ship and shore, fendering is used today in many different ways and its provision is based on complex science. The use of compressible fenders with self- tensioning mooring winches introduces a whole new range of operational considerations which did not exist in the days when ships simply went alongside solid dock walls. At IMO we have been concerned about safety in mooring operations since we were approached by the International Harbour Masters’ Association (which had conducted a survey among its members) with 2 proposal to study the subject and develop appropriate standards. Following this, the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) undertook to provide IMO with definitive guidance and, at the same time, The Nautical Institute recognised the need for a major project to provide a book that could become an authoritative reference on the topic. ‘The cooperation between The Nautical Institute and the ICS has resulted in these remarkable volumes, ‘This involved a collaborative venture of considerable complexity covering a subject which has never before been fully explained. It is to the crecit of The Nautical Institute, the authors and the ICS that this project has come to fruition. The presentation of the material, together with its helpful illustrations, means that the information the books provide is readily accessible for use by the seafarer aboard ship. The texts also provide an ideal basis for developing training programmes and safe working procedures. Accompanying the descriptions of principles and practice in Volume 1 is a photographic record of both good and bad practices in Volume 2 ‘These illustrations aim to demonstrate how wear and tear can downgrade the safety integrity of mooring systems if they are not properly maintained. Iris always a pleasure for me to recognise an industry-wide team effort to produce useful and original work and I know how hard it can be to cross borders and cover interdisciplinary arcas, What is so appealing about this project is the fact that it is directed primarily at the mariner who, ultimately, has to use the ropes, wires and equipment to best advantage in all sorts of different ports and in varying weather conditions ~ and use them in a prudent and cautious manner to prevent casualties. My congratulations go to the authors lan Clark (Volume 1) and Walter Vervloesem (Volume 2) on achieving such a comprehensive insight into a complex and wide-ranging subject such as mooring, MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS {Publisher's note Publisher's note Overview of the mooring project ‘When the International Harbour Masters’ Association undertook a major worldwide survey ofits members into mooring accidents and incidents in 2004, it concluded that mooring incidents were increasing. It also concluded that the consequences of these accidents carried greater human, financial and material risks. Its paper was submitted to the IMO and discussions revealed there was little practical guidance on the subject that could directly help to reduce the level of incidents. ‘The Nautical Institute became concerned about the growing number of injuries and fatalities sustained luring mooring operations reported to its confidential Mariners’ Alerting and Reporting Scheme (MARS) and articles in its monthly journal Seaways, It undertook a study into recent mooring accidents that had heen investigated by maritime authorities and also the records of a major P&I club. While each case was different, contributory factors included: crews unaware of the danger; poor maintenance of equipment; unsuitable design of the mooring decks; equipment being used wrongly; more powerful tugs; tugs caught in difficult positions unable to escape; lines used to check the momentum when it was too high; poor ‘communications; larger ships; equipment not suitable for the new technology ropes, smaller crews and less experienced supervision. ‘The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) led an initiative, supported by other non-governmental organisations affiliated to the IMO, to develop a complementary publication that would address the principles behind mooring operations, safe working practices and the maintenance of mooring equipment — aimed at all classes of vessel. It was argued that cargo vessels experience more diversity than tankers in the variety of port facilities they encounter and generally need mooring systems appropriate to their trade. ‘The Institute’s review of literature covering the mooring of ships revealed that traditional seamanship books do not adequately address issues of new technology and modern working practices. The technical standards for mooring equipment as specified by IMO, the International Association of Classification Societies (ACS), the International Organisation for Standardisation (SO) and the British Standards Institute (BSD) together with governmental notices from different marine administrations, needed revision to bring them into line with each other and to bring them up to date with current industry best practice. ‘The principal industry source on this subject over the years has been The Mooring Equipment Guide, which is published by The Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIME) and is now on its third edition, This authoritative book, backed up by industrial research and the expertise of the oil companies, is aimed primarily at the safe mooring of tankers and gas carriers at tanker terminals. I gives theoretical calculations for mooring functions and provides extensive information on mooring systems design and equipment standards. The work formed an essential clement in preparation of the Institute's study and every effort has been made through cooperation with OCIMF to ensure there is compatibility in established principles. ‘The mooring and anchoring project From this background the decision was taken by the Institute to commission a major work into the subject of mooring and anchoring ships that would provide information on principles and safe working practices. It would also demonstrate what to look for when inspecting and maintaining mooring equipment. As the project progressed, it became evident that it would be more appropriate to cover such a lange topic in two volumes. Consultation The consultation in the development of these two volumes has been very extensive, involving masters and pilots of different classes of vessels in varying trades; rope and wire manufacturers; equipment manufacturers; classifica + port authorities; government administrations; international bodies; shipping companies and individual specialists. The challenge for the authors, Ian Clark and Walter ji THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEPublisher's note Vervloesem, was to assimilate this extensive body of information and present it in a seamanlike way. It also became evident during the preparation of the books that it would not be possible to cover every aspect of mooring operations for all occasions, but with thoughtful descriptions and well considered illustrations it is fele that readers will have enough information to make informed decisions, Volume 2 The volume uses hundreds of photographs to illustrate what to look for when inspecting mooring ‘equipment. There is an introduction to each section with an explanation for each illustration to indicate good practices and frequently found defects. Chapter I covers different types of mooring ropes, their properties and use. The pictures demonstrate the consequences of improper use and correct ways to ensure they do not become damaged or deformed. Chapter 2 examines mooring wires in a similar way to Chapter 1. Chapter 3 examines winches and Chapter 4 looks at windlasses, detailing different types, Gesign issues and brake systems, again with examples of good practice and defects. Chapter 5 examines ground tackle and anchoring equipment, including anchors, cables, stoppers and tensioners, and hawse and spurling pipes. Photographs demonstrate how anchor systems can become degraded and when to apply essential maintenance to ensure safe and efficient operations. Chapter 6 examines shipboard fittings that include bitts; chocks; fairleads and kevels and there is an annex covering Panama Canal operations. ‘The two volumes can be bought separately or as a pair. [Any reader who identifies an omission which, in their view, should be included in any future editions, is encouraged to contribute an explanation to the publisher at pubs@nautinst.org, J Parker OBE FNI Expublisher and originator of the project at The Nautical Institute October, 2009, MOORING. AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) iIntroduction to Volume 1: Principles and Practice Mooring and Anchoring Ships Introduction to Volume 1: Principles and Practice Every day hundreds of ships are routinely berthed and unberthed in ports around the World as an essential part of international trade and the vast majority of these operations are conducted without mishap. This is largely due to the combined effort of many different parties who often have litle, ifany, direct contaet with each other, These parties can be split into two groups: namely thase concerned with the design, construction and management of the port and those who build and operate the ship. Operations, Infrastructure |_| THE PORT Maintenance [ Port engineers Naval Architects Operation Fig Intro.1. The different parties involved in ensuring that ships can berth with safety Ports for ocean going ships are major investments that are expected to last for many years, so those responsible for their design will need considerable foresight to anticipate how the size and type of ships are likely to change fifty or more years after a port’s construction. (Several dock systems still in use in ‘Western Europe are over 100 years old). Quayside fittings, such as bollards, and cargo handling facilities, such as transit sheds, can be periodically updated but basic features, such as height of the quays and the size of any locks are essentially fixecl, New port developments should ideally be planned in consultation with the operators of the ships that they are intended to serve. However, very few ships, other than gas carriers and some ro-to ferries, are designed in conjunction with the terminals that they intended to use and port authorities often find themselves continually trying to catch up with the increasing size of the ships involved in the trades that the port serves. The factors listed on the following page are particularly significant in determining the effectiveness ofa ship's moorings: iy THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE» BY Introduction to Volume 1: Principles and Practice ‘The exposure of the berth to the local winds, current, swell, and rise and fall of the tide. Static loads on a ship's moorings, due to steady winds and currents, increase with the areas exposed, to the environmental conditions whereas dynamic mooring loads caused by the ship’s movements increase with the ship’s mass. Exposed areas generally increase with the square of a ship’s linear dimensions but mass increases with the cube of these dimensions, so the moorings’ ability to stop a ship's movements reduces with increasing displacement. Very large ships must be put on a berth and held alongside by tugs before mooring lines can be hauled in tight against the quayside fenders. Finally, the mooring pattern is three dimensional but is only effective against horizontal forces, so there must be a compromise between keeping lines close to horizontal and leading them in the most effective direction. However, this depends on the height of the mooring deck above the quay, as illustrated in the following pictures. (Photographs by courtesy of Dr lan Dand of BMT) This mooring line leads so steeply downward to the bollard at the edge of the quay that its, capacity to restrain any horizontal movement of the ship on the berth is limited. 3) y Fig, Intro.2 The problems of a ship’s mooring deck being too bigh above the quay Mooring lines leading predominately perpendicular to the berth (ie. breast lines) are much more effective at holding a ship alongside than lines leading considerably less than 90° to the berth (Le. head and stern lines). Furthermore, long lines are less affected as the height of the ship, relative to the quay, changes with the tide and/or cargo work than short ones, so long breast lines within about 25° of the horizontal are most effective at holding a ship alongside against offshore forces. However, Jong breast lines obstruct cargo handling on the quayside, so they are only practical on berths where cargo handling does not depend on unrestricted movement along the berth, such as the pipelines at an oil terminal or the conveyor belt on a bulk carrier berth. Ships on general purpose berths must run out head and stern lines to bollards set on the edge of a continuous wharf, so the lines tend to have strong downward and fore and aft leads that are far less effective against offshore forces. How the mooring lines are made fast onboard the ship: If lines are turned up on bitts, then some tension is invariably lost as the lines are transferred from the capstan or drum end to the bitts. The mooring lines will often be slack and so allowing more scope for the ship to move on the berth, which becomes less acceptable as ship size increases. Mooring lines of large ships should be held tight against quayside fenders by dedicated mooring winches, in which case the fenders become a integral part of the mooring system, though the way they interact with lines held on winch brakes differs slightly from lines held in auto-tension. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1)Introduction to Volume 1: Principles and Practice 1 Environmental conditions on the berth Wind Current | ‘Swell Rise and fall of the tide “ 2 Ship size Exposed surface areas, Displacement 3. Mooring configuration with regard to offshore forces Height of the deck above the quay Breast lines to bollards set well back from the edge of the quay Head and stern lines to bollards ‘set at the edge of the quay 4 The onboard method of securing the mooring lines Lines made fast on bitts | | Lines held on winch brakes | | Lines held on auto-tension winches Naval architects give sufficient consideration to the above factors in the design of ships’ three-dimensional mooring patterns whilst also ensuring suitable onboard arrangements for running the lines. This latter provision has often been neglected, a5 the following photograph shows: Fig. Intro.3- The factors affecting a sbip’s mooring arrangements (Photograph by courtesy of the UK P & I Club fechnical bulletin 01/2002) Multiple lines sharing the same overside fairlead | Bitts used as pedestal leads ! (The bitts are too close to the faitlead to allow the lines to be stoppered off and turned up on the bits.) Crossing lines in contact! ‘Muttiple tines sharing the same pedestal lead! All of the above practices cause considerable abrasion to the lines, possibly to the point of one or ‘more lines parting if the moorings ‘come under any significant load. The above picture is a particularly bad example of a poor mooring arrangement that seems to be like a crazy knitting pattern rather than a sensible means of securing a ship alongside, vi Fig. Introd An example of a very poor mooring arrangement THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEIntroduction to Volume 1: Principles and Practice Volume 1 of ‘Mooring and Anchoring Ships, outlines the general principles for mooring all types and sizes of ship, from large bulk carriers to small coasters. Volume 2, Inspection and Maintenance, written by my colleague Walter Vervioesem, includes a wealth of photographs showing good and bad examples of how to care for and use mooring equipment. Chapter 1 of this book considers the environmental forces acting on a ship on a berth and how these can be assessed for a given ship. Chapter 2 examines the mooring arrangements that are used for different berthing situations and describes the components of these arrangements that are outboard of the ship, i.e. the facilities on the quayside and what type, strength and number of ines are suitable for the mooring patterns used by different ships. Chapter 3 deals with the ship's mooring and towing equipment whilst chapter 4 considers dedicated mooring winches as used to hold mooring lines either on the winch brakes or by auto-tension control. Chapter 5 describes how mooring operations are conducted from putting a ship on a berth to departure, including tending co the mooring lines whilst alongside and shifting a ship along the quay by its mooring lines alone. (However, readers should realise that there is wide range of berthing situations for ships that differ in size, type and equipment, so what is appropriate for a ship ina particular situation might be totally unacceptable for another vessel or for the same ship in different circumstances.) Chapter 6 concerns anchoring and, as with mooring lines, a ship’s anchoring ‘equipment is designed to hold position against the static forces of a specified steady wind and current. Consequently, the anchor becomes progressively less capable of resisting the dynamic forces involved in stopping a ship's motion as ship displacement increases. The chapter explains how this affects the anchoring procedure and describes alternative methods of anchoring that can overcome the problem to some extent when anchoring very large ships. Several different organisations, such as the IMO, the UK MCA, OCIMF, ISO and IACS, produce guidelines and requirements for ships’ mooring and anchoring equipment and the text refers to these where they are relevant. OCIMF's Mooring Equipment Guidelines is by far the most comprehensive publication covering the design of a ship’s mooring arrangements but it is directed at meeting the requirements of tanker and gas carrier moorings and, as such, not all ofits recommendations are easily applied to ships on general purpose berths. ISO standards are simply agreed common specifications for the manufacturers of mooring equipment to produce equipment over a range of different standard sizes and capabilities, so they provide purchasers with a guide to the suitability of equipment bought ‘off the shelf’. Just as a suite bought ‘off the peg’ will not necessarily fia particular customer, 50 equipment built to ISO standards will not always mect the requirements of a particular vessel and the ISO standard for mooring winches has certain deficiencies that are described at the end of chapter 3. Tan Clark, North Wales, October 2009 MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) viiAcknowledgements Acknowledgements ‘Many people have helped me to write this book and, although the opinions and any mistakes in the text are my own, I wish to thank the following for their assistance and technical advice. Dr lan Dand of British Maritime Technology for his patience in reading through numerous drafts of the text and his expert knowledge of hydrodynamics. Stephen Banfield of Tension Technology for his advice on the behaviour of mooring lines and who also read through the draft text. Captain Peter Gill previously of Shell tankers and currently harbourmaster at St Peter Port, Guernsey, for his overall comments on the text. James MacKay of Bridon Ropes for his advice on mooring rope manufacturing and for arranging my visit to Bridlon’s rope factory in Coatbridge in Scotland. Keith Loffstadt, Bob Gilchrest and William Slater of Fender Gare Marine for thei advice regarding fenders, Juhani Sievikorte and Vesa Sorjenen of Rolls-Royce, Finland, for their advice and information on winches and windlasses Captain Robert Weber of Cavotec Moormasier, New Zealand, for his advice and comments on vacuum mooring systems. Stuart Wellington of Fyne Gangways for his advice and comments on accommodation ladders and gangways. Captain Hans Peter Micileson and Captain Torben Van Wyk of Maersk Line, Denmark, for their comments regarding fleet management of mooring arrangements. Captain John Kidman, Ron Hancock and Neil Fletcher of Southampton Ports and Container Terminal for arranging my visit to the docks and fora trip in with the pilot on a large container ship. Captain Gilmore and Captain Stephen Hardcastle of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Company, for arranging my visit to Liverpool docks. 1 would also like to make a special mention of Julian Parker, ex publisher of The Nautical Institute who gave me and my fellow author Walter Vervloesem his enthusiastic support and arranged numerous ‘meetings in which we all worked through the contents of the books, vii THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEContents Contents Forward by the Secretary General of the IMO ... leds Publisher's Note aces ete ii Chapter 1: The forces acting on a ship 1 Chapter 2: Ship’s mooring line patterns «ns “a Chapter 3: Mooring equipment and fittings for ships securing lines on bitts 0 8L Chapter 4: Mooring equipment for ships with dedicated mooring winches ....... 113, Chapter 5: Routine mooring operations from berthing to unberthing «....00sc00 139 Chapter 6: Anchoring and anchoring equipment gis 185, Appendix I: Personal Safety Appendix IE: Single point moorings for tankers = 230 Appendix III: Shore based mooring systems eh 233 ‘Appendix IV: Access arrangements in port Appendix V : Maintenance of mooring lines and equipment 243 Appendix VI : Case studies of ships breaking free of their berths «user 249 A personal view on problems in mooring operations «a... a 255 Sources used for this book & other relevant publications anatre 258 Abbreviations of Organisations referred to in this book ATSB - Australian Transport Safety Bureau C1- Cordage Institute DMA - Danish Maritime Authority IACS - International Association of Classification Societies ICS - International Chamber of Shipping IMO - International Maritime Organisation ISO - International Standards Organisation MAIR - (Australian) Marine Accident Investigation Report OCIME - Oil Companies International Marine Forum SIGITO - Society of International Gas Tanker and ‘Terminal Operators, SOLAS - Safety of Life at Sea convention UKMAIB - ‘The United Kingdom Marine Accident Investigation Unit UKMCA.- The United Kingdom Maritime and Coastguard Agency MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) xChapter 1 ‘The environmental forces acting on a ship ‘This chapter describes the static and dynamic forces that can act ona ship when it is berthing, unberthing or tied up alongside. The text outlines some simple methods for approximating the steady wind and current forces that can act on the ship and the model tests that can be used to refine estimates of these forces and their yawing moments. The chapter illustrates the results of such tests with a set of wind and current force graphs for a fulz-bodied ship with all aft accommodation in both the ballast and fully laden conditions, The graphs are based on data relating to tankers but other types of ship, such as bulk ‘carriers, also have some or all of the tanker’s features, such as the topside arrangement, or the immersed hullform, or the rounded stem with a bulbous bow: These particular graphs are included in the text because they reveal some surprising characteristics that are highly relevant to berthing and unberthing ships with such features, particularly in the loaded condition with a very limited underkeel clearance. ‘The chapter concludes by considering the effects on a ship's another vessel passing close by or waves in the harbour. moorings of the dynamic forces caused by Contents Forces and their effects Zi Motion and Newton's Laws 2 Linear and rotational motion 2 Blastic forces Sei) Determining the forces acting on a ship's moorings 4 Model tests; 4 Wind forces acting on a moored ship, 5 Wind pressure 5 Fore and aft and lateral wind forces acting on a moored, ibe nage Quarterly wind forces acting on a moored ship .mnmnemnnnnnnneer 9 Yawing moments produced by the wind on a moored ship cane Wind forces and yawing moments derived from model tests 5 2 Water forces acting on a moored ship 18 'A comparison between the forces of water flow and wind peahiag ‘The force on a ship due to a fore and aft water NOW «1. 9 ‘The effect of water depth under the keel in a current pec ncheretae Oh Current forces and yawing moments derived from model tests a 2 Current generated yawing moments acting on a moored ship ard Environmental criteria for a ship’s moorings .. AL eo A ‘The effect of wind and current on a ship that is free to drift eel ‘The effect of a beam wind on a ship making way through the water 30 Interaction effects of ships moving in confined waters... we BL Interaction between passing ships in confined waters 52 ‘The effect of waves on a moored ship zap 33 ‘Alternating surge forces on a moored ship Zi 34 ‘The effect of alternating heave on a ship's moorings 37 ‘Alternating sway forces on a moored ship rth 38 Factors effecting a harbour’s vulnerability to waves: 38. A summary of forces acting on a ship at its moorings .. ernie, Some points with regard to the mooring arrangements ... 40 MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 1Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship Forces and Their effects A force is the result of the interaction between two masses and its effect on each mass can be summarised as either a change in motion or a change in shape or a combination of both, Motion and Newton's Laws 1) Abody stays at rest or moving at constant velocity until acted on by an unbalanced force. Velocity is a vector measurement that gives both the speed and direction of the body and it can be zero (ie. the body is stopped). An unbalanced force will either speed a body up or slow it down or change the direction it is moving in. There are always several interactions at any one time in normal situations but if any of the bodies involved is either stopped or moving at constant velocity then there is no unbalanced force acting on that body. 2) A force acting on body produces an acceleration of the body in the direction of the force that is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the body's mass. This law is used to define the unit of force, as follows:- Acceleration ‘a’ = Force'F'/mass'm’ so Force ’F’ = mass‘m' x acceleration ‘a’ Ifthe Force is measured in Newtons, then mass is given in kg and acceleration in ms * So a net force of 1 Newton gives a 1 kilogram mass an acceleration of 1 metre /second* 3) The effect of a force on one body és equal and opposite to the force's effect on the other body involved in the interaction. A single force must act between two bodies and, although they can be solid, liquicl or gaseous bodies, they will both have measurable masses. m(t) x att) = Force FY =m(2) x -ai2) Where m(1) and m(2) are tho two masses and a(1) and - a(2) are their respective accelerations The force of gravity acting between the Earth’s mass and the mass of any body on the Earth is always present in any earthbound situation. Gravity alone causes a body to fall at a constant acceleration of 9.81 metres / second * near the Earth's surface, though this varies slightly with latitude and can only be tested if the body falls through a vacuum, as air resistance builds up to reduce the acceleration as the body falls faster. Eventually air resistance will be equal and opposite to the gravitational force and the body continues to fall at a constant speed, known as terminal velocity. (Sky divers at this point lose ‘any sensation of falling and, as one parachutist told me, falling at terminal velocity feels like lying on comfortable bed even though they are moving downwards at over 100 knots, as their weight is supported (oually by air resistance.) Weight is actually the force of gravity acting on a mass, so on Earth, 1 kilogram of mass weighs 9.81 Newtons (and, by coincidence, an average apple weighs about 1 Newton on the Earth, which is a fact that I am sure Sir Isaac would have considered highly appropriate). We frequently fail to distinguish between mass and weight, as gravity acts on everything on Earth and can often be ignored. A ship with a mass of 10,000 tonnes floats by displacing 10,000 tonnes of water but the weight of both the ship and the displaced water is 98,100 kiloNewtons. Gravity acts equally on both the mass of water and that of the ship and we tend to see no need for an extra complication that cancels out in equations, so we loosely talk of ‘weight’ in terms of tonnes. This is reasonable until we want to determine the effect of horizontal forces acting on a ship, such as the thrust from the propeller or the force of the wind on a ship's side ‘These forces are also often expressed incorrectly in tonnes so they must be converted to kiloNewtons by multiplying by 9.81 in order to calculate the acceleration that such forces will produce on a given mass of ship. Expressing forces in tonnes is so well entrenched in the shipping industry that the more rrect units of Newtons or kiloNewtons confuse many people, so I quote forces in both tonnes and kiloNewtons, My own preference would be to just use kiloNewtons, as this would be a more consistent approach to dealing with all forces, but ‘tonnes’ tend to dominate the literature regarding breaking loads of ropes and the pulling capacities of winches. 2 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEForces and their effects Linear and rotational motion ‘The mass of any body can be regarded as concentrated at the centre of gravity and a single force acting through a body's centre of gravity will produce linear acceleration, However, if the force acts through any other point, then the bady will also accelerate in rotation about the centre of gravity as well as accelerate linearly whilst the force persists. Just as a body stays at rest or moves a constant velocity until an unbalanced force acts on it, so a body remains non-rotating or at a constant rate of rotation until an unbalanced moment exists about its centre of gravity. The angular acceleration of a body is directly ‘portional to the unbalanced moment about its centre of gravity and inversely proportional to the body’s moment of inertia about the centre of gravity --> = Track of the centre of gravity © = Centre of gravity mp = Force The force acts through the centre of gravity The force acts along a line offset from 'G' and 'G! and produces only linear acceleration. produces both finear and rotational acceleration. F = ma Newtons F=ma N & Fx = I(angularacc") Nam = Moment of inertia about 'G' = 2(8miri? + 6m2r2* + 6mers? + — + 5mnm?) kgm | 2 | Where r1, r2,r2 etc. are the distances from the centre of gravity of each small component mass ‘am’ that makes up the (otal mass of the body when all added together, ie. ‘m' = Total mass of the body = D(5m1 +5m2 + ms + —— +5mn) kg The moment of inertia Is a measure of the distribution of mass within the body, relative to its centre of gravity and hence of the body's resistance to rotational acceleration. Fig L1 How a single force produces linear and rotational acceleration OF course, as soon asa body on Farth starts to accelerate and/or rotate, as shown above, other forces, such as friction, develop 10 oppose the motion, which consequently becomes more complicated almost as soon as it starts. However, if we just consider a stationary ship moored alongside a jetty being subjected to the forces of the wind and current, then ail the forces and their accompanying moments about the ship’s centre of gravity must balance out. Nature follows Newtons Law's of motion in every situation involving forces, except that they start breaking down as a mass approaches the speed of light. This is rather unlikely, to say the least, when we consider the motion of ships, so we can take Newton's Laws as absolute, Elastic forces A material is elastic if when deformed (ie. squashed, stretched, bent or twisted) by a force, the material returns to its original shape when the force is removed. Many readers will have been taught this in secondary school as part of ‘Hooke’s Law’ and possibly measured the change in length of a vertically bung spring when supporting different weights. The experiment shows that, up fo a léntit, known as she ‘elastic limit’, the extension of the spring's length is directly proportional to the weight stretching & and that the spring returns to its original length when the weight is removed. Elasticity is the ability ‘of a matcrial to absorb and store the energy used to deform its shape and then release that energy by ceturning to its original shape when the deforming force is removed. Hooke's Law, unlike Newton's Laws, not absolute and only gives an approximate description of a material's behaviour under loads below the elastic limit, MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 3Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship Determining the forces acting on a ship's moorings In the past, the strength of a ship’s mooring arrangements has been largely based.on a history of operating ships and what has seemed to be satisfactory in most situations. There is nothing wrong with this approach and overcoming problems revealed through practical experience is essential for improving any system, However, the rapid growth in ship size and development of totally different types of ship in the last thirty years has resulted in a greater need to predict loads on the moorings at a ship's design stage. The environmental factors of wind, current, tide and waves can load a ship's moorings in two different ways, Static loading A steady wind or current subjects a ship to a force that increases with the speed of the wind or current, their impact angle on the ship’s exposed surfaces and the area of those surfaces. If a ship tied up alongside remains stationary, then the load on the moorings is equal and opposite to the force of the ‘wind and/or current. This is called a ‘static load’ on the moorings because it balances out the wind and/ or current forces so the net, or overall, force on the ship is zero Dynamic loading Ifa ship is subjected to a sudden strong offshore gust of wind then there is an imbalance in the forces so the ship isaccelerated off the quay, which stretches the moorings and so increases their load. Acceleration ceases when the load on the moorings again comes in balance with the increased wind force but the ship is still moving, so the Ioad on the moorings must rise further to reverse the ship’s motion and pull it back alongside. The ‘dynamic load’ on the moorings is the load necessary to reverse the ship's movement. Dynamic loads are caused by wind gusts, eddies in a current, waves and any other transient disturbance, Dynamic loads are difficult to quantify and they increase with the displacement, or mass, of the ship. ‘The design strength of a ship's moorings is based on being able to resist the maximum static load that the ship is expected to remain secure alongside with an adequate safety Factor. If ships of identical proportions and shape differ in size, then surface areas exposed to the wind or current will increase with the square of the ship's length whilst the ship's mass increases with the cube of its length. Consequently, increasing the size of any particular type of ship reduces the moorings’ reserve capacity (provided by the safety factor) to resist dynamic loads. Model tests Model tests are used to develop formulae to estimate the forces acting on a ship's moorings, which can be improved further by incorporating measurements of the forces on the moorings of the real ship where these are available. (Ship's lines on some oil terminal berths are secured ashore to quick release hooks incorporating strain gauges.) Wind forces and yawing moments are usually investigated by mounting models of different ship shapes above the waterline on a turntable in a wind tunnel, so that the angle of the wind can be varied by rotating the turntable. Strain gauges fixed to the turntable axle measure its bending deflection and hence the forces in the model's fore and aft and lateral axes. The yawing moment derived from a torque meter thar detects the amount of twist in the turntable axle. Tests to investigate current forces are carried out in a shallow water basin in currents generated from different directions with the mode! hull secured to a model quay by strain gauges aligned to measure the fore and aft force and the lateral forces at each end of the model. The sum of the bow and stern lateral forces is the total lateral force whilst yawing moments are derived from the difference between these two forces. Model tests are limited by the problem that not all the factors affecting the forces on the model scale up in the same way when applied to a full size ship. Put simply, we can scale down the size of the real ship and apply an appropriate scaling factor to the wind and current speeds but we cannot scale down the molecules in the air and water. Models used in the tests are usually made as large as is practical to minimise the errors due to these scaling effects. 4 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWind forces acting on a moored ship Wind forces acting on a moored ship ‘The wind can subject a ship to substantial horizontal forces and yawing moments when the vessel is tied up alongside a wharf or being manoeuvred on or off the berth. The simplest way to look at horizontal wind forces from any direction, relative to the ship’s bow, is to resolve the force into the following components: 1) A fore and aft force acting on the ship’s cross-sectional area above the waterline. 2) A lateral or athwartships force acting on the ship's side area above the waterline ‘The lateral component of a wind force is often centred on a point along the ship's side that is offset from the longitudinal centre of gravity and so it will also create a yawing moment. Wind pressure ‘The full pressure of a wind is known as the ‘stagnation pressure’, which the wind would exert on siking an infinite lat plate ‘square on’, ifthe airflow were to be halted completely (ic. the plate would be providing a perfect lee). Some pressure must ‘leak’ around the edges of a real plate otherwise airflow ‘would just pile up indefinitely against the plate, so the actual pressure exerted on a real plate is less than the stagnation pressure, Pressure is further reduced by the wind striking a plate obliquely to make an ‘angle of an attack’ to the plate’s exposed surface. | ‘Stagnation pressure = 5p Vw? Nim? = Where ‘p' = air densily of 1.25 kg/m” at sea level & 'Vw"' = wind speed in m/s However, most obstructions do not completely stop the airflow, as there ‘a leakage of wind around the edges of even a flat vertical plate, so;- Actual pressure exerted by the wind on the plate = Co} p Vw? Nim* Where ‘Co’ = the drag factor, which is typically about 0.9 when wind strikes a ship's vertical topsides ‘square on’ (i.e. the wind direction is 90° to the plating). ‘The table below gives the pressures exerted by different wind speeds for a drag factor ‘Co’ = 0.9 Wind speed (mis) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Wind pressure (N/m?) 14.56 «127.-—« 225352506689 Wind pressure can be given the wind speed measured in knots where 1 knot = 0.514 m/s Wind pressure ~ Co 25 (0.514 Varns))? ~ SP Vwaas)? Nim?, so if'Co 9, then Windspeed (knots) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Wind pressure (Nim?) 15 60 135 240 375 540 735 ‘The variation of drag factor and, hence, the pressure of the wind with angle of attack Angle of attack = 90° Angle of attack = & pray Wind | 90° | Square on Angled Surface Surface 09. ponsj2, Nimé os zoMim2. | Wind pressure ~ %2 vagitsy* Nim Wind pressure ~ sina 92 vues)? N/m Fig. 2 Wind pressure on a flat plate MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 5Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship The pressures of the wind, as given by the formulae on the previous page for different wind speeds are only generalised estimates with a likely error range of +/+ 10%, as wind pressure is affected by the following factors:- 1) The drag factor ‘CD’ depends upon the extent of a surface’s area, as well as the airflow’s angle of attack, a3 wind pressure decreases closer to the edges of an obstructing surface. Airflow is more easily diverted to flow up and over the deck of the topsides of an exposed hull with a very low freeboard than a high-sided ship, which will consequently experience a significantly higher average wind pressure. 2) Atmospheric pressure at sea level changes from about 950 mb in the centre of a depression to about 1030 mb in anti-cyctonic conditions so air density will si ir density will also decrease slightly with increasing temperature. 3) The wind speed is rarely absolutely steady and varies from the average by about ++ 25% during ‘gusts and lulls so maximum wind pressure can be about 60% above the average. 4) Asteady wind blowing over a flat expanse of land or sea surface varies in direction and progressively increases in strength with height above the level. Friction with the ground slows down wind speed and slews its direction towards the low pressure of the weather system creating it (this effect is known as the ‘Fkman Spirat’) The influence of friction can extend up to an altitude of 1000 metres but itis most marked close to ground level. The Ekman Spiral Wind speed variation with height (Northern Hemisphere) for a nominal wind speed of 40 kts 30 25 Winds are ‘geostrophic The reference height "above 500 to 1000 m. - for the nominal wind - speed is 10 metres 10 0 Height above sea level 500-1000 m Height above ship's waterline (m) 5 15 ° 10 62 630 4050 Wind vectors trace out a spiral when Wind speed (knots) projected onto the ground's surface. Fig. 1.3 The variation of wind speed and direction with height above ground level Calculations of the wind force acting on ships are usually based on the ‘nominal wind speed’, which refers to the wind speed at 10 metres above sea level. Weather forecasts for offshore oil fields often also give wind speeds at 30 metres altitude as the rig work platforms and cranes are high above the sea. (By contrast, wind speeds associated with the Beaufort Scale relate to wind speeds 6 metres above sea level.) The variation in wind speed with height above ground level can be extensively altered by local conditions surrounding a ship's berth, such as close proximity to warehouses etc. Estimates of wind pressure on a moored ship are usually based on the maximum wind speed recorded about 10 metres above the level of the jetty or the waterline over a period of 30 seconds. 6 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWind forces acting on a moored ship Fore and aft and lateral wind forces acting on a moored ship Most major ports have been redeveloped to allow greater mechanised cargo handling so many older traditional warehouses, which provided shelter from an offshore wind close to the berth, have been demolished and cargo berths are becoming increasingly exposed to offshore winds, A traditional general A container terminal whart meta The open cargo handling wharf exposes the ship's side areas above the jetty to offshore winds. berth from offshore winds. Fig 14 The changes in conditions on cargo berths, due to containerisation The following worked example shows how can we can use the wind pressure values given in the table on page 5 to estimate the forces acting on the above container ship's topsides for a range of different offshore beam and fore and aft wind speeds, assuming a drag factor of 0.9. The exposed side area in this particular situation excludes the hull below the level of the jetty. Draft = 6.5 metres, displacement = 6,650 tonnes | Dimensions are simplified by approximation | ' | | Ai = 680m? | Az = 250°m: Side Area above the wharf = 930 m? Frontal Area ~ 192m ‘The side force on "MV. Box Ship’ in an offshore Total side area exposed to an offshore wind = 680 + 250 = 930 m? id on the beam Wind speed (knots) 10 20 30 40 50 60 Wind pressure (N/m?) 15 60 135 240375540 Lateralforce* (KN) 140 55.8 125.6 «223.2 348.8 802.2 ‘The frontal force on 'M.V. Box Ship’ in a wind on the bow Frontal area exposed to a wind on the bow = 192 m? Wind speed (knots) 10 20 30 40 50 60 Wind pressure (N/m*) 15 60 135 240 375 540 Frontalforce* (KN) 29115259 4872.0 108.7 * The wind pressures have been divided by 1000 to give the forces in kiloNewtons The fore and aft wind force is about 20% of the lateral offshore force for the same wind speed. Fig. 15 Approximate offshore wind forces on a container ship alongside a container berth MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 7.Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship Large tankers and bulk carriers frequently tie up alongside a short loading platform at the end ofa finger pier that extends out some distance from the shore to the deeper water required for these vessels. Such berths provide little or no shelter and the ship’s entire topside area above the waterline is exposed to offshore winds. All of the ship's topsides above the waterline are exposed to offshore winds when the vessel is alongside the jetty. The drag factor is assumed to be 0.9 ‘The side force of an offshore wind on the beam of 'M.T. Fuel Carrier’ in ballast condition Total side area exposed to an offshore wind = 2520 + 306 = 2626 m” Wind speed (knots) 10 20 30 40 50 60 Wind pressure (N/m?) 15 60 135 240 375 540 Lateralforce* (KN) 424 1696 © 381.5 678.2 1059.8 1526.0 ‘The frontal force of a wind on the bow of 'M.T. Fuel Carrier’ in ballast condition Frontal area exposed to a wind on the bow = 420 + 396 = 816 m? d speed (knots) 10 20 30 40 50 60 | Wind pressure N/m”) 15 60 135 2400375540 Frontal force* (kN) 122 48.0 110.2 195.8 = 306.0 440.6, | * The wind pressures have been divided by 1000 to give the forces in kiloNewtons Fig. .6 Approximate wind forces on a tanker alongside an oil terminal jetty ‘The force of the wind on a ship is approximately proportional to the exposed area for a given wind strength, so if the same wind acts on two similar ships with the same proportions, then the exposed areas and wind force increase with the square of the ship’s length. Increasing the ship's length by 40% will approximately double the force of a given wind whilst doubling the ship's length will quadruple the wind force. This relationship is only very approximate and it works better with container ships than tankers, as the height of a full deck stow of containers above the quayside is usually approximately proportional to the ship’s length. 8 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWind forces acting on a moored ship Quarterly wind forces acting on a moored ship ‘The pressure of a wind on a ship's bow or stern quarter can be resolved into athwartships and fore and aft components which then can be applied to the appropriate exposed topside areas to estimate the athwartships and fore and aft wind forces. This is applied in the diagram below to our small container ship ‘MLN. Box Ship’ as it experiences a 30 knot wind 45° off the bow. 30 knots of wind strikes the ship 45° off the bow won a Resultant of lateral and frontal forces rely From page §, Wind pressure = 135 N/m? fora drag factor of 0.9 and from page 7 Lateral area = £30 my 20 Lateral force = 225 x sin 45° x 920 = 88.78 KN or 29 tome Frontal force "Fr" ean) Lateral force ‘FL’ 16.04 KN or 1.6 tonne Frontal area = 168 m?, 135 Frontal force = 733 x 168 = so jorce = =o x cos 46 And tan6 = 18 so 9 = 102" Thewind force ectng onthe ship le many athwartsips Fig 1.7 The forces acting on ‘MN Box Ship’ due to a wind off the bow Notice that, although a wind striking the ship at 45° off the quarter produces equal lateral and fore and aft components of wind pressure, the lateral component of the resulting force will be dominant, as the ship's exposed side area is so much greater than its cross sectional area. The force required to keep a ship alongside in a strong wind with an offshore component is nearly always greater than the force needed to restrain the ship's abead or astern movements. ‘Yawing moments produced by the wind on a moored ship ‘The above calculation gives an acceptable estimate of the longitudinal and lateral wind forces but it does not indicate how the lateral load is shared between the forward and aft moorings or the yawing moment created by any imbalance. The beam wind load on the aft moorings of a low freeboard ship with all aft accommodation may be almost twice the forward mooring load and a mooring system must be designed around its most heavily loaded component. Moreover, a master who knows his ship’s yawing moments for different wind conditions will be able to allow for the ship's reaction to the prevailing wind during berthing or unberthing. The yawing moments created by different wind directions depend upon the following factors- 1) The longitudinal distribution of the ship's exposed topside area, as this determines the position of the longitudinal centre of area. 2) The vertical distribution of the exposed topside area: Wind speed increases with height (see page 6) and the pressure exerted on exposed areas increases with wind speed squaired, so exposed areas high up on the ship have much more influence than those low down, 3) The aerodynamics of the wind flowing around the exposed side surfaces. The calculation above treats all these surfaces as vertical flat plates, which is reasonable for the container stow and accommodation but a ship’s main hull must be considered separately, as its plan view is airfoil shaped and this significantly affects how the wind acts on it. MOORING, AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1] 9Chapter 4 : The environmental forces acting on a ship When wind from dead ahead strikes the symmetrical and streamlined shape of a ship's bow, the airflow divides and the increase in pressure at the initial point of impact accelerates the two halves of the flow as they pass along each side of the hull. The acceleration of the air in the direction of the flow causes a drop in static pressure perpendicular to the flow, so air pressure acting on the ship's sides reduces as the flow speeds up. (This is called ‘Bernoulli's Principle’ after the 18th-century Swiss scientist who actually discovered it in the behaviour of water flowing around obstructions, rather than air.) The ait flowing down the ship's sides continues to accelerate whilst the beam is increasing but flow slows dow as the beam starts to decrease in the after part of the hull and consequently, the pressure acting against the ship's sides increases again as the flows recombine at the stern. The high pressure at the stern (i.e. the downwind end of the hull) is always less than the high pressure at the bow (i.e. the upwind end of the hull), as the flow loses energy through friction against the ship's sides. A ‘boundary layer’ of turbulent air that has been slowed down by friction, forms around the hull topsides and increases in thickness as the flow passes further downwind. The airflow tends to follow the shape of the boundary layer, which ‘extends beyond the stern to form the ‘wake’ Wind from dead ahead, or dead astern, does not create any net lateral force on the ship's sides, as the pressure distribution is the same on either side. However, if wind strikes the rounded stém or stern at an oblique angle to the fore and aft line, then high pressure at point of impact is concentrated on the ‘windward side and the flow splits asymmetrically to accelerate more ait down the ship's leeward topside. There is now a pressure differential across the two sides of the ship in which the drop in pressure acting against the leeward ship's side is actually greater than the increased pressure on its windward side. This creates a lateral force that acts through a point towards the windward end of the bull where airflow velocity down the leeward side is maximum and, consequently, the drop in pressure on the hull’s topsides is greatest = Angle of attack [= = Low pressure distribution <> [= = High pressure distribution < = High pressure aerodynamic force = Airflow Boundary layer and wake " Foracnthe jagalesotatiack, Way exte accommodation © 2. The'wind/is'on the'starboard bow The wind forces act fo bodly push the ship to leeward but create opposing moments. The force on the hull is acting to swing the ship beam onto the wind whilst the force on the accommodation is creating a yawing moment to swing the ship head into wind. The resulting swing depends on the net difference between these two opposing moments. Tig 1.9 Wind induced yawing momenis of a ship with all aft accommodation The wind force acting on a ship is not only due to the wind impacting on the vertical surfaces, as friction between the wind and exposed horizontal surfaces also contributes to forming the boundary layer. This extra drag is increased by the roughness of the horizontal surfaces and a ship's deck is very rough due to fittings, such as masts, ventilators, hatches etc. Models tested in a wind tunnel should include as much of this clutter as practical for the scale of the model. The practice of testing models to examine how the wind acts on a ship has often been directed at 2 particular ship type, usually in response to a specific problem. Much of the research in the 1970's concerned tankers, partly due to the need to design berths that could handle their rapid increase in size but also to determine how the wind might be used to advantage in preventing a disabled tanker from Grifting aground to cause major pollution. However, the investigation of wind effects on other ship types has increased, especially with the use of dynamic positioning to control the manoeuvring of ships working in the offshore industry. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 17Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship Wind forces and yawing moments derived from model tests ‘The diagrams on the following pages are examples showing the force acting on a full-bodied ship with all-aft accommodation for different wind speeds and directions. The sketch graphs are based on research carried outby the oil companies for the tanker industry (refer to OCIMF Mooring Equipment Guidelines) so they should represent fairly typical coefficient values for ships with this type of layout, which would include bulk carriers. The graph below also shows how the roundness of the bow shape above the waterline affects the aerodynamic force created by winds from directions forward of the beam. 1A full-bodied ship with all aft accommodation in ballast The ship is trimmed by the stern ‘AT(@' = Transverse topside area m* \ \ \ —> oe d Coefficients for a cylindrical bow oN 0+ vo+ 90+ 8 oo ,lW)X9, ]ua!94J909 e205 pUIM ye pUe e104 Winds from ahead create fore and aft forces that are about 25% greater than astern winds. |- 0.2 +0.0 +0.2 +04 +06 +08 Fore and aft wind force coefficient ‘Cxiw' rO- 70- * so Astern ———= 09cosa ‘ Force 1 = SES To The curve for the approximate [ @ : jcoemctms fone: drag factor 0.9 cos a's shown - + g ig for comparison (see page 9). |. © 0 20° 40° 60° 80° 80°400" 120° 140° 160" 180° Wind angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow Anead orasern wind force ‘Fx = cx 100042607 Ar) — koNetons Where the density of air = 0.00125 t/m* and Vw = speed of current (m/s), so Ahead or astern wind force Fx’ = Cx) 299125 9.5147 vogtes)*ATIS) KN Ahead or astern wind force 'Fxiwy' = SX yas)? AB) KiloNewtons 100 Where Varknis) = wind speed in knots & “Ar(8)'= transverse laden topside area (m*) With the wind 60° off a cylindrical port bow, airflow directed around its leeward side generates @ force (on the bow that acts to starboard and ahead. Fig, 1.10 Pore and aft wind force coafficients / wind angle 12 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEThe lateral, or athwartships, component of 2 Wind forces acting on a moored ship environmental force produces not only a bodily sideways push against the ship but also a possible yawing moment, so the lateral load on the moorings can be unevenly distributed between the forward and aft lines. Some published data give graphs of the wind force coefficient for the ‘otal lateral component of the wind force for different wind angles from the bow and then show the yawing moments on a separate graph. The two graphs can then be used to determine the separate lateral forces at the bow and stern, 4/2 full-bodied ship with all aft accommodation and conventional bow in ballast = i¢_+—_— Length 'L' m dal { | The ship is trimmed by the stern “AL(B)’ = Longitudinal topside area m’ Bow swinging > om Stern swinging oO to leeward to leeward 1 o Ee | = a= 5 é z @ AY < +3 Ze ss 33 53 ee aS 3 32 ze 5 a3 53 \ eg 8 \ z 8 N z © $s 1 gs zy | The curve for the approximate og e* drag factor ‘0.9 sin ai is shown Be 2 — = = 0.9sina | for comparison (see page 9). z des : 3 0 20° 40°60? 80 100" 120° 140° 160° 180° Wind angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow ‘As derived on the previous page rT ee ; ‘The lateral wind force "Fy(w)' = 2—— Vw(kts)" AL(B) kiloNewtons 6100 Where Vuiknis) = wind speed in knots & ’AT(8)' = longitudinal ballast topside area (m°) The wind yawing moment ‘May' = S42 Ywads)?AL(@)L — kiloNewton-metres si "Mo's the moment othe aforence between to lta vind force th ship's bow and stem M 2, ws! -peens «Frag = MM 5 SM vegay?ALe) kiloNewions The lateral wind force at the bow, 'Fr(w, is determined at any angle of the wind by subtracting half the difference between the bow and stem lateral forces from half the total lateral force, whilst the force at the stem ‘Fy(we' is given by adding half the difference between the bow and stern aleral forces to half the total lateral force, so:- Forward lateral wind force 'Frqwyt ~» SY EH vvas)*AL(a) _kiloNewtons & After wind force From! = SESE vag ALE) kolewtons Fig, 111 Lateral wind force and yawing moment coefficients / wind angle MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 18Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship ‘Yawing moments create additional loads on the moorings at one or the other end of a ship that is more conveniently shown on a graph that splits the coefficient of the lateral wind force into separate coefficients for the forces on the stern and the bow: The graph below shows separate forward and aft lateral wind force coefficients for the same ship shown on the previous page. 1A full-bodied ship with all aft accommodation and conventional bow in ballast The ship is trimmed by the stern "AL(e)’ = Longitudinal topside area m” eet [o%,. — = Fwd lateral wind force coeft™ ‘Cyr, — = Aft lateral wind force coeff ‘Cyqma’ A Bow swinging Stem swinging ° to leeward toleeward J L]|f & 04 05 06 vo 90 0.3 0 02 zo ot vo WAD, 8 JWWAD, SIU@!91y609 80104 pulM je10)e Lateral wind force coefficients ‘Cyn’ & “Cyqa’ 0 0 20" 40° Go" 80° 100° 120° 140" 160° 180° Wind angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow The forward lateral wind force yam? = Snares)? x ALCO) kw woo The aft lateral wind force F vomat = SAU Vira? x ALB) kw ‘Vw(kis)' = Wind speed (knots) & 'AL(6)' = longitudinal topside area in the ballast condition (m?) UI + ‘And the total lateral force on the ship = {OM EYWIA) Lesa? x arya) iN Fig. 1.12. The separate forward and afi lateral wind force coefficients / wind angle ‘The above ship’s stable heading has the wind about 10° forward of the beam and the yawing moments are considerably greater when the wind is abaft the beam rather than forward of it 14 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWind forces acting on a moored ship ‘The graph of the fore and aft wind coefficients for a ship with an all-aft accommodation at the fully loaded draft gives coefficients that are quite close to the rough estimate of ‘0.9 x cos «’ suggested on page 9. 2A full-bodied ship with ft accommodation in the fully laden condition A of The ship is ateven keel") xz atts ‘ATi’ = Transvet ZO+ vo+ 90+ FOF v0 luaixg, wa!944209 2910} PUI ye PUL 104 Winds from ahead create fore and aff forces that are about 25% greater than astern winds. 0.2 +0.0 +0.2 +04 +06 +08 zo- -04 Astern Force ———= 0.9cosa go- vo- -06 Fore and aft wind force coefficient ‘Cx(wy’ The curve for the approximate drag factor 0.9 cos a’ is shown for comparison (see page 9). go- -1.0 -0.8 OL 0 20° 40" g0" BO" 9o°100" 120" 140" 160" 180° Wind angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow Ahead or astern wind force ‘Fxwn’ = SA8Y vrais)" ATL) kiloNewtons | Where Vicknts) = wind speed in knots & ‘AT(.)'= transverse fully loaded topside area (m’) Fig 1.13. Fore and aft wind force coefficients / wind angle ‘The wind force fore and aft coefficients for the fully laden ship with all-aft accommodation are surprisingly higher than for the same ship in ballast shown on page 12. It may be because the stern trim of the ballast condition effectively reduces part of the accommodation’s lateral area from the full effects of the wind, However, the cross-sectional topside area in the loaded condition is considerably less, so the actual fore and aft forces will be lower for the loaded ship than for when itis in ballast. One feature of the fore and aft wind coefficients for an all-aft accommodation ship, which is common to both loaded and ballast conditions, is that ahead winds create a larger force on the ship than astern winds, This may be due to extra drag from ahead winds flowing over the deck and fittings (which are more sheltered from astern winds) before striking the accommodation. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 15,Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship ‘The following graph shows the separate forwardl and aft lateral wind force coefficients for the ship shown on the previous page. The ship’s very low freeboard allows the wind to slip over the main deck at a reduced drag factor. The hull’s topside area relative to the accommodation is reduced to such an extent that wind in any direction offthe fore and aft line creates a greater yawing moment on the accommodation block than on the hull. Consequently, the ship tends to initially swing head into wind whilst it remains stopped in the water. 2A full-bodied ship with all aft accommodation and conventional bow when fully laden ongitudinal topside area m? St Stern swinging to leeward 06 v0 0.5 v0 04 vo 03 0 PUNAD, 8 AUMDAD, gyJ}09 89405 PUMA [BITE 0.2 zo Lateral wind force coeff"® ‘Gynt & "Cyiwye ot vo 0 0 0 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180° A Wind angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow — — —— — Stable angle of attack ‘a’ = 0° All wind directions off the fore and aft fine fend fo yaw the ship ‘head into wind’ The forward lateral wind force Frome = LM vega)? x ALL) kn The aft lateral wind force 'F yqwja’ = pats Viwats)? x AL(L) KN ‘"Vw(kts)' = Wind speed (knots) & ‘Av(t)" = longitudinal topside area in the fully laden condition (m7) The sum of the coeff approximates t0'0.75 sin a! for 40° <'a' < 140° but is less for other angles Fig. 114 The separate forward and aft lateral wind force coefficients / wind angle 46 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWind forces acting on a moored ship We can apply the wind force coefficients given by the graphs on the previous page to estimate the lateral forces that would act on our hypothetical tanker, M-T Fuel Carrier’ (see page 8) in a 40 knot wind at 140° from the bow, whilst moored alongside in ballast. The lateral forces are estimated for both an offshore and an inshore wind on the stern quarter. Midships cy = 0.12 (See page 14) Cra = 0.44 (See page 14) om (90+x)m 180m ‘Tyr = Total tension on forward breas| Fyqw = Lateral component of wind force, cw 0.12 SE vars? x Ae) = Sane x 40% x 2 or 67 tonnes a0 x 40? x 2106 =[ 243.1 KN or 24.8 tonnes Tra = S2 vivnis)* x ALE) 60 Total lateral force Fy(w = (Tva + Tyt) = 66.3 + 243.1 = 9094 KN or 37.5t ‘Tya = Total tension on aft breast lines = Wind yaw lever about amidships TW = Yaw moment about amidships = 0.5LBP(Tva - Ty!) = 90(243.1 - 66.3) = 15912 kN-m Yaw moment _ 15912 _ F | FY) Spoa 7 51-5 metres aft of amidships So, Wind yaw lever'X' The forces in an onshore wind on the stern quarter The ship is pushed inshore and pivots about 'P'at the comer of the jetly 115 metres aff of the bow. om 115m 141.5m 180m 40 Kt Wind Fy) = 309.4 kN 309.4 x 26: Taking moments about'P,, 11571 = 309.4 x 26.5 KN-msoTyt = Ba 713 kN So at the contact point'P’, Force 'F' of the ship against the jetty = 309.4 + 71.3 = [380.7 KN Fig. 115 MII Fuel Carrier's breast line tensions in an offshore wind on the stern quarter ‘The onshore wind off the stern quarter makes the aft breast lines go slack and forces the ship to pivot about its contact point with the jetty: The increased load on the forward breast lines restrains the yaw but this also increases the force at the contact point, which can damage both the ship and the jetty. This risk is reduced if the ship is always kept as hard up against the jetty as is possible, as this tends to spread the contact area over a greater length of the hull and jetty: MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 17Chapter 1 : The environmental forces ecting on a ship ‘Water forces acting on a moored ship A ship's resistance to moving through water is due mainly to two separate effects; namely the frictional force of water molecules sliding past the hull plating and the resistance caused by the moving hull creating waves on the water's surface, Both of these resistive forces increase with the speed of the hull through the water but in different ways, (Readers should appreciate that underwater hull resistance depends upon the rate of water flowing past the ship and it makes no significant difference whether the ship is being propelled through still water or is moored stationary in a current.) Wave-making resistance is unique to surface ships (as such, it does not occur in submarines), which puts an effective upper limit on a displacement ship’s speed, relative to its length, A graph of a ship's wave making resistance against speed roughly follows a curve for resistance increasing with (speed)? at moderately low speeds but it has distinctive humps and dips that show the speeds at which bow wave reinforces or diminishes the stern wave respectively. The humps and dips become more pronounced with increasing ship's speed, as the waves it creates become longer, larger and more energy draining at higher speeds and any ship will require a disproportional amount of power to move faster than waves longer than the ship's length. (At this point, the ship is trying to climb up over its own bow wave.) However, wave-making is much less significant than frictional forces at low speeds in deep water so, a a first estimate, we can ignore it when considering the force on a ship in slow moving water. (Hull resistance and wave making are described in more detail in my book ‘Ship Dynamics for Mariners’) If we ignore wave-making resistance for the moment, then water flowing past a moored ship is just another fluid flow that acts similarly to the wind, so the force it exerts on the moorings increases with square of the current’s speed and the hull’s wetted surface area. In this text, fore and aft current force coefficients relate to a ship's amidships beam x mean draft and the lateral force relates to the ship's length x mean draft, in keeping with the treatment already used with the wind force (see pages 7 & 8) However, this does mean that graphs of coefficients / attack angle of the current must also specify the type of hull form and its trim. A comparison between the forces of water flow and wind 1) Awater flow’s stagnation pressure is given by the same formula shown on page 5, except that water is about 800 times more dense than air so the water pressure acting on the hull is similarly 800 times larger for the same flow speed and drag factor. 2) Water pressure acts on the ship's immersed hullform, which is shaped to allow the ship to move easily through the water, so the fore and aft drag factor is very much lower than that for the wind, Even lateral water flow passes more freely around the underwater hull than a beam wind passes ‘around exposed topsides above the waterline, The underwater shape of the bow and stern are a particularly significant factor in the hydrodynamic forces produced by a water flow making an angle of attack to the ship's fore and aft line. However, this low resistance of a ship’s hull to water flow is also greatly affected by the water depth, relative to the ship's draft 3) Water flowing past a ship's hull can be restricted by the proximity of the sea or river bed, which also increases the water pressure acting on the ship. This effectively increases the ship's wave making resistance and, whilst it is insignificant in water depths greater than six times a ship's draft, ships are invariably in shallower depths when in harbour waters. Consequently, we must account for the increase in the current force coefficients when the water flow under the ship’s bottom is restricted by the limited underkeel clearance. The influence of the underwater bow and stern shapes on the hydrodynamic force also increase as the water depth under the keel diminishes and this can create some unexpected effects when a current strikes the hull at an angle off the bow or stern. 18 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE\Water forces acting on a moored ship "The force on a ship due to a fore and aft water flow Ideally, berths exposed to currents or tical streams should be aligned with the direction of the current so that it strikes a ship moored alongside directly on the bow or stern, We can make a rough estimate ofa ship’s resistance for such a given head or stern current in deep water if we know the ship's output power at its service speed and assume hull resistance is proportional to the square of its speed through the water, Engine output power, which is known variously as brake or shaft power, should be easi available but then we must make a further assumption on the efficiency of the ship's propulsion system, which is usually about 60%. We can then estimate the propeller’s service output power to determine hulll resistance at the service speed and reduce this by the ratio of (current speed!)? to (Service speed)? to roughly approximate the force on the hull for a given current, ‘MLV. Box Ship’ is a small container ship of 6,000 t displacement and has a service speed of 16 knots for engine output power of 4000 kW. About 40% of engine output power is lost to propeller action and only the remaining 60% of power is used fo overcome the hull's resistance. ‘So, power to overcome hull resistance at 16 knots (8 m/s) = 0.6 x 4000 = 2400 KW Power output at propeller = Rx'V) KW Where 'R’ = hull frictional resistance (kN) & 'V’ = speed (m/s) So Hull resistance at 8m/s = 72° = 300 kN i Hui resistance is approximately « V* © 14m So Hullresistance at1 m/s ~ 300 = 4.69 kN ‘The ship is moving ahead bad at 2 knots, or 1 m/s. A force of 4.7 kN is equivalent to about 0.5 tonne We can use this resistance and the hull's maximum underwater amidships cross-sectional area fo obtain the drag factor Co’ for a 1m /s (or 2 knot) current. Le. Hull resistance at 1m/s = Co x 0.8 x 1.025 x 17x 14x 7 kN So at m/s, Dragtactor ‘co’ = ——__488,_. 999 EX TOE x 1X TERT We can roughly estimate the force on the ship in deep water by assuming a drag factor of 0.09 Fig. 1.16 Asbip's resistance at an abead speed of 2 knots in deep water ‘The above example of ‘MN. Box Ship’ is hypothetical but I have applied the same process to the data of 41 different ships listed in ‘Ship Design and Performance for Masters and Mates’, by Dr C. B. Barrass. This covered a wide range of vessel size and type (ro-ro vessels, lange tankers, container ships and passenger ships) and produced drag factors ranging from 0.05 to 0.13, relative to the immersed amidships cros sectional area, though most were between 0.06 and 0.1. ‘This is only a very rough and ready method of estimating the hull’s resistance at low speeds in deep water, as it ignores the ship’s length to beam ratio and wave-making resistance at higher speeds. A short wide hull generates a higher wave making resistance when moving at speeds high enough to generate significant wave patterns but has lower onal drag than a long narrow hull of the same displacement. There are other factors, such as hull roughness, which increases with the build up of marine growth, and the driving action of the ship's propeller, which actually reduces resistance slightly by sucking in some of the boundary layer of water that would otherwise be dragged along with the ship. Assuming a drag factor of 0.09, relative to a ship’s amidships immersed cross-sectional area, will give a very rough estimate the fore and aft force on the hull to +/-about 50% fora current in ‘deep water’ from either dead ahead or dead astern. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 19)Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship ‘The effect of water depth under the keel in a current ‘The previous page shows a method for roughly estimating the fore and aft hull resistance in deep water but ships are berthed in relatively shallow water so water passing around the hull is constricted by the seabed. Water piles up against the hull’s upstream end until the pressure is sufficient to force the flow through the constricted gap between the seabed and the ship's keel. The hull’s resistance to the flow indl, consequently, the load on the moorings increases. The constriction of the water flow also locally depresses in the water level in the fuller amidships region of the hull, which causes the ship to bodily ‘sink’ or ‘squat’ closer to the seabed Tight heads Ship squats bodily downward lines = Slack stern lines. ‘The current trom ahead builds up the water evel at the bow unti the increase in pressure is sufficient to accelerate the water flow through the restricted gap between the ship's amidshivs boitom and the seabed. ‘The load on the head lines increases with the increase in water pressure on the bow whilst the water level amidships is consequently depressed so the ship will bodily Sink’ closer to the seabed. This reduction in Uunderkeel clearance is known as ‘sque The water level builds up again atthe stem where the divided water flow around the ship's hull recombines, though the wave crest formed at the stem is lower than tho thai at the bow as the water flow has lost energy. Fig. 1.17 Asbip moored on a shallow water berth in a current ‘The graph below is based on data given in ‘The Nautical Institute publication “Tug Use in Port’ and shows how the force on the hull ina steady current increases, relative to the deep water resistance, as the water depth to draft ratio is reduced. ‘The curve becomes more speculative (at very low water depth to draft ratios Still water condition _* Force on the hull / deep water resistance 0 1 2 3 4 6 6 Still water depth / draft —S- S_ areiative water --S > ‘depth increasing The water depth / draft ratio can chango either with the tide or the state of loading or a combination of both factors whilst the vessel is alongside. Fig 1.18 The approximate effect of water depth / drajt on the bull force of a moored ship 20 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE‘The graph on the previous page shows how the ship's resistance to water lowing past the bull at any particular speed in deep water is increased when the water depth is reduced, relative to the ship's draft If bull resistance of ‘MN. Box Ship’ is 0.5 tonne ata speed of 2 knots through deep water, then resistance quadruples to 2 tonne when the underkeel clearance is only 20% of the draft. Multiplying the diag Factor Of 0.09 by a correction factor for the water depth to draft ratio modifies the rough estimate of the fore and aft force on a hull to account for squat effects but this only applies to currents from dead abead or dead astern. Diag factors and hence force coefficients for a current increase greatly when it strikes the hull obliquely, The immersed hull shape creates hydrodynamic effects that cannot be accounted for by simply resolving the flow into lateral and fore and aft components, especially when underkee! clearance is very small. ‘The forces on the moorings of a ship on tidal river berths can change quite rapidly, as both the current ‘and the underkeel clearance vary with the tide and the ship's loaded state. Depth under the keel is not the only the Eictor affecting the load on the moorings, which also will increase with the square of the current (see previous page) so the maximum effect fends to occur close to mid-tide if the ship's draft remains approximately constant. 1) Squat effects increase roughly with the square of flow velocity past the ship. 2) Squat effects increase with the ship's draft to still water depth ratio, 3) Squat effects increase with the ship’s block coefficient. 4) Squat effects increase with proximity to obstacles, such as wharves or passing ships. Squat is the maximum loss of water depth under the keel of a ship due to water flowing past it 50 ip tied up alongside a quay in a current sinks lower, relative to the quay. Formulae can be used 19 Construct a set of curves for an individual ship to give the squat in the ‘open water” situation (Le. with to restricting channel banks near to the ship) and its increase with reducing channel width for different speeds through the water. The curves below show that squat for a ship moored in currents Up to 4 Throts is unlikely to exceed 20 centimetres even after allowing for the narrowness of a channel. The risk cof grounding by squat is usually much greater when a ship moves at speed through shallow water than when it is tied up alongside in a current. 's speed through the water 'Vk' (knots) ‘Squat and channel width, 0. 2) 6) 8 0 2A 2 ‘Squat increases with closeness {0 the edge of a channel or any i other lateral restriction. & 1 | a3 k— 108 ——# ‘Open water’ squat a pid=20 = a L ! 5 k— 6B — Be 2 : ay & 87 open water squat = cax 4x 8 m ariel tana Did=44 # = 1 — = Mean draft = 4.97.0 m ‘Ce’ = 0.65 le 4B — = Mean draft = 7.09.3 m ‘CB’ = 0.75 100% increase in squat Fig. 119 Squat curves for a specific ship at uco different draft ranges MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 21Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship Current forces and yawing moments derived from model tests The following examples of current force coefficients are again based on research carried out by the oil ‘companies for the tanker industry (refer to OCIMF Mooring Equipment Guidelines) but should also apply to ships with similar underwater hullforms. The graph below shows estimates of the fore and aft current force coefficients for a full-bodied hull in ballast with a stern trim and a midships water depth to draft ratio of about 3 to 1 42 fullebodied hull in ballast with a partly immersed bulbous bow and stern trim . Midships ‘ Midships section Buibous bow 4 Lengthtobeamratio b= 64 0 ny aaa nas Wf ‘(7 }D AERTS oy crea Sts toe wie raaes AS | 3 zg | 3 re z Current'Ve’ ahead eee: 4 Force 2 | the point of zer0 fore ue fe * | and aft force possibly 3 | S| depends upon the trim 4 a | Coefficients will increase if vo- 00 1X9, 14619143809 8010) asin Ye PUE 104 Fore and aft current force coefficient ‘Cxic) 3 the length to beam ratio is : reduced and vice-versa a —- = 3x0.09cosa Fs The curve of the approximate drag | é 3 factor '3 x 0.09 cos a’ is shown for | & a comparison (see pages 19-20). i $ r ,e : ¥. 0 20" 40" 60" 80" 90°100" 120° 140° 160° 180° Current angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow Aad or astern force duet acurentFxc! = Ox) 44.025Ve!(B xd) tlaNewtons Where the density of sea water = 1025 kg/m? and Vc = speed of current (m/s), 80 514? Verws)*"(Bxd) KN Ahead or astern force due to a current 'Fxc’ = me Veones)?(B x d) KiloNewtons Where Votints) = speed of current in knots & 'B x d' = immorsed cross-sectional area (m*) | Flow restriction and | squat are greatest here Ships are built fo move ahead rather than astern, so the hull force is likely to be greater for a current from astem than from ahead, though this may be affected by the trim. The maximum fore and aft forces occur with the current about 25° off the bow or the stern, Current <> Fig 120. Shallow water fore and aft current force coefficients / current angle 22 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWater forces acting on a moored ship The fore and coefficients for the hull on the previous page do very roughly follow the curve of 3 x 0.09 cos a but the maximum coefficients and hence fore and aft forces occur when current strikes the hull at an angle of about 25° off the bow or stern, rather than from dead ahead or dead astern. The coefficients for a current from astern are about 50% greater than for currents forward of the beam, as ships are designed to move ahead rather than astern, though this effect is possibly enhanced by a ballasted hull’s stern trim. Gurves for the bow and stern lateral force coefficients of currents from any direction acting on the ship in ballast with a stern trim are similar to those for wind (See page 15), except that the coefficients are lower, as the immersed hullform is better shaped, even for a lateral flow. Note that current’s angle of attack that creates no yawing moment is about the same as the angle of attack for zero fore and aft force. 1A full-bodied hull in ballast with a partly immersed bulbous bow and stern trim Length ‘L?'. ———» _The centre of immersed lateral side area is aft of ge "amidships, due to the ballasted hull’ stern trim. Le ot > — = Find lateral current force coefficient ‘vey Midships draft “a” —= Aff lateral current force coefficient ‘Cv(c)s" Water depth to draft ratio amidships 2 = 1.5 3 3 aE Bow swinging Stern swinging 3 | $3 TLL “cownstream downstream MD > = = Lateral Lateral a = bow force stem force 3 2 3 2 8 5 / : 8 8 5 a = L 8 s Stable relative 3 5 current direction 5 2 2 @ : 2 5 0 20" 40" 60" 80" 100° 120° 140" 160° 180° | Current angle of attack ‘off the bow The forward lateral current force ‘Fy(oy" = SEEM vents)* x Lx a kiloNewtons The aft lateral current force 'Ficut = SAG vequy? x Lx d kiloNewtons The yawing moment is indicated by the difference between the bow and stern coefficients and so there is no yaw when the current is from about 15° forward of the beam. Fig 121 Shallow water separate lateral current force coefficients / current angle ‘The way that the force of a current acts on the hull in ballast, with its stern trim and centre of lateral area aft of amidships, is not particularly surprising. However, this is not so for currents acting on the same hull when fully laden at even keel with greatly reduced underkeel clearance. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 23Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship The current force coefficients for a full-bodied laden hull with a bulbous bow at even keel in a water depth to draft ratio of 1:1.1 reveal a surprising effect of such little underkeel clearance. 2A full-bodied and loaded hull at even trim with a conventional bulbous bow Midships section —B Length te beam ratio E = 6.4 vO+ 90+ 90+ 0.0 +02 +04 +06 +08 zo 0.2 Coefficients will increase if the length fo beam ratio is reduced and vice-versa vo- z0- o0- 04 (9)X9, 1Ua1944909 99104 UOuN9 ye pue 2104 Fore and aft current force coefficient ‘Cx(c) -08 -06 80- 9'0- 20° 40° «GO 80° S010" 120° 140° 160° 180° Current angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow Ahead or astern force due to a current 'Fxc’ = — Veeits)*(B xd) kiloNewtons, Currents at angles of attack between 10° and 33° create a large force that pushes the hull ahead in the same way as the wind acting on the rounded bow on page 12, except more so, as water is forced to flow predominately along the hull, rather than underneath it. ‘The view from underneath of the flow around the hull at an angle of attack of about 20° The low pressure force at the bow Fig, 1.22 Shallow water fore and aft current force coefficients / current angle THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWater forces acting on a moored ship A current about 20° off the bow on the hull shown on the previous page actually generates an abead force that is about twice the magnitude of the astern force produced by a current from dead ahead, ‘The hull is consequently thrust forward into the current and so the relative flow velocity would actually increase if the ship were not restrained by its moorings. This seems to defy the basic laws of energy, as, it suggests that the ship would accelerate forwards without any driving force other than the current but this is to ignore the current's yawing effect. The force acting at the bow is mainly a lateral force, which creates a moment to yaw the ship beam onto the current and its fore and aft component reverses at attack angles beyond 30° to create an even greater astern force. ‘Accurrent from just off the ship's stern similarly creates a hydrodynamic force with an astern component but the effect is considerably less than for a current off the bow, probably because the propeller and its shaft housing interferes with the flow around the stern. 2A full-bodied and loaded hull at even trim with a conventional bulbous bow Length to beam ratio = 6.4 Water depth to draft ratio amidships 2 = 1.1 — = Fwd lateral current force coefficient ‘Cy(cyt | —= Aft lateral current force coefficient ‘Cy(c)a’ 2 st OIL “sownstream: Pea downstream” ILI] 16 ob 14 ve wh 12 YONA, 8 JIOIAD, SquatoyJa09 2910) JUALIND [219,27 10 eo OF current force coefficients ‘Cy(cyt & ‘Cvicja! Stable relative current direction vo 90 02 04 06 08 zo 0 Later: ° 20° 40° 60" 80° 100° 120° 140" 160° 180° Current angle of attack ‘a’ off the bow ‘The forward lateral current force ‘Fyicy' = SUCH veqs)* x Lx d —_kiloNewtons The aft lateral current force ‘Fyicia’ = Sige Vents)? x Lx d —_ kiloNewtons ‘The yawing moment is zero when the current is from about 9° forward of the beam. |The mail thumps’ in the curves are caused by the hydrodynamic effect, ilustrated on the previous page, reaching a maximum, which occurs when the angle of attack is about 25° and 155°. Fig. 1.23. Shallow water separate lateral current force coefficients / current angle MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 25,Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship ‘The surprising hydrodynamic effect of creating ahead thrust on the loaded full-bodied hull in a current off the bow is due to the curvature of the fiully submerged bulbous bow capturing flow from the hull’s upstream side and directing it around the downstream side. This is called the ‘coanda effect’, and it is enhanced if a bow has a cylindrical stem, rather than a conventional fine entry above the bulb. The limited water depth under the keel further increases the coanda effect by forcing the water to flow linearly along the hull. The conventional bow and bulb A conventional bow has a fine entry above cylindrical bow retains a significant radius the bulb and is less effective at generating above the bulb and is much more effective hydrodynamic ‘itt at generating hydrodynamic ‘ft Fig. 1.24 The shape of a loaded full-bodied bull's immersed bow and forepart of the hull Any full-bodied hull with a rounded cylindrical stem or bulbous bow will behave as shown on the previous page, which can cause problems during berthing and unberthing, One traditional method of berthing is to approach the jetty whilst stemming the tide or current and then angle the bow into the berth to send the forward mooring lines ashore, The consequences of the ship suddenly surging ahead and swinging bow in to the berth when the current is about 20° off the bow can be unfortunate, to say the feast. An article entitled ‘A Tale of the Unexpected’, written by Dr fan Dand of British Maritime Technologies for the September 1980 issue of ‘Seaways’, describes incidents in which asymmetrical flow around a ship's bow has even been created by the wash from a forward tug using a towline to check the vessel’s yaw into the jetty. As the tug pulls harder on the ship’s bow, so its wash increases whilst the ahead component of the force on the ship allows the bow to continue its inshore swing, possibly with even greater alacrity. Ships with these characteristics are better put alongside by either using the offshore anchor to check any yaw and ahead speed or by being pushed bodily athwartships onto the berth by tugs whilst remaining parallel to the current throughout the berthing. This is normally easier if the ships are berthed and nberthed at slack water when there is no current running off the jetty. ‘The ship vill surge ahead and develop a large inshore yaw when the current’s angle of attack exceeds 10° (see pages 24 & 25). Fig, 125 The danger of berthing a laden tanker in very shallow water in a current from abead 26 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEWater forces acting on a moored ship Current generated yawing moments acting on a moored ship Most river berths will be aligned with the direction of the local current so a vessel tied up on the berth will usually only experience currents from almost directly ahead or astern. However, berths at a bend in a tiver can be subjected to currents from a direction slightly off the fore and aft line, which can produce considerable side forces with the accompanying yawing moments. A.current striking the offshore side of the bow of a ship moored alongside a jetty on the bend ofa river will swing the bow inshore whilst also bodily pushing the ship against the jetty. The stern lines come tight whilst the bow lines go slack and the ship pivots about the point of contact with the jetty, which can damage both the ship and the jetty if the ship is not held hard up against the jetty. The diagram below shows how a current that initially only makes a small angle of attack to the bow can lead to an increasing ‘yaw and lateral force if the mooring lines are either too slack or too elastic to hold the ship properly alongside. The situation is similar to that described on page 17 for an offshore wind striking the ship at an oblique angle, except that helm action may be able to reduce the yavy, as water is flowing over the ship’s rudder. The rudder's effectiveness will depend on the current's speed but it may take enough weight off the lines under load to allow the crew to tighten them up or run out extra lines and so heave the ship back alongside. Slack head lines Stern lines take all the weight a yawing moment to starboard, whilst pushing the ‘ship against the point of contact on the jetty. The head lines go slack and the stern lines take all the weight as the ship yaws to starboard whilst the lateral force on the hull increases with current's increasing angle of the bow. The current force acts forward of amidships to create | | |The current may either produce an ahead or astern thrust, depending on the ship's underwater hhuliform, the angle of attack and the water depth to draft ratio. However, the ship will be pushed into the jetty in elther case and pivot about the point of contact. The risk of damage is increased by the lines not being kept sufficiently tight prior to the onset of the current, as this has allowed the ship fo swing further towards beam onto the current before the stem lines check the yaw. Fig 126 The consequences of failing to keep a ship tight alongside in a current off the bow Helm action must be applied in the opposite direction when trying to counter a yaw caused by a current from astern, though the rudder is likely to be less effective than in the case ofan ahead current. However, itis still worth applying the helm if there is a serious risk of damage to the ship or of it breaking free of its ‘moorings, although the engine room should also be put on standby whilst the master informs the port authorities and calls for a tug MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 27Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship Environmental criteria for a ship's moorings The overall strength ofa ship's mooring system should be based on the worst environmental conditions that the ship is expected to remain safely moored alongside the berths in ports that it is expected to visit during its operational life. Some vessels, such as ferries working very short routes in sheltered waters, are designed for specific services using dedicated berths but most ocean-going ships are built for general trading, so the designers must decide on the worst conditions that the moorings are required to withstand. The classification societies assign an ‘equipment number’ to a ship that is intended to ensure it can anchor in winds up to 25 mis and currents up to 2.5 m/s but this is a poor guide to the forces on a ship’s moorings when it is tied up alongside (see pages 101-104). The only other environmental eriteria for moorings are given in OCIMF’s Mooring Equipment Guidelines that recommends tankers and gas carriers of more than 16,000 tonnes deadweight trading internationally have mooring equipment able to withstand the steady, or static, forces in the following environmental conditions:- 60 knots of wind from any direction combined with whichever of the following currents creates (1) the ‘greatest fore and aft load andl (2) the greatest lateral load on the moorings: (a) 3 knots of current at 0° or 180° (i. from right ahead or right astern) or (b)_ 2 knots of current at 10° or 170? (i.e. from 10° off the bow or the stern) oF (© 0.75 knots of current from the direction of maximum beam current loading, (Assume the water depth to draft ratio is 11:1 when fully laden and 3.0:1 when in ballast.) ‘The OCIMF guidelines provide a rational methodology for calculating the number ofa chosen strength of line needed to resist the forces on a tanker or gas carrier in these conditions, which takes the mooring pattern geometry into account zvbilst allowing an adequate safety factor. Whatever environmental criteria other parts of the shipping industry decide to use, mooring line strengths should be such that no line is under a static load more than 50% of its breaking strength when the ship is subjected to the worst environmental conditions that its moorings are designed to withstand, ‘The safety factor of 2’ allows for both the loss of mooring line strength through wear and dynamic loads ‘on the moorings, which are difficult to quantify. The strength of the lines depends on the magnitude of the forces acting on the ship and the effectiveness of the mooring geometry at opposing those forces. ‘Tanker and gas carrier mooring patterns are often more effective at keeping the vessel alongsice its berth than those for ships on a general purpose wharf and the effectiveness of different mooring patterns is explained in chapter 2 Berths in some ports around the world are exposed to particular local phenomena, such as the strong overnight ‘katabatic’ winds shown in the sketch below, and extra consideration should be given to the mooring arrangements of ships trading to these places. Katabatic winds are strong winds that occur in ‘mountainous regions during the night. Cooling high up in the mountains during a clear night will resuit in air descending into valleys that then channel the air as a strong wind down towards the coast. Berths that lie at the foot of coastal mountains can be subjected to sudden and quite fierce overnight katabatic winds that usually occur during periods of fine daytime weather and reach maximum strength at about 0200 local time. (Ports on the East side of the Adriatic | ‘Sea are prone to these winds.) Fig. 1.27 Katabatic offshore winds 28 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEThe effect of wind and current on a ship that is free to aft ‘The effect of wind and current on a ship that is free to drift ‘The graphs and formulae for wind and current forces on pages 12-16 and 22-25 are for a ship tied up alongside so that it can only move slightly and change heading by a few degrees before the moorings restrain further movement. If the ship is free to move in response to a change in conditions, then the ituation continually alters until the forces are again in balance. We can see what this means if we imagine a bulk carrier breaking free of its moorings in an offshore wind on the beam but no current. The diagrams below show the ship's subsequent behaviour for both the fully loaded and ballast conditions. Its final stable heading, relative to the wind, is independent of the initial relative wind direction. The bulk carrier in ballast The bulk carrier fully laden {trimmed by the l= (at even keel) = > coe ° = Wind force Ot = Water resistance U= Yaw ¢> = Track of centre of gravity 4) The wind force alone creates @ starboard yaw and accelerates the ship downwind. The force on the laden bulk carrier is less than for vrhen the ship is in ballast but acts further aft. 2) The wind force is smaller and the bulk carrier's mass is greater when its fully laden, so it wil accelerate more slowly than when in ballast. However, water resistance increases in both cases with the ship's increasing downwind drift rate and acts aft of amidships to counter the yaw. 3) Water resistance is equal and opposite to the wind force for both ships, which are now drifting at a steady rate and heading though the laden ship is drifting much slower than the vessel in ballast. The laden bulk carrier at even keel settles with the wind forward of the beam due to the wind yaving moment caused by the accommodation. The stern trim and high freeboard of the ship in ballast, however, shifts the contre of wind resistance further forward so the ship settles on a stable heading with the wind just abaft the beam. Fig. 128. A bulk carrier's drift in still water and an offsbore wind that is initially on the beam ‘The ship’s wind driven movement through the water has the same effect as a current, As the ship yaws, so the centres of wind force and water resistance move towards the windward and upstream ends of the hull respectively, which will be in opposite directions, as the two forces are acting in opposition. Even water flow directed almost on the beam can generate a slight ahead or astern force (see page 22), in which case the ship’s drift will also have a slight ahead or astern component. Reducing the water depth to draft ratio increases the water resistance for a given rate of drift, so the final drift rate will decrease but longitudinal shifts in the centres of the two forces will remain much the same as is shown in the above diagrams. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 29Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting an a ship ‘The effects of the wind acting on a ship cannot be considered alone when the vessel is moving through the water, even ifit is only the wind that is moving the ship. The yawing moment due to water resistance will almost always be sufficient to make ships drift with the wind close to the beam, regardless of the distribution of the windage area Ifthe bulk carrier shown on the previous page drifts out across a current, then the ships will accelerate and yaw in response to the current combining with the drift rate as well as the wind, The situation is initially more complex but, as the ship's motion picks up the current velocity component, so the farce of the current acting on it’s hull diminishes and eventually the only significant water flow around the hulls is due to the wind driving the ship across the current. If the wind is close to 90° to the current, then, the ship will settle on similar headings to those shown on the previous page with the wind close to the beam However, ifthe wind is at such an angle to the current that the coanda effect comes into play (see pages 24-26), then the hull resistance will have a more significant fore and aft component. 1) to 3) The intial yawing moment of the current reinforces the yaw due to the wind. 4) The ship is being carried downstream at near the speed of the current, water flow is mainly resisting the leeward component of = Track of centre of gravity Fig. 1.29 Aloaded bulk carrier's drift in a current with an offebore cross wind The effect of a beam wind on a ship making way through the water Although ships drift with the wind close to the beam, they tend to weathercock head into wind when being driven forwards by the engines, which requires continual ‘weather helm’ to hold the ship on course. At first sight, this appears to be contradictory behaviour but it is explained by the wind causing the ship to make some leeway and so water flow is striking the leeward side of the bow at an angle of attack. The moment yawing the bow to windward is created by the force of the asymmetrical flow along the hull, rather than the wind force directly, though this is producing the leeway. A ship making sternway with a beam wind should similarly tend to swing its stern up to windward (though this may be overwhelmed by steering difficulties) ‘at Wind Leeway due to the wind creates asymmetrical AnaloLeusck flow of water along the hull with the water resistance making an angle of attack on the leeward side of the bow. The asymmetrical flow generates a moment yawing the ship's head to windward, which requires opposing weather heim to keep the ship on course 1 Wave crest at the bow: the ship is surging astern and pitching bow up Wave speed "Vw"

Wave speed ‘Vw —P> ihe ship Is surging ahead and pitching bow down 4 Wave trough amidships: stern lines check the ahead surge whilst the ship bodily falls Fig, 134. The response of ‘MN Banana Boat’ to a long swell wave moving along the berth How much 2 ship moves at its moorings depends upon the height of the wave and its period, relative to the moored ship’s natural periods of surge, pitch and heave. If, for example, the ship’s natural surge period on its moorings is longer than the wave period, then its movement will be curtailed by the arrival of the next wave crest at the bow or ster, rather than the mooring lines being stretched to their fullest extent. If, however, the wave and surge periods are the same, then wave crests arrive at the bow or stern just as the mooring line tension is about to reverse the ship’s motion so each wave reinforces the pull of the ship's moorings. The resulting surge will be considerably amplified as itis in resonance with the waves, 84 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEThe effects of waves on a moored ship A moored ship's natural surge period depends on the mass of the ship and water that is in motion and the elasticity of the part of the mooring system that is restraining the ship's fore and aft motion. The diagram below shows how this surge period can be roughly estimated by assuming a very simplified mooring arrangement i ee pear Se = Added mass of water in motion ‘mw’ (t) 4x = The ship's movement from the mean fore and aft position and mooring line stretch The ship and water with @ combined mass ‘Ms +'myhave surged x’ metres ahead of the average fore and aft pasion and so the mooring lines have been stretched 'x’ metres to produce @ restraining force of F kiloNewons | The ship's natural surge period "Tnx = 2x | ME*-T™ seconds (see page 33) The added mass of water drawn into a ship's fore and aft motion is considered to be about 10% of | the ship's mass in deep water, but this increases markedly with decreasing underkeel clearance. ‘Mooring lines do not necessarily stretch at constant rate with increasing load, particularly when first, used, though their ‘stretchability' becomes more linear es the ropes are used, or ‘worked. Rope manufacturers usually givo tho ‘strotchability’ of mooring lines as @ percentage increase in length for a given load, so, for example, Bridon produce an &-stranded multiplait polypropylene mooring rope where a worked rope extends by 12% at the minimum breaking load (MBL). We can apply the above formula and mooring plen to our ship, ‘M.V. Banana Boat’, as follows.- Ship's mass = 14200 t, LBP = 130 m, Beam = 19 m, Draft = 8 m, Block Coeff™ = 0.7 Surge is restrained by 4 x 64 mm diameter polypropylene multiplait ropes which stretch by 12% at an MBL of 457 KN. Each rope is 25 metres long and arranged as shown above. 457 ch 64mm rope = Saag KN/m From Merlow's rope data, The force / metre strete! Only two of the four mooring ropes will be restraining the ship's surge at any one time. . = 2x 457 So, ‘The force / metre surge of the ship from the mean position = 577g kN/m If added mass is estimated be 30% of ship's displacement, then Ms+mw = 1.3x14200 t 2x | 184808 304.7 KNTm 's natural surge period ‘Tris So using the above formula, The s| Hence, 48.9 seconds ‘Fig. 1.35. Estimating a moored ship’s natural period of surge ‘The above calculation usesa very simplified model ofa ship's moorings, asitassumes that the mooring lines restraining the surge are horizontal and parallel to the jetty. Nevertheless it docs give an approximation of the ship's natural surge period at its moorings, which is much longer than the period of any swell waves that are likely to be experienced on the berth. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 35)Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship If fore and aft motion of “M.V Banana Boat’ is restrained by the mooring arrangement shown on the previous page, then much of the energy in any to and fro surge due to wave action will be absorbed by the waves themselves. This will not prevent the ship from oscillating back and forth but the movements in even a Jong swell of 17 seconds or so should be relatively small, as the ship's response to each wave will be curtailed by the following wave. Ifwe use low stretch wire mooring lines instead of polypropylene ropes in an attempt to prevent movement, then we may actually make the ship surge more rather than less, as the following diagram shows. ox ox a 4 Se = Added mass of water in motion ‘mw’ = 1420t The polypropylene ropes are replaced by 28 mm diameter steel core wire ropes of the same length | of 25m but with only 1.5% stretch at approximately the same minimum breaking load of 494 KN. 0, The force / metre surge of the ship from the mean position = =2%424- = 2634.7 kN/m The ‘spring’ constant is now almost 9 times greater than the 304.7 kN /m for polypropylene ropes 715620 The ship's natural 1d Tapa = 2 | 15620 _ So, ship's natural surge period "Tn(x) SEATINTE Hence, The ship's natural surge period ‘Tnix)’ = 15.3 seconds The natural surge period is now within the range of likely swell periods that will amplify the motion. ‘A moored ship's response to 15 second swell waves moving along the berth Range of swell wave periods likely to cause significant surge 2 Ship surging with the waves -->o 3 Zu Bs 33 sz bese as Ship resonating with the waves --» 8 5 =& ac “gee a8 g25 ge Ship surging against the waves-.» 3 $4 8 ae 3 a | 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Moored ship's natural surge period (seconds) Fig. 136 The natural surge period of MV Banana Boat’ with wire rope moorings ‘The wire lines store up much more energy than the polypropylene ropes for the same amount of stretch. This energy is put into reversing the ship's motion around the same time, as the next wave is about to do the same, so the ship’s to and fro surge builds up rather than diminishes. This increased motion cue to the ship's surge resonating with the waves may break the wires, which are not significantly stronger than the polypropylene ropes. Wire moorings can be used on much larger ships, as the natural surge period for an adequately moored ship is roughly proportional to the square root of the ship's length. However, it is normal practice to fit long high-stretch fibre rope tails to wire lines of large ships when on berths exposed to long swells 36 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE‘The effects of waves on a moored ship ‘The effect of alternating heave on a ship’s moorings Heave generates very much larger vertical forces than those involved in a ship’s horizontal movements and a ship's natural heave period is consequently much shorter than the surge period. We can see this by looking at the wnrestrained heave motion of ‘MN Banana Boat’. A ship’s large expanse of heaving flat bottom must push a lot more water out of the way than is the case for surge, so the added mass of water in motion is usually assumed to approximately equal the mass of the ship itself. The restorative force produced by the ship’s waterline rising above or falling below the equilibrium draft is determined by the TPC at the equilibrium draft. Ship's mass ‘Ms’ = 14200 t ‘Added mass of heaving water ‘mw’ = ‘Ms’ Ship's TPC = 201/ cm of immersion See the diagram on page 33 | ‘The mass of ship and water in heave motion ~ 2x 14200 28400 t | The force / metre heave from the equilibrium draft = 9.81x TPC x 100 = 19620 = kNim So, natural heave period "Tni2)’ = 2x, The ship will move up and down with the changing water level of any wave with periods greater | than about 7 seconds. Pig. 137 The effect of a bodily rise on a ship's stern line Natural heave periods also are approximately proportional to the square root of the ship's length, as mass increases with the length cubed whilst waterplane area, which determines the TPC, only increases with the length squared. Consequently, the natural heave period of a 260 metre long VLCC or bulk carrier may still only be in the order of 10 or 11 seconds, Mooring lines cannot resist vertical motions of a ship rising and falling with a changing water level. Heave can cause the mooring lines to alternatively become very tight and then go slack to an extent that depends on the angle, or fead, that the mooring lines make to the horizontal. TRU oe aad Ifthe change in lead angle ‘80! is small compared to the lead angle the mooring line due to the heave ‘ah’ Is given as'- aL = oh x sing This extension of the mooring line will create a load on the mooring line that depends on the line's initial ension, length, diameter and elasticity. A 1 metre high wave causes the ship to rise and fall 0.5 metres above and below the mooring deck's mean height and if the lead angie '0! = 30°to the horizontal, then the mooring line must be capablo of stretching 0.25 metres without breaking. {thon tho oxtension ‘aL’ of Fig, 138: The effect of a bodily rise on a ship's stern line MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 37Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship Alternating sway forces on a ship's moorings ‘A moored ship will not significantly surge to Waves that are shorter than the ship, which is consequently acted on in opposing ways by more than one wave at a time, However, shorter waves can make a ship sway about its moorings when striking the ship on or near to abcam, as cach wave hits the hull almost simultaneously along its entire length. The ship will move on and off the berth to the cyclic pressure variations against the hull’s offshore side, though there may also be some oscillating heave, yaw and surge in the motion as well. A moored ship's natural sway period will be about 30% longer than its surge period for a similar length and type of restraining mooring line because the added mass of water set in motion is so much greater for sideways movement than itis for a fore and aft surge. Mooring lines only restrain the offshore half of the sway, or drift, cycle as they go slack when the ship is swaying back onto the berth, so substantial fenders are required to absorb the energy of the ship's onshore sway. These fenders must be arranged in such a way as to also allow vertical and fore and aft movement between the ship and the jetty, otherwise any surge or heave will either displace them or rip them from the bolts that secure them to the jetty. The latter point is particularly important, as a bolt protruding from the jetty near to the waterline can do considerable damage to the hull if the vessel is pushed onto it by the force of a wave striking its offshore side. Factors affecting a harbour’s vulnerability to waves Harbours are usually well protected by breakwaters etc. from the prevailing wind direction though most coastal ports have a particular vulnerability to certain weather conditions. The port of Holyhead on the western tip of North Wales, for example, is sheltered from storms in any direction, other than from the Northeast. Such gales are quite rare in the locality but the port is exposed to rough seas due to strong winds from this direction when they occur. (In 1859, the “Great Eastern’, which up to that time was by far the largest ship ever built, broke an anchor cable in Holybead barbour whilst sheltering from a very severe NEly storm.) Most of the wave energy generated at sea by the wind is concentrated in wave periods ranging from 7 t0 12 seconds but a small proportion of the energy in severe storms produces the longer period waves that ‘we recognise as swell. Waves lose a proportion of their energy to friction with each wave cycle as they spread out from the storm that created them but longer waves are more persistent than shorter ones, as the distance travelled per cycle increases with the length of the wave. Consequently, noticeable long swells can be encountered in an otherwise calm sca up to a thousand miles or more from the swell’s source, whereas shorter wave periods arc usually only significant close to the weather conditions that created them, ‘The speed of waves is proportional to the square root of their wavelength in water deeper than 40% of the wave’s length, so longer waves spread out considerably faster than shorter ones. A wave, however, starts to slow down due to interaction with the seabed when water becomes shallower than 40% of the ‘wave's length and water depth alone governs a wave's speed when it is in water less than about 4% of the wave's length, Wave periods are unaltered by the wave speed, so as waves slow down, they also shorten in length. The height of waves diminishes as they spread out in deep ocean because not only do the waves lose energy, but also the energy remaining in the wave becomes dispersed over an increasing area, Swell waves between 300 and 600 metres long are often less than half a metre high in the open ‘ocean, which prevents the local wind conditions from having much effect on the waves. However, as the waves slow down in shelving water near to a coast, energy is fed into the coastal waters faster than it is progressing towards the shore, so wave height actually grows close inshore. Any wave coming onto a shelving beach will grow in height prior to breaking on the shore (Harthquake generated tsunamis are an extreme example of this, as they have wavelengths of hundreds of kilometres and periods of several minutes, A tsunamé can grow from a height of less than a metre when a few miles off the coast t0 10 ‘metres or more when they bit the actual shoreline). 98 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE‘The effects of waves on a moored ship ‘Swell can be a problem in ports at the edges of large oceans with very little continental shelf waters to absorb the energy in the waves as they neat the coast. Many Pacific coast ports on either side of the ocean ‘can suffer from swell in the harbour and it is no coincidence that some of these regions (the coasts of California, Hawaii and Australia) are also famous for surfing, ‘The following wo properties of waves have a significant influence in a harbour's vulnerability to suffering from wave action. 1) Refraction:- Waves change direction whenever their speed alters so that waves moving towards the shore over a shelving seabed are progressively diverted towards being ‘square on’, to the decreasing depth contours as they slow down. Consequently, waves are usually moving almost perpendicular, or normal, to the shoreline as they break on a beach. The particular offshore bathymetry, however, can focus wave energy onto some parts of the coastline whilst diverting it away from other regions, ‘Wave travel changes in the opposite direction when waves pass from shallow into deeper water and increase speed. 2) Diffraction.- ‘This is a wave's tendency to spread out after passing through a narrow gap. Diffraction increases with increasing length of the wave, relative to the width of the gap, so long swell waves bend around breakwaters and spread throughout a harbour much more than the shorter locally wind generated sea waves, =" aa, Normat SF deep \ water Cone Shallow Ps water ; 6 ; a = depth contours ‘Snell's law of refraction states that — = wave crests, —> = wave direction Vi: V2 = A1:A2 = Sin@1; Sindz === = coastal areas of low wave energy As the wave period "T remains constant Wave energy is concentrated on the ends of the headlands by refraction bending waves towards crossing the depth confours at right angles as they move inshore from deep water and slow down. The effect of wavelength on diffraction The berths are effectively sheltered from The berths are exposed to the longer swell short locally wind generated waves by the waves, which difract more and spread breakwaters. throughout much of the port. Tig. 139 The effect of refraction on waves encountering shelving depths MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 29Chapter 1 : The environmental forces acting on a ship A summary of the forces acting on a ship at its moorings 1) The forces due to the wind and current increase with the square of the flow velocity. 2) The lateral component of a force due to a wind or current on the quarter is usually much greater than its fore and aft component because a ship’s exposed side areas are so much larger than its transverse cross-sectional area, 3) Water is about 800 times more dense than air soa 1 knot current produces a similar force to the force due to 28 knots of wind when acting on a vertical flat side of the same area. 4) The force of a current increases as the water depth to draft ratio decreases. 5) The immersed huill has a very low resistance to currents flowing from either right ahead or astern but resistance increases considerably for currents off the bow or stern quarter. The change of resistance is most dramatic with a current off a bulbous bow, particularly ifthe stem above the bulb is cylindrical. The force's astern component initially recluces at small angles of attack off the bow and then actually reverses to create ahead thrust as the angle of attack increases to about 20°, This ahead thrust diminishes and then reverts to an astern force with further increases in the angle of attack off the bow. 6) Wind and currents off the bow or stem quarter produce forces with lateral components that create yawing moments. The longitudinal centres of the wind and the current forces’ lateral components move towards the lateral centres of the exposed topsicle or submerged areas as the wind or current shifts closer to abeam. Some points regarding the mooring arrangements and the safety of the berth 1) The static load on any mooring line should not exceed about half of its minimum breaking load to allow for dynamic loads and the lines should be arranged so that the offshore force acting on cach end of the ship is shared as evenly as possible amongst the lines. 2) The force on moorings due toa ship’s vertical movement should be kept to a minimum by ensuring that the mooring lines lead as close to the horizontal as is possible 3) The mooring lines should be kept as tight as possible to prevent a ship gaining excessive momentum before being restrained by its moorings. 4) Mooring lines must be capable of stretch without breaking when subjected to wave action, as the natural surge period should be considerably longer than the wave period to avoid resonance. This depends on the lines’ diameter, material and construction but increasing the length of mooring lines increases their ‘stretchability’. Wire lines should be fitted with fibre rope tails of a type and Jength approved by the terminal on berths exposed to waves. 5) The berth should have adequate fenders, which must allow the ship to move vertically as well as horizontally without collapsing. Ships should have their own fenders immediately available in the event of a fixed jetty fender failing and masters should consider whether or not it safe to remain on the berth in such situations. 6) Masters should be wary of using tugsto keep a ship alongside when waves are striking its offshore side and swaying in and out from the berth, Modern tugsare often very powerful and will be subjected to the same wave action as the ship, so it can be difficult for the tug skipper to avoid pushing the ship too hard onto the jetty and causing camage. Meeting the above conditions is not always possible for all the circumstances that a ship may be in when tied up alongside and masters must use their experience to decide whether or not it s safe 10 stay on the berth. Sometimes it is not possible to leave the berth, as water depths in the approach channel may be insufficient on a falling tide. Even if the ship can sail, the risks of staying alongside in marginal conditions must be weighed up against the risks in unberthing and it may sometimes be safer to stay on the berth, even when the ship is moving around too much for cargo operations to continue. Port authorities however, can take the matter out of the Master's hands, such as when they close a port prior to the expected arrival of a typhoon. 40. THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEChapter 2 Ships’ mooring line patterns Mooring patterns will vary considerably with the circumstances particular to the type and size of ship, the berthing arrangements and the environmental conditions likely to be expected on the berth. This chapter starts with a brief look at the various ways in which ships are moored with particular regard to how mooring considerations for ships that can tie up with long breast and spring lines differ from those for ships that are held alongside by head and stern lines. The chapter then explains in more detail the different components of a mooring pattern by first looking at the quayside fittings and fendering, then the different types of mooring lines in use, the strength and number of lines needed to moor a ship and how to distribute the total load on the moorings amongst the lines, Particular attention is given to what can be achieved on ships fitted with dedicated mooring winches and what is possible when lines must be made fast on bitts. The chapter gives a brief outline of how ships double berth, both alongside a quay and at anchor, and finishes with a summing up of all the topics covered. Contents ‘The variation in berthing arrangements Esc qscasucstcot 42 ‘The effects of changes in a ship's height relative to the quay 44 Mooring line length and lead efficiency th 5 Mooring line lead efficiencies on an oil terminal jetty i nite edb Mooring line lead efficiencies on a general cargo wharf AT ‘The effect of a sudden rise in the force on a ship's mOOFINgS semen 48 ‘The strength and number of lines in a ship's mooring system 49 Quayside berthing facilities _— ehaheSl The height of the wharf oF jetty .nncmemesnnennne fs ieee. Quayside bollards st Quick release hooks and bight pulleys on the wharf 54 Fendering and the method of securing mooring lines onboard a ship .u..- 55 Pre-tensioning mooring lines against the fenders : eens Mooring lines:- strength, elasticity and other properties, Fibre mooring lines The strength and elasticity of fbre mooring lines Wire rope mooring lines, Choosing the type of material for the mooring lines Mooring line elasticity and high stretch tals ‘The catenary effect on mooring line tension Matching the strain in the mooring lines . Seca - 69 Balancing the strain in the mooring lines on a tanker berth cD Balancing the strain in the mooring lines on a general cargo berth 72, Balancing mooring lines mace fast on bitts 76 Using mooring lines as bights 76 Totally shore based mooring systems snsnennnnrnen meena) Double berthing, eon 7 Double berthing on a whart .. icles 2B Double berthing at anchor pe ene eee neey9 Concluding comments on ships’ mooring line patterns MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 41Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns The variation in berthing arrangements We cannot look at the different mooring arrangements without also considering the purpose of berthing the ship. Liquid cargoes are loaded or discharged through a cargo manifold, which is the only part of the ship that must be alongside a jetty: Consequently, oil tanker and gas carrier berths often are a short loading platform at the end of a pier extending out from the shore into water of sufficient depth for tankers to lie alongside. In this situation, it is easy to site mooring piles, or dolphins, far enough inshore of the berth for long breast lines to be run out from the ship’s inshore side, On the other hand, most diy cargo ship berths require unobstructed access along a continuous wharf to each of the ship’s cargo hatches, so the mooring bollards are set at the edge of the wharf clear of container gantries, railway tracks and fork lift trucks. ] Mooring piles or dolphins are set at either end of a short finger pier f The tanker is held alongside by long breast lines running out from the bow and the stern to bollards ‘on the dolphins whilst springs hold the ship in the correct fore and aft position. “v7 = head / stern lines, —— = breast lines, ——— = springs A dry cargo ship moored alongside a cargo wharf Bollards placed at equal distance along the edge of the wharf The head and ster lines act fo hold the ship both alongside and in the correct fore and aft position on the wharf, as the short horizontal distance between the ship's side and the bollards puts limits on the scope for effective breast lines. Fig 2.1 Atanker moored alongside an oil terminal Both the mooring arrangements can be described as ‘4 & 2’ patterns, as two springs and four other lines are run ashore from each ship's bow and stern. However, it is far easier to estimate the tensions on the tanker’s moorings because the lateral and longitudinal components of the environmental force are opposed by totally separate sets of lines, namely the breast lines and spring lines respectively. The oil jetty configuration keeps the mooring pattern within the ship’s length and allows both the spring and breast lines to be sufficiently long to prevent the ship’s vertical movements significantly overstraining the moorings. However, in the case of the cargo ship alongside a general-purpose wharf, long breast lines are not possible because the bollards ashore are too close to the ship’s side. Consequently head and stern lines must be run forward and aft of the ship to keep it both alongside and hold its fore and aft position on the wharf. Estimating mooring line tensions becomes more difficult in this situation, as it depends on the angles that the lines make to both the horizontal and ship's athwartships axis. 42 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEThe variation in berthing arrangements Ro-to ferries often tie up on specialised berths, as all their cargo is loaded and discharged through hull doors, commonly at the bow and stern. Berthing and unberthing on a regular ferry service is often a very slick operation with vehicles coming off the ramp within ten minutes of the ship passing through the breakwaters. The mooring equipment onboard such ships is often arranged for the berths at either end of a specific run and, as such, can require modification and re-locating if the ship is transferred to other trading. A purpose built ferry terminal, such as at Dover or Calais resembles a railway station almost a much as a harbour, complete with big rubber ‘buffer’ fenders to correctly position the ship's stern for the vehicle ramp (known as the ‘link span’). Ferries can tic up with a minimal number of lines if they are turning around very quickly and the engines are available throughout the period on the berth. Vehicle handling apron is kept clear of the ship's moorings Head lines are secured to dolphins a ° Large rubber fenders guide the stem _A ine postion under thetink span” —Y Fig. 22 Aro-7o ferry berthed at a purpose built terminal ‘The ship’s anchors can be used as part of a mooring arrangement to hold a vessel in position. ‘The offshore anchor is sometimes deployed as a manoeuvring aid in berthing a ship where it is used to control the swing of the bow as the ship comes alongside a jetty. ‘The Mediterranean moor uses both anchors to hold a ship in a position perpendicular to the shoreline with the stern close inshore and the bow pointing out to sea. Stern lines are run out at 45° off each quarter to mooring points that may be buoys, dolphins or even bollards ashore to prevent the ship moving ahead or yawing. This type of mooring is found in sheltered bays with only a small tical range and minimal berthing facilities. There is frequently no access to the ship, except by boat and so it is often used for ships that are temporarily laid up but some types of cargo can be worked on a Mediterranean moor, such as the cable ship shown below. ‘Stern lines run out to mooring buoys off both quarters (Alternatively, the mooring points may be on offshore dolphins or even bollards on the shoreline) Pinger, 2 Ship's Pier: anchors -— = Cargo of cable being hauled onboard over the stern Hig. 23, Acable ship loading on a Mediterranean moor MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 43,Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns, The Mediterranean moor can hinder working cargo by barges so some river ports or harbours with large areas of sheltered water provide moorings consisting of a pair of buoys for securing a ship's stern lines and anchor cable. ‘The buoys are aligned to the local predominant current or wind, as the mooring is poor in restraining lateral movement. The ship's crew secures one of the anchors in the hawse pipe and then disconnects its cable for lowering to the mooring gang on the forward buoy. The anchor cable is too heavy for the gang on the buoy to handle unless it hangs vertically, so the ship is first secured by a ‘slip wire’ passing out from a winch on one side of the bow, down through the buoy’s mooring ring and then back up to the other side of the bow where it is made fast. The ship is then moved by heaving the wire until the anchor cable hangs above the mooring gang, who make it fast to the buoy. Once the cable is shackled to the buoy, the ship is heaved astern by the aft lines whilst the slip wire and anchor cable are paid out. The slip wire is slack when the ship is secure but it is left in place for unberthing, The ship is secured to buoys by stem lines aft and anchor cable forward The moorings are poor at resisting athwartships movement so the buoys should be aligned with the local predominant current or winds. Stern lines Slack slip | wire Anchor cable The barges also put weight on ee eS es << The predominant wind or current direction Fig. 24 Asbip working cargo into barges whilst on buoy moorings ‘The moorings also must withstand the extra force of the barges tied up to the ship, which may be considerable when the ship is lying to buoys in a fast flowing river and working cargo from barges. The officer on watch should always ensure that the number and weight of barges tied up to the ship at any one time is not overloading the moorings. Offshore mooring buoys for loading and discharging oil tankers are described in appendix IL ‘The effects of changes in a ship’s height relative to the quay Ships change their height relative to the quay either due to changes in draft as cargo is loaded or discharged or because the water level at the quay changes with the tide, or a combination of both. Large tidal ranges have presented problems to berthing ships alongside a quay ever since they became too large to be manhandled up onto a beach and the 19th century saw a huge clevelopment of lock-in docks around the coast of Western Europe. The dock basins had to be excavated, mainly by manual labour, and the tide limited the times when ships could lock in and out (it still does) but ships in the dock were (and still are) isolated from the tide. Some of these docks are still in use but the increase in cargo ship size that occurred in the late 1960's has meant that very few docks with lock gates have been built since whilst many have been filled in and most new berths are in deeper tidal waters. The lange passenger ships built in the early 20th century were also often too big to enter the locks, so some ports, such as Liverpool, tied these ships up alongside floating steel pontoon landing stages. The stages were connected to the shore by hinged bridges and guided by vertical piles set in the seabed as they moved up and down with the tide. There had to be sufficient depth of water for the ship to stay afloat at low tide but its mooring arrangements were unaffected by the tide’s rise and fall 44 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE‘The effects of changes in a ship's height relative to the quay The floating landing stages that are currently in use tend to be quite small and only used for relatively small ships. They can, for example, be particularly useful in providing a ro-ro berth in an open harbot with a large tidal range, such as Heysham on the Northwest English Coast. However, the moorings of ‘ocean-going ships on most berths are affected by the local tide, so the tide and how it combines with changes in a ship's draft to alter the height of the ship above or below the level of the quay must be always be given due consideration. Mooring line length and lead efficiency ‘Mooring lines are only intended to resist the ship's horizontal movements on the berth, so the lines are most effective if they are kept horizontal. However, mooring arrangements are three-dimensional and 80 it is usually impossible to achieve this on most berths but ideally the lines should stay within 25° to 30° of the horizontal. The ratio of the horizontal pull on a linc to the tension in the line can be called the efficiency of the lead and is given by the cosine of the Icad angle to the horizontal, Mooring lines must be paid out as a ship rises higher above the jetty, cither with the tide or by discharging cargo, and this reduces lead efficiency. Lead efficiency fora line at 25° to the horizontal is 90%, whereas the efficiency is reduced to 70% as the lead angle increases to 45° to the horizontal and only 50% if the angle is increased farther to 60°. IF the mooring line in the following diagrams is opposing an offshore wind, then the force of the wind will also increase with the increasing exposed side area of the ship as it rises where @LH = Mooring line lead angle to the horizontal & T = mooring line tension Line length ta a! increases as f o71T2 kK 2h —» the ship rises t | zh | 1 #) Ship rises as cargo is discharged Fully laden ship Lead efficiency = cos26° = 0,90 Lead efficiency = cos45° = 0.71 2h 2h Mooring line length = >= = 2.23 Mooring line length = 7 = 2.83 The mooring line is lengthened as the ship rises with the discharging of cargo. Nevertheless, the mooring line resists the vertical as well as horizontel forces that are acting on the ship, so itis both ofthese forces and the lead angle that determine the tension "Tin the line. Ifthe horizontal force in the above diagrams remains constant whilst the ship discharges cargo, then, cos 26° Ticos26° = Tzcos45", so Te = TGs = 12771 Le, The change of lead angle, from 26° to 45° to the horizontal, increases the line tension by about Horizontalforce = Tcos@LH = & ~—Veertical force = Tsin@LH | 27% for the same environmental horizontal force. | Fig. 25. Mooring line tension 'T and the borizontal and vertical forces MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 45)Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns, Mooring line lead efficiencies on an oil terminal jetty ‘The expected changes in the height of the mooring deck above (or below) the jetty and the resulting changes in mooring line lead angles to the horizontal must be considered when a ship is being tied up. As the previous page shows, lead angle effectiveness reduces significantly if the predictable changes in draft or tide produce lead angles in excess of 45°, The Master and port authorities should plan a ship's ‘moorings to account for the ship’s height, relative to the level of the quay. The greater the ship's tise or fall is expected to be, the longer the mooring lines should be. This is easier to arrange on tanker berths, such as shown below, where there is not the problem of mooring lines obstructing cargo handling areas ashore. (It may be possible to also design single dedicated dry bulk cargo berths in a similar way by limiting the loading chutes to just the length of hull that encompasses the hatches.) The ship is lying alongside a dedicated single berth jetty with the spring lines made fast to the loading platform amidships and the breast lines secured to bollards set into dolphins by the ship's bow and stern. Long breast lines The tanker's breast and spring lines remain closer to the horizontal and so are less affected by the draft change if the length of the lines is increased. Pig. 2.6 The change in a tanker's mooring lines during discharge ‘The bollards on tanker berths normally allow all the mooring lines to be of similar length, so they maintain similar leadl angles to the horizontal and, as we will see later in the chapter, the loads on the lines are fairly evenly distributed. The lateral forces on the tanker are countered by breast lines, which in many cases are all within about 10° of being perpendicular to the hull’s fore and aft line, whilst the spring lines are within about 10” of the fore and aft forces. 46 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE‘The effects of changas in a ship's height relative to the quay ‘Mooring line lead efficiencies on a general cargo wharf ‘The situation is different for ships alongside general cargo berths. The mooring bollards on the jetty are located at the edge of the wharf, so it is not usually possible to run long breast lines perpendicular to the jetty. Consequently, the force holding a ship alongside is provided by the horizontal athwartships components of the mooring line tensions, The ship is usually just one of several vessels tied up alongside a common wharf with bollards regularly spaced along the edge of the jetty, so the mooring pattems of ships on adjacent berths share bollards and so overlap. Fig, 27 A cargo ship alongside a general cargo wharf ‘The previous page shows that the horizontal distance between a mooring line's fairlead and its bollard must be at least twice the height difference between the two positions if the line’s lead angle is to remain within 30° of the horizontal. The closeness of the bollards to the ship's side usually makes it impossible to mect this and provide good athwartsbips leads, particularly in ports where there is @ lange rise and fall of tide, though fore and aft Jead angles are much less of a problem. The British port of Heysham has a rise and fall of about 10 metres on spring ticles and so small ships’ mooring lines may lead upward to the ‘quay at angles in excess of 45° to the horizontal at low tide, depending upon the spacing of the bollards. The length of a ship's mooring lines obviously requires constant adjustment in such situations but, as page 45 shows, poorer lead angles also put the moorings under greater tension when they are acting to restrain a ship's horizontal movement. Small ships frequenting these ports generally use mooring lines ‘of much larger diameter than might be expected for the ship's size. (A 55 metre long research ship that f served on was supplied with the same 64 mm diameter polypropylene ropes that are standard on many 150 metre long cargo ships.) ‘ending the moorings when a ship falls below the level of the quay presents extra problems that are considered in more detail on page 51. It is, however, worth pointing out here that ensuring a safe access to the ship can be particularly trying and I have often had more trouble with gangways than anything else in such situations. A large tidal range creates a considerable workload for the ship's crew who must constantly tend the moorings as the ship rises and falls with the changing level of tide, so the tide tables should be consulted to determine the heights and times of high and low water. The sinusoidal nature of most tides also provides a useful cule of thumb, known as ‘The Twelfths Rule’, for estimating the tide level of semi- diurnal tides (i.e. tides with about 6 hours between high and low water). The tide falls or rises 1/12 of its range in the first hour after high water or low water, a further 2/12* of its range in the second hour, 3/12 of the cange in each of the third and fourth hours, 2/12* of the range in the fifth hour and the final 1/12" of the range in the sixth hour. Half the total change in water level occurs in the middle two hours between high and low water, which is also the period when the tidal current is running at its strongest, so the crew must take particular care when adjusting mooring lines during this period. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 47Chapter 2: Ships’ mooring line patterns ‘The effect of a sudden rise in the force on a ship’s moorings If the breast lines of a mooted ship are sucldenly subjected to an increase in the offshore wind force, then the ship will move further off the quay and the tension in the lines rises to counter the increased offshore force. However, the ship will be still moving away from the quay at this point, so line tension must increase further to bring the motion to a stop, at which point the tension exceeds the offshore force and so the ship is accelerated back in towards the quay. The ship would continue to bounce on and off the quay as the lines alternated between being slack and then tight were it not for the resistance of the water dissipating the energy, so the ship will quickly settle with the tension in the lines matching the increased offshore force. Nevertheless, the peak tension in the mooring lines must produce an onshore pull greater than the increased offshore force to arrest the ship’s movement. If slack lines made fast on bitts are subjected toa sudlden force disturbing the ship, then peak line tensions could have to create nearly twice the magnitude of the disturbing force to restrain the ship’s motion and pull it back in to the berth, The ship is suddenly subjected to an instantaneous increase in the offshore force from 'Fo' to 'Fi’ = Horizontal breast fine). === y Line Tension Offshore Force 'F* “| ‘mooring ti The ship accelerates in the offshore direction in response to the increased offshore force and so it gains lateral speed. The increase in mooring line tension steadily reduces the ship’s acceleration, Which becomes zero by the time the fension again equals the offshore force. However, the ship is still moving at this point so tension must increase further fo stop the ship's offshore drift and start it ‘moving back towards the jetty. Line Tension Lean | Tu =-(2F1-Fo) eu | ire iene m1 | To=-(Fo) - | 0 ° 5 ee — = The offshore force “™® a — = The mooring line tension Seo = Equilibrium stretch at Fo Offshore Force W Energy inthe stretched — Se1 = Equilibrium stretch at F1 mooring ine ‘Sm = Maximum stretch Energy stored in stretching the mooring line beyond "F1’ would make the ship continually bounce ‘on and off the jetty except that the energy is dissipated by the water's resistance fo the movement. | ‘In ealty, the maximum line tension ‘Tw’ will be considerably less than (2F 1 - Fo) and the ship will soon come to rest with mooring line fensions in equilirium with the increased offshore force 'F. Fig. 28 The change in mooring line tension in response to a sudden increase in load Snatch loading on the moorings is reduced by tightening the lines against the fenders, as the compression force of the fenders against the ship’s side reduces with any offshore movement but this is only really possible if the lines are held on mooring winch brakes (see pages 59-60). 48 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE‘The strength and number of lines in a ship's mooring system ‘The strength and number of lines in a ship’s mooring system The strength and number of mooring lines in a ship's mooring system must be decided upon at the design stage of the ship's life. The company buying the ship must first decide on the worst environmental conditions that it expects the moorings to be capable of withstanding, OCIMF recommends that tankers and gas carriers intended for general world wide trading are fitted with mooring equipment sufficient to satisly the standard environmental criteria on page 28. Operators of other types of ships can determine their own criteria appropriate for the ports that they intend the ship to use, Once the environmental criteria for a ship are established, then the maximum siatic forces that the mooring system should be able to bear can be determined by a method, such as is shown in chapter 1. The total load on the moorings (ie. the sum of the line tensions) is then estimated for the least favourable line lead angles likely to be used, as head and stern line tensions can easily be twice their effective lateral pull. (There are formulae for estimating the required total loads on a tanker or gas carrier's lines to comply with OCIMF's criteria, though actual ship, terminal and environmental data with computer modelling should always be used if itis available.) The next step is to decide upon a safety factor sufficient to allow for dynamic loads and deterioration of the lines through wear. (OCIME recommend that the static load on any tanker’s line should not exceed 45% (for nylon ropes), or 50% (for other synthetic fibre ropes), or 55% (for wire lines) of its breaking load.) Finally, the number of lines used to make the ship fast alongside a quay must be decided on. In theory, a ship can be held secure by shoe laces, if there are enough of them stitching it to the quay, but itis much better to tie a ship up with the least number of lines as is practical for the following reasons:~ 1) Aship can be tied up quicker with fewer lines, provided that they are not so heavy that the crew and the linesmen ashore have difficulty handling them. This has obvious cost saving benefits (a topic dear to most owners’ hearts) but, more importantly, it reduces the period that a ship is vulnerable to accidents, as it can neither be manoeuvred out of trouble nor is it properly secured whilst the mooring lines are being made fast. 2) _Itis easier to spread the load on the moorings more equitably if there are fewer lines. This reduces the risk of a line parting and so increasing the load on the remaining intact lines. If the load is badly distributed, then the lines can part one by one until the ship is cast adrift. It is easier for the crew to replace broken lines and balance their loads when fewer lines are used, especially when they must be heaved in on a capstan and then made fast on bitts. 3) Fewer lines require less deck space for the moorings, which is particularly significant on vessels, such as container ships, where deck space is at a premium, ‘There is also a limit to the number of lines that can be led from the offshore sides of the bow and stern to provide the most effective leads for keeping a ship alongside a general purpose quay. Itis theoretically possible to keep a ship alongside with just a head and stern line heaved tight against the fenders but the lines may be too heavy to manhandle and the ship will swing off the berth if either line parts. Consequently, i is usual for at least itw0 more manageable lighter lines to be put out at either end of the ship. Mooring fittings (i. fairlcads and bitts) must also be stronger than the lines they serve so that a line will part before it pulls a fitting off the deck, Fewer lines will require stronger fittings and more powerful winches, so there is a trade-off between the number of lines, their weight and the strength of the equipment needed to handle them, As ship size is increased, there are certain points where increasing the number of lines is more practical than continuing to increase theie strength. Shipping companies have found out by experience what the practical number of lines is for different sizes and types of ship. British Standards BS 6349 part 4, gives a table showing the mooring line strengths that are commonly used for a range of sizes and types of ship but it should be realised that BS 6349 is not recommending minimum strengths for ships’ mooring equipment. The table is only to give port engineers a rough idea of the loads that a line can put on a quayside bollard and it does not include ships of more than 120,000 tonnes deadweight MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 49Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns The diagrams below show typical mooring line numbers and strengths used on some common ship types in severe conditions on the berth, The container ship and the general cargo ship will have similar lead efficiencies of less than 50% and similar lateral windage areas but the cargo shi 's larger mass needs stronger moorings to restrain any movement. ‘The tanker’s moorings are derived by using formulae that approximates the loads on the ship’s breast and spring lines when they are subjected to the OCIMF Standard Environmental Criteria given on page 28. (The mooring line breaking loads are for new lines breaking in a straight pul) Feeder container ship (see page 7) Loaded draft = 6.5m Displacement = 6,650t Mooring line breaking load = 30to 40t No. of lines : 3 head lines & 1 spring line forward, 3 stern lines & 1 spring line aft General cargo ship (see page 73) 40 to 50t H&L 8 = 180 m + Loaded draft = 15.5m Displacement = 67,000t Mooring line breaking load = 66 to 70t No. of lines : 4 breast wires & 2 spring wires forward, 4 breast wires & 2 spring wires aft The following equations approximate the mooring line strengths required to comply with the OCIMF criteria, providing that the lead efficiency of spring lines is 90% whilst that of breast lines is 70% and that all the lines are wire 0 no line is loaded more than 55% of is breaking load- ‘Spring wires’ required total strength ~ 0.6[1.992 Arjautasr) + 0.369( 0.01L” + L)] KN Breast wires’ required total strength = 1.476 Aycoaoen) + L(1.281 di.oaceD)) kn I tho transverse area above the ballast craft, “Arjea..asn’ = 816 m? and the longitudinal area above the loaded draft Axjoaven)' = 1044 m*, then:- Spring wires’ required total strength ~ 0.5[1625.5 + 0.369( 324 + 180)] ~ 906 kN or 92t Only 2 of the 4 spring wires are bearing the fore and aft load so:- Spring breaking load = 46 Breast wires’ required total strength ~ 1540.9 + 3599.1 = 5140 KN or 524¢ | All breast wires are beering the athwartships load so Breast breaking load > 66t | Bulk carrier '<$—_—_____ Lp = 240 m ——_-1 Draft = 8.5m Displacement = 160,000 Mooring line breaking load = 90 to 100 tonnes | No. oflines : 4 head lines, 2 breasts & 2 springs fwd, 4 stern lines, 2 breasts & 2 springs aft Fig. 2.9 Tipical mooring line sirengibs and numbers for the worst canditions alongside 50 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEQuayside berthing faciities Quayside berthing facilities ‘The safe mooring of a ship alongside a berth depends as much upon the suitability of the quay and its fittings as it does on the ship's mooring arrangements. Oil, chemical and gas terminals usually deal only with tankers and gas carriers, which should ensure that they can safely moor ships built to the OCIMF guidelines. However, a general-purpose quay must accept the whole range of ships within the draft restrictions on the quay, so a warship may go alongside a berth that has just been vacated by a car carrier. ‘There are national standards for the design of ports in many counties, so British Standards BS 6439, ‘Maritime Structures’, covers UK ports, but there is no single set of internationally accepted guidelines for the entire shipping industry. The height of the wharf or jetty ‘The growth in the size of ships has led to the ships towering over wharves that are more suited to the smaller general cargo ships of the past. Large ships are often tied up with lines leading closer to the vertical than the horizontal and so the lead efficiency is often very poor (sce page 45). The problem is made worse by the demolition of old cargo sheds in order to create large open areas for container parks, so berths are often exposed to higher offshore wind forces than in the past (see page 7). Ships’ crews in these situations must ensure that the mooring lines are kept in the best condition possible and be particularly vigilant in checking the moorings. ‘There are also difficulties for a ship alongsice a wharf that is too high. Mooring arrangements, cargo operations and access to a ship all tend to be much simpler when the ship's decks remain above the wharf but the tide’s rise and fall and changes in the ship's draft during loading cargo can make this impossible. Ifthe ship’s mooring stations fall below the level of the wharf, then mooring lines leading up from the ship to the bollards create the following complications: 1) The ship must be fitted with fairleads that can accept lines leading upwards to the wharf. 2) The lines can come foul against the wharf’s structure or its fender securing arrangements 3) The fenders must keep the ship off the face of the wharf when the main deck is below the level of the wharf. Fenders must either extend downward to at least the low water level or float, like the tyres on a baulk of timber shown on page 58. 4) Aship will need an alternative gangway if its usual one cannot lead upwards to the wharf. Ships are routinely grounded by a falling tide in some small ports with very large tidal ranges and these berths must have a flat unobstructed seabed (ideally of sand or mud). Ships ‘taking the ground” must be flat bottomed and loaded to even keel (or very close to it) with adequate stability to stay upright until they are fully landed on the seabed fore and aft. The situation is the same as dry-docking except that the mooring lines are only on the inshore side of the ship, Quayside bollards ‘The spacing of bollards along the quay is an important factor when securing a ship on a berth, as the closer the bollard spacing is, the greater is the flexibility for different mooring patterns and sizes of ship. A ship should be able to effectively use at least four bollards, so the distance between the bollards should be based on the smallest ships that the wharf is intended to serve. A typical general-purpose wharf for ‘ocean-going ships will have bollards spaced at intervals that can vary from anything between 15 and 30 metres. The bollards on a quay must be strong enough to withstand any forces that the ship's lines can put on them and it is better fora line to part before it rips a bollard from the quay. Obviously neither is desirable, as both can cause Serious injury to anyone close by when they happen, but the ship's moorings can be restored to full strength ina few minutes by the crew replacing the broken line, which is not the case for abollard. Furthermore, head and stern lines are often put on single bollards, so one end of the ship may be free to swing off the berth if bollard fails. MOORING AND.ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 91Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns Bollards should be designed and tested in accordance with national standards of the port, so in Dutch ports, for example, bollards are tested for an offshore designed maximum load that acts perpendicular to the quayside and at 45° to the vertical. If the bollard shows no distortion after the test, then its safe working load (SWL) is taken to be 77% of the design load, which gives it a safety factor of 13. Different bollard designs can have different restrictions in the number of lines they can have put on them, which is important on general-purpose quays where the head lines from one ship often shave a bollard with the stern lines from a ship on an adjacent berth. Securing the lines of the second ship does not necessarily increase the horizontal load on the bollard and there have been instances of a bollard failing on the departure of one of the ships. Components of the lines’ tension that act parallel to the quay ‘oppose each other when the head lines of one ship share a common bollard with the stern lines of an adjacent vessel. (However, upward and offshore components of the line tensions acting on the bollard are accumulative). Two large container ships on adjacent berths are secured with lines pre-tensioned against the quayside fenders Atleast 30 metres. py Resultant \; horizontal force ‘on the bollard Cg 1 ro mnt . SERRE LT OARS, If both of these angles are fess than 30°, then the resultant horizontal force on the bollard will be less than the separate forces of the mooring lines from each ship Ifthe head and stem lines from adjacent ships have an average lead angle of less than 30° to fore and aft, then the risk of pulling the bollard off the wharf increases when one of the ships departs. Fig. 2.10. The resultant horizontal force of wo ships" mooring lines on a shared bollard Many UK ports other than oil jetties have used the methods in British standards BS 6439 for assessing the loads on bollards mooring different types and sizes of ship. However, the size of containerships and cruise liners has increased so dramatically in recent years that the strength of the bollards has not always kept up with the greater loads these larger ships can inflict on them. On its first visit to Southampton, the Queen Mary II pulled two bollards off the quay in separate incidents hecause the overtensioned mooring lines were stronger than the bollards. Fortunately nobody was hurt and the ship remained alongside but such new very large ships with their high strength mooring lines present a considerable problem to port authorities, The bollards in Southampton container terminal have safe working loads of 50 tonnes and can take four head and stern lines of container ships up to 350 metres in length, though the incidence of very strong winds blowing directly offshore on these particular berths is low: Other ports with more exposed berths may use bollards of 80 tonnes SWI. for a similar size of ship and the new container berths in the port of Rotterdam are fitted with 240 tonne SWL bollards. Some ports have provided exposed general-purpose berths with ‘storm bollards’ set well back from the ‘quayside edge so that ships can run long breast lines in times of very strong offshore winds on the berth, However, these do not effectively support the much shorter head and stern lines, as they are too long and must stretch much more before they beara significant share of the load (this is explained more fully ‘on page 70). Furthermore, quayside traffic is restricted by breast lines running across the quay, so storm bollards have been abandoned in most ports 52 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEQuayside berthing faciities Before looping a line over a bollard, it should be dipped through the eyes of any lines already on the bollard so that any line can be let go without removing the others. However, this is only certain to work ifall the lines lead in about the same direction, as the diagrams below show: The linesman is dipping the eye of a head line through the eye of a head line already secured to the bollard, so that either line can be easily let go first. This is sometimes called a ‘Schieman Note that a inesman should hold the eye by its side, rather than the crow, when puting it over the bollard to avoid his hands being trapped between the eye and the bollard i the line comes tight = = T mooring tine, == = 2" mooring line Dipping successive lines through the eyes of fines already secure on the bollard allows any line (o let go frst, provided that the lines all lead in approximately the same direction. However, this does not necessarily work when the lines lead in different directions, as shown below. The effect of dipping the eye when the lines lead in very different directions 41 The red line from a ship is dipped through the eye of the biue line from a ship on the next berth, 2 As the red line is hauled in, so the eye is pulled around and nipped under the blue line, 3-Heaving the red line tight forces the blue eye to ride over the red eye and push it to the bottom. | The red tine can slip under the blue one in this situation, especially when one line goes slack whilst the other tightens with the changes in the tide, so dipping the red line will not guarantee that it can be easily released before the blue line. However, the bottom line can be cleared, as shown below:- Freeing a Bottom eye from a bollard without letting go the line above 4 The bottom red line is slackened offso that the red eye can be passed up through the blue eye. 2- Tho red eye is looped back over the bollard to release it from the bollard 3 The blue eye now entraps a bight of the red eye that can either be pulled or worked totally free. Itis possible that a bottom eye will be trapped ifthe lines above it are very tight but it will normally come free with a light tug on the ship's mooring winch. Fig 2.11 Dipping a mooring line when putting the eye over a quayside bollard MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 63,Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns ‘The effectiveness or otherwise of dipping the eye can easily be demonstrated by following the sequence shown in the previous page with owo pieces of string, Iris still possible to extract a bottom cye when a ship is due to sail, as is also shown on the previous page, but the linesmen will require some time to ‘unknit the eyes. It is all very well to know that, in theory, any line can be let go without releasing or slacking off the lines from a vessel on an adjacent berth but there can be six or mote eyes on a single bollard. There isa lot of scope for lines jamming, so different bollard types have been developed to reduce the chances of jamming when a number of mooring lines with different lead angles share the bollard. 'T’ shaped single bollard Horned single bollard ‘Twin bollard Single bollards lke the 'T shaped bollard are relatively easy to jam if an excessive number of ines with very different lead angles are placed over them. Homed or double bollards are better for taking lines from adjacent ships, as they allow groups of lines with different lead angles to be kept apart. Fig. 2.12 Three different types of quayside bollard Quick release hooks and bight pulleys on the wharf Some berths are fitted with quick release hooks, rather than bollards, for securing the mooring lines. ‘The hooks may be fitted sensors to monitor the load continually with the data displayed both onboard the ship and in the port control room. The hooks normally have a small capstan for hauling heavy wire lines ashore and the release can be operated locally. Some berths have remotely operated release hooks, which must have safeguards to avoid casting a vessel adrift by an accidental release and such systems are not recommended for oil or gas terminals (see SIGITO/OCIMF Jetty Maintenance and Inspection Guide) Hydraulic pressure off Hydraulic pressure’on ‘Applying hydraulic pressure, either locally or by remote control, trips the hook, 80 the line is released and the hook arm falls back to the horizontal. Fig 213. A bank of three bydraulically operated quick release books with a capstan 84 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEQuayside berthing facilities Fendering and the method of securing mooring lines onboard a ship Fenders ate essential to protect both the quayside and the ship from impact damage when the ship lands against the quay: The type and size of fender suitable for a particular quay depends on the ships that use the quay, the local environmental conditions and the manner by whi are secured onboard the ships. Historically, a line was heaved tight by using a ship’s capstan then held temporarily on a stopper for it to be taken off the capstan and turned up on a set of bitts. Many ships stil tie up in this way and its significance is that some tension in the mooring lines is invariably lost when the lines are transferred from the capstan to the bitts, so the ship cannot be held in tight against the fenders by the mooring lines. Itis quite common to see ships lying alongside with noticeably slack lines or sitting off the fenders completely with tight lines when there isan offshore wind on the berth. It is important in these situations that the fenders can withstand the effects of a ship moving around on the berth as local conditions change, so simple tough fencers are often loosely attached to a quay in such a way that allows some movement whilst the fender is absorbing the impact energy of the ship. However, more and more ships, particularly very large ones, are fitted with dedicated mooring winches, in which the lines are held ‘on winch brakes after the ship has been heaved alongside, so no tension is lost and the ship can be kept tight against the fenders at all times. Fenclers in these circumstances are often designed more to limit che ship's movement on the berth, rather than simply protect the quay from ‘bumps’ and they interact much more with the mooring lines so their design can be quite complex, Some ship movement is unavoidable on quays that are vulnerable to swell, so these should be fitted with ‘soft’ fendering, whereas other berths may require ‘bard’ (i.e. ess squashable) fenders if ight position keeping is essential. There is very little tolerance for movement when a ro-ro ferry is berthed against a vehicle link span, as shown on page 43, so these berths are fitted with shaped hard rubber ‘buffer’ type fenders that guide the ship's bow (or stern on some berths) into the correct position. Historically, wood has been one of the most long standing materials used for fendering but it is not very compressible and so has only a limited ability to absorb impact energy. The fenders most commonly used today are usually made of some type of rubber and although solid rubber is also quite hard, its compressibility is increased by including hollow spaces within the rubber moulding, The large free floating soft fenders used between ships double berthed, such as the ‘Yokohama’ type fenders, are inflatable whilst the simple vehicle tyre fender is hollow within the tyre walls, More substantial rubber fenders enclose air spaces so the fender shape distorts in a pre-determined way as it compresses, Compressibility controlled by the thickness of the rubber wall, which may be variable to alter the fender’s compressibility under different loads, extra cushioning ‘The net of car tyres protects the fender from punctures ‘The "Yokohama’ Inflatable fender Aimoulded rubber jetty fender This soft fender (i.e. easily compressed) is free This fender’s compressibility is determined by fooating and suitable for moorings where the its shape and, in particular, the thickness of ship is expeoted to move around with a swell. the rubber walls surrounding the centre cavity. Fig. 2.14 Tivo examples of very different types of rubber fender MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 55Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns Fenders reduce the impact force of ships coming alongside by limiting the ships’ deceleration, so berths designed to take large ships are fitted with fenders that are thick enough to compress by an amount sufficient to sfowly retard a berthing ship's motion. Fenders and their mountings are primarily designed to resist a ship’s onshore motion and tend to be less able to withstand ship movements along a quay, Ifa ship is ‘driven’ alongside a berth with the bow angled in at about 30° to the quay, then the ship can only sometimes be stopped without making contact but with the bow overhanging the quay ready for the forward lines to go ashore. Fenders must protect the ship and the quay when this does not occur and some impacts will happen, albeit at very stow speeds. The fenders must consequently be able withstand the force of a ship moving along the berth as it is brought to a stop without being ripped off the quay or damaged by the heat due to frietion. Rubber has a very high coefficient of friction, so rubber fenders should be protected from shear forces by sacrificial covers madle from a material with a lower frictional coefficient, such as wood, polyethylene, Teflon or thin aluminium sheet. Alternatively, some fenders, particularly those fitted to the knuckles of a wharf, are built to act as rollers so that a ship can slice along the wharf without ripping out the fendering. Some roller fenders are even made to lock so that they resist fore and aft movement when a ship is in position alongside. Shear force ‘The ship's hull plating is sliding along the fender. The fender is distorted and is in danger of collapsing Quayside Quayside The action of roller fenders built into the knuckle of a whart The ship is warped around the knuckle on the roller fenders. ‘The ‘Donut’ fender A Donut’ fender consists of a flexible buoyant plastic hollow body filled with air or foam that can rotate and move up and down a pile fixed to the sea bed just off 8 the jetty. The pile is not connected directly to the jetty 0 it must be sufficiently elastic to withstand the force of any impact caused by a ship coming alongside. The fender will move up and down with the tide so it will always remain at a ship's waterline but there is a danger of ships striking the top of the pile. Fig. 215 A shear force acting on a fender 86 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEQuayside berthing facilities ‘The restraining force that the fender exerts on the ship is also transmitted to the wharf itself, which is not usually a problem for ships up to about 20,000 tonnes displacement berthing on quaysides built on a riverbank, the shoreline or the edge of an excavated dock, Any impact force due to the ship coming alongside at excessive speed may locally chip part of the wharf facing but the ship is likely to suffer greater damage than the wharf. Some berths, however, are provided by relatively lightweight jetties constructed from wood or stee! piling, which must be sufficiently flexible for any distortion caused by normal berthing forces not to exceed the elastic limit of any part of the jetty’s structure. Wooden decking Sree pon -—— Wooden fendering Stee! pile |¢— Thin steel plating Steel truss. Steel brace ‘The distortion of the jetty due the impact of a berthing vessel Berthing vessel Jetty bends penis epee The force of impact must not cistort any part of the jetty’s structure beyond its elastic limit Fig. 216 A flexible pile jetty Large tankers and bulk carriers must berth in deep water, so they often tie up alongside a jetty at the end of a long relatively light flexible finger pier. These berths are vulnerable to damage from even the most gentle of impacts with ships in excess of 100,000 tonnes of displacement, which puts a very low athwartships speed limit for a large ship coming alongside. Itis often impossible to visually judge whether or not the ship is closing too fast with the jetty, so short range and high precision laser ranging systems should be installed on berths taking such large ships, in order to monitor the speed at which a ship is coming alongside. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 57Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns In addition to absorbing the energy of a ship impacting with a wharf, fenders also spread the impact force over the common contact area between the fencer, the ship's side and the wharf. This means that even small fenders hung over the ship's side can reduce hull damage caused by the ship coming hard against any sharp comers or protrusions from the wharf, Such fenders can be made up onboard from scrap material, such as car tyres o parts of old rope, and should be light enough for one man to handle, though two men may be necessary for portable fenders on very large vessels. The fenders should be readily available during all docking operations so they can be placed quickly at any position where the ship is about to impact on the jetty. 2 <— Tres onabauik of timber Old car tyres are threaded onto a length of timber and suspended on a wire york ‘Sack of rope fibre ——p Old fibre rope is cut up into small pieces and then stuffed into @ sack with a rope bridle sown onto it. Fig 2.17 Examples of onboard portable fenders for banging over the ship's side Pre-tensioning mooring lines against the fenders Although fenders on a berth can be damaged by the friction caused by ship moving against them, friction is very good at preventing the fore and aft movement of a ship when itis heaved tight up against the fenders. This is known as ‘pre-tensfoning’ the mooring lines, which are put under a load greater than the offshore force so that the compression of the fenders creates a frictional force to oppose the ship’s movements. Ifthe offshore force (usually caused by the wind) increases, then the ship will move outboard as the mooring lines stretch to resist the increased offshore force and this movement will reduce the compressive force on the fenders. However, the total offshore force and, hence the athwartships load on the mooring lines, will remain greater than the environmental force whilst the fenders are still being compressed to some extent against the ship's side. Ifthe mooring lines are pre-tensioned against very hard fenders, then any small movement of the ship off the berth is likely to break the contact between the ship's side and the fenders so there will be no friction to oppose the ship’s fore and aft motion. Fenders require a degree of softness that depends on the size of the ships normally handled on the berth in order to allow effective pre-tensioning, Some complex fenders on berths for very large ships are actually designed so that changes of compression in the middle region of their operating range require no significant change in the compressive force at all. (This may be achieved by incorporating a pressure sensitive valve into an air chamber enclosed by a part of the fender that has thin walls, which are much more flexible than the rest of the rubber moulding.) Ifa ship’s lines are pre-tensioned to squash the fender into this ‘flat’ region of compressibility, then relatively small movements of the ship on and off the berth will not change the frictional force opposing any fore and aft motion of the ship. Officers of ships using berths equipped with this type of fender need to be aware of their compressibility characteristics to ensure that pre-tensioning the mooring lines compresses the fenders by the correct amount. 68 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEQuayside berthing facilities A.- The jetty is fitted with simple fenders with constant compressibility Wind speed = 10 knots Wind speed = 40 knots BEL Total offshore force = 32 + 85 = 117 kN Total offshore force = 505 + 10 = 515 kN If the offshore wind strength increases from 10 to 40 knots, then the ship moves away from the berth, the fender thickness increases from S1 to Ship comes off 52 and the compressive force decreases from the fenders £85 to 10 KN. Consoquontl, the frictional force | opposing any fore and aff motion of the ship is also reduced. The reduction in fender force is much less than the increase in wind strength so breast ine tension increases with increasing wind strength, Compressive force 010 0 st ‘S2 Fender thickness B "The jetty is fitted with complex fenders with variable compressibility Wind speed = 10 knots Wind speed = 40 knots EY ‘505 kN oe Total offshore force = 32+ 50= 82 kN Totaloffshore force = 505 + 50 = 555 kN A Flat region of Pre-tensioning the breast lines in an offshore wind of 10 knots compresses the fenders to $1, which is close to the minimum thickness for the fat range of compressibility. When wind speed increases to 40 knots, the fenders expand to S2 close to the maximum thickness within the flat range of compressibility, so the force on the tenders is unchanged at 50 KN. The frictional force acting against any fore and aft motion of the ship also remains constant throughout the 0 st Sz Fender thickness Shange in wind strength. KN Ship comes off Compressive force 50 fig 2.18 Pre tensioning breast lines against the jetty fenders on ‘MT. Fuel Carrier’ ‘The breast lines shown above are almost horizontal, so the increase in their tension beyond the force of the wind is the about the same as the compressive force on the fenders. The extra load on pre-tensioned head and stem lines, which invariably have relatively poor leads for holding a ship alongside, will be much greater than the force of the ship against the fenders. MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 59)‘Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns The complex variable compressibility fenders shown on the previous page are useful on berths where a ship is tied up by pre-tensioned mooring lines held on winch brakes, so changes in the offshore forces on the ship are opposed by similar changes in the line tensions. However, mooring lines on automatic selFtensioning winches are held to a set tension, rather than on a brake, so the winches pay out or haul in to maintain the set tension when the forces acting on the ship change. Selftensioning winches are designed to automatically react to keep the ship alongside when it is rising and falling with the tide or cargo operations, so they should require less monitoring and adjustment than winches holding the lines ona brake. Ifthe set tension in the mooring lines, however, is not enough to hold against an increasing offshore wind, then the winches will pay out the lines until the bitter ends, so casting the ship off the berth, unless the tensions are re-set. This would rather defeat the objective of selftensioning control but the problem can be partially overcome by setting the line tensions to compress the fenders. This is pre-tensioning, as shown on the previous page, where the mooring line tensions are opposing the total offshore force, which includes the force of compressed fenders acting on the ship's side, The difference is that now, in order to stop the ship’s drift off the berth, the toral offshore force must return to being in balance with mooring line tensions and, as these remain constant, the fender force must reduce by the same amount that the wind force has increased. Ships with self tensioning control should tie up on berths fitted with fenders in which the compressive force continually decreases as the fender extends, which is shown in the following diagram. Mooring line tensions onshore fender force, [E> 1 - Ship held alongside by the set line tensions, so:~ Fm = Fw + Fit 2-Wind force increases, mooring lines pay out, the ‘ship moves out and the fenders start to extend. Fm < Fw2 + Fe | Frt Fender force 0 Fo Fre 3 - Decrease in fender force equals increase in wind force, lines are held and the ship stops moving. Fender compression reducing Fm = Fw2 + Fes Fig. 2.19. The effect of the fender force on a ship with self tensioning mooring winches The fenders’ compressibility and size limit its extension so, if the wind continues to increase, then the set mooring line tensions must also be increased to keep the ship against the fenders. Automatic selftensioning has some serious drawbacks when used inappropriately (see pages 126-132) and ships have, on occasion, been cast right off the berth, so oi! and gas terminals normally forbid using self- tensioning winches on tankers or gas carriers. However, they are often used on other types of ships, such as container ships and car carriers, as shown above. 60 THENALTICAL INSTITUTEMooring lines:- strength, elasticity and other properties Mooring lines: strength, elasticity and other properties The ultimate strength of any material under tension can be determined by applying tension to a sample piece until it breaks. The ‘stress’ on the sample due to any force is the force per cross sectional area of the sample and the material's ‘ultimate tensile stress’ is the stress at the point of failure. The material is clastic if the sample returns to its original relaxed shape when the force distorting it (Le. stretching it) is removed. The ‘elastic modulus’ of a material under tension is the ratio of the stress to the stretch per unit length of the sample (the ‘strain’). “Blastic’ is simply this property of a material to return t0 its original shape and, although most of us associate the word with objects like rubber bands that stretch very easily, a material with a bigh elastic modulus is one that will stetch very ftdle under tension. ‘The elastic modulus for materials such as steel remains constant up to a certain limiting stress, known as the ‘elastic limit’, which is also the maximum stress that a material can withstand without being permanently distorted. Ifa steel bar is subjected to a stress slightly greater than the elastic limit, then the bar will return to a length longer than its original length when the stress is released, This distortion or ‘set’, is permanent and the bar remains elastic up to a new slightly higher elastic limit whilst returning to its new slightly extended relaxed length when any stress below this limit is removed, If the bar is loaded beyond the new elastic limit, then the set may be increased and the elastic limit raised further. However, this process, which is known as ‘work hardening’, breaks clown at a particular stress known as the ‘yield ‘point’ at which the bar starts to locally narrow in its cross section and ultimately fal A sample bar of the material being tested increases in length when put under tension = tension (Newtons), ‘A’ = the bar's cross-sectional area when under no tension (m*), ‘sL'= stretch under tension (m) & ‘Lo’ = intial length under no tension ('m). Stress _ TxLo Strain ~ AxdL ‘A material with a high elastic modulus under tension will stretch very litle for a high level stress. of the same strength And Young's Modulus of Elasticity = Nim Comparing high and low modulus mater ‘Sample breaks ~ New material's Elastic Limit | —— = High modulus new material ‘The strain is directly + —— = High modulus worked material proportional o stress. — — = Low modulus new material below the Elastic Limit. Low modulus worked material 0 Strain (relative to the sample length when new) ‘The worked material acquires a permanent ‘set’ as the Elastic Limit is raised through continual uso. Fig 220 Young's modulus of elasticity Jor an elastic material MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 61Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns Fibre mooring lines The strength and elastic properties of the solid bar of material shown on the previous page are due to the molecular forces within the bar itself, However, ropes consist of large numbers of separate filaments or fibres and a rope's elastic properties depend on the construction as well as its material. Rope making is an ancient art that evolved from twisting, or ‘spinning’, short strands of natural fibrous material together so that friction between overlapping individual fibres gave strength to the final resulting longer length of rope. This was essential for all ropes made prior to the 1950's, as the natural fibres, such as manila ot sisal, used in rope making up to that time can only be harvested from the plants in short lengths. The short individual fibres are spun together in one direction to make up long ‘yarns" that are again spun together but in the opposite direction to create ‘strands’. The strands are then finally twisted together in the opposite direction to the yarns to produce the final rope, so the twisting or spinning at each stage of the manufacture is in the opposite direction to the previous and following stages. ‘The individual fibres in synthetic fibres, such as nylon, polyester and polypropylene, can be produced as continuous ‘monofilaments’, which do not require twisting together to make up a single length of yarn. However, the monofilaments may be cut into shorter lengths and spun into yarns (this is known as ‘spun staple’) to give the rope a rougher surface that improves the rope’s resistance t0 abrasion and gives it better grip on winch drums ete A\six stranded normal lay fibre rope The six strands must be laid around a central strand, The resulting rope is less likely fo open up or ‘hockle than a three stranded rope and so this construction is sometimes used in mooring lines. An eight stranded plaited fibre rope The ‘mutipleit, ‘octoplait’ or ‘square’ rope construction is commonly used in flbre mooring lines, as itis easy f0 handle and unlikely to kink or twist as pairs of strands are laid in both directions. A twelve stranded braided fibre rope ‘The twelve stranded braided rope with a hollow core is also unlikely to kink and is easy to splice. Braided fibre ropes with an inner core a Braided sleeve ona braided core _Braided sleeve on a parallel stranded core Braided synthetic fbre ropes with an outer sleeve and an inner core are an alternative to wire rope ‘mooring lines, as they are much lighter for the same strength. Rope manufacturers use a variety of different constructions, each of which must be spliced in a manner specified by the rope maker. Fig. 221, Some examples of fibre mooring rope construction 62 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEMooring lines:- strength, elasticity and other properties ‘Three stranded fibre ropes are unsuitable for mooring lines because the strands can kink, or ‘hockle’, when the tension is released in a three stranded rope passing around a fairlead Mooring lines must behave elastically when put under tension so we can imagine them asa spring. If we consider stretching a spring, then we can appreciate that the initial increases in the spring's length are easier to achieve than similar increases in length when the spring is longer and the coils are further apart (chest expanders used in keep-fit exercises come to mind). Consequently, a graph of the stress on a rope against its strain is not linear, though the rope behaves elastically up to a certain limiting load, beyond which it is weakened and likely to break. Like the steel bar, a rope also acquires permanent stretch or sct after it has been used several times, so a ‘worked’ rope stretches less than a new one for the same load, though the breaking load remains about the same. Increasing the twist in the yarns and strands of a rope increases the tightness of its construction, which helps the rope retain its cross-sectional shape. This reduces the likelihood of the rope being flattened and individual yarns being cut through by any sharp edge as the rope passes around obstacles. Consequently, a tight twist increases a rope’s resistance to abrasion and snagging bur it also puts the yarns under greater tension and so reduces the rope’s minimum breaking load (MBL) whilst the closer pitch of the strands in the rope increases its stretch under a given load. A slight loss of strength is a disadvantage that must be traded off against the rope’s increased resistance to abrasion, Rope makers vary the degree of twist for different ropes, depending on their intended use Rope break: stress A Perea Nim? Permanent stretch — — = New rope, = Worked rope or'set' acquired by 4 ‘the worked rope ra ‘The elasticity of fibre ropes is not linear, as they stretch more readily at low loads than at higher loadings, though the exact nature of the curve varies from one type of rope to another. However, most fibre ropes do not significantly yield (i. narrow down) before faling, so they tend to part without giving much warning. | 0 ‘Strain (relative to the rope’s length when new) ‘Aworked rope Is one that has acquired a permanent stretch, or ‘set, through continual use. The degree of twist in a six stranded fibre rope Low twist A high degree of twist produces tight yams and a more rounded strand that maintains the rope's shape better when it passes around obstacles whilst increasing the rope's resistance to abrasion ‘and snagging. However, a high twist also produces a rope that strotches more readily and has @ lower minimum breaking load than a similar rope with a lower degree of twist Fig. 2.22 The elastic bebaviour ofa fibre rope MOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 1) 63Chapter 2 : Ships’ mooring line patterns ‘The strength and elasticity of fibre mooring lines The type of rope construction also influences a mooring line’s properties. Alternating the twist direction for the different stages of a rope’s construction ensures that the rope does not unlay itself but a normal laid rope still has a tendency to coil in a particular direction and can be awkward to handle when hauled ona ship’s capstan. The twist (or torque) in plaited or braided ropes is better balanced so these types of construction are more suitable for mooring lines. ‘The degree of pwist in a rope and the way itis constructed are significant in determining its character but the most important factor governing the rope’s strength and clasticity is the material that it is made from. Natural fibres, such as hemp and sisal, are considerably weaker and more prone to rot than the synthetic fibres that have been developed in the last fifty years so synthetic rope has replaced natural fibre rope for nearly all shipboard purposes except light usage. There is a wide range of different types of synthetic rope available from various makers but the main materials used for mooring lines are shown below with their minimum breaking load (MBL) compared to that of a steel wire rope of the same diameter. The MBL given by rope makers refers to a mew rope under a straight pull, which reduces if a rope passes around a fairiead. The reduction in MBL increases with the tightness of the resulting bend in the rope. ‘The data is broadly based on data provided by ‘Bridon’ (previously Marlow Ropes)

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