Case Study

Effect of Open-Ended PHC Pile Installation during

Embankment Widening on the Surrounding Soil
Guowei Li 1; Andrew Cudzo Amenuvor 2; Yuzhou Hou 3; Xiaocen Lu 4;
Jiantao Wu 5; and Thang Ngoc Nguyen 6

Abstract: This paper investigates the effect of jacking two groups of open-ended prestressed high-strength concrete (PHC) piles on an
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existing highway embankment based on field measurements of excess pore pressure and lateral soil displacement. Excess pore pressure
due to pile jacking increased with depth and decreased with increasing distance from the pile; the influence reached a distance of 43 pile
diameters from the pile axis. For pile groups, the amount of excess pore pressure dissipated decreased with increasing depth and varied from
54% to 100% in 20 days. Lateral soil displacement and excess pore pressure continued to increase for a period of time after the end of pile
jacking, and this could have resulted in significant inclination of piles if pile installation was too quick and pile spacing was too small. Lateral
soil displacement due to pile group decreased with decreasing distance to the existing embankment as a result of higher soil stiffness
and strength produced by the embankment loading. The effect of pile group installation on the existing embankment was negligible.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002016. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Existing embankment widening; Prestressed high-strength concrete pile; Pile jacking; Excess pore pressure; Lateral
displacement.

Introduction
Many existing highway embankments in China have been under-
going expansion works, and some of these highways are located in
soft ground terrain, which requires improvement with piled foun-
dations. Proper evaluation of the effects of pile installation on the
existing road is therefore important in these projects.
Pile jacking allows for piles to be installed without the noise
and ground vibrations associated with conventional driven piles.
However, ground disturbance associated with pile installation is
inevitable. Soil deformation and excess pore pressure resulting
from pile installation may exert lateral pressures and vertical
forces on the piles and therefore have a negative impact on the
project and existing structures. Soil disturbances due to pile instal-
lation have been a subject of many investigations over the years.
These investigations have usually involved the assessment of shear
1
Professor, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Geotechnique
and Embankment Engineering, Hohai Univ., Nanjing, Jiangsu 210098,
China; Professor, Highway and Railway Research Institute, Hohai Univ.,
Nanjing, Jiangsu 210098, China. Email: lgwnj@163.com
2
Ph.D. Student, Geotechnical Research Institute, Hohai Univ., Nanjing,
Jiangsu 210098, China (corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid.org
/0000-0002-3022-9645. Email: ac.amenuvor@gmail.com; 2257917007@
qq.com
3
Ph.D. Student, Geotechnical Research Institute, Hohai Univ., Nanjing,
Jiangsu 210098, China. Email: 291190849@qq.com
4
Ph.D. Student, Geotechnical Research Institute, Hohai Univ., Nanjing,
Jiangsu 210098, China. Email: luxiaocen@hhu.edu.cn
5
Associate Professor, Highway and Railway Research Institute, Hohai
Univ., Nanjing, Jiangsu 210098, China. Email: jiantao.wu@hhu.edu.cn
6
Lecturer, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Water Resources Univ., Hanoi
100000, Vietnam; Ph.D. Student, Geotechnical Research Institute, Hohai
Univ., Nanjing, Jiangsu 210098, China. Email: thangnn@tlu.edu.vn
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 17, 2018; approved on
August 24, 2018; published online on December 10, 2018. Discussion per-
iod open until May 10, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241.
strength, pore pressure, and soil displacement during and after pile
installation.
The installation of piles in clay causes an initial reduction in
undrained shear strength in the clay around the piles. Orrje and
Broms (1967) observed that the undrained shear strength around
a single pile in a sensitive clay was reduced up to a distance of
five pile radii from the pile axis. The largest decrease was observed
near the surface of the pile, where the reduction was about 40%. An
increase in shear strength was observed 9 months after pile driving,
but the full initial strength was not regained. Tomlinson (1969) con-
cluded from a review of some case studies that at least 75% of the
ultimate bearing capacity was achieved within 30 days after pile
driving. In contrast, numerical studies by Randolph et al. (1979)
have shown that in any clay, when consolidation is complete, the
new strength is 60% higher than the initial in situ value.
The dissipation of pore pressures induced by pile installation is
related to the regaining of shear strength after pile installation. Data
presented by Soderberg (1962) showed that the increase in the
ultimate bearing capacity of a pile was very similar in character to
the rate of dissipation of excess pore pressure with time. A review
of some case histories of pore pressures developed due to pile driv-
ing by Poulos and Davis (1980) showed that very high excess pore
pressures developed in the vicinity of the pile. Some of these pore
pressures were as high as 1.5–2.0 times the in situ vertical effective
stress. There is, however, considerable scatter in the data reported,
which has mainly been attributed to differences in soil type. Higher
pore pressures have been associated with sensitive clays. Field ex-
periments performed by Seed and Reese (1957) in San Francisco
Bay mud with piles instrumented with load, total pressure, and pore
pressure gauges at locations along their length showed that the pile
installation generated large pore water pressures at the pile surface,
with only a slight increase at a distance of 15 pile diameters away.
Field measurements indicated that the increase in pore pressures
resulted from the transfer of pressures generated from pile instal-
lation to the soil. Bozozuk et al. (1978) reported on soil disturbance
due to driving of 116 concrete piles in sensitive marine clays in a
construction project in eastern Canada. Maximum pore pressures

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 after pile driving within the group and 6 m (20 pile diameters) from
the group were over 35%–40% of the total overburden stress, and
the influence of pile driving on pore pressure 20 m away from the
group was very small. The excess pore pressures dissipated fully
eight months after pile driving. Results of large-scale driving of piles
in the Chiayi-Taipo area in Taiwan reported by Hwang et al. (2001)
showed that the maximum excess pore pressure generated decreased
with distance from the pile. The generated excess pore pressure be-
came negligible at a distance of 15 pile diameters from the piles.
Pestana et al. (2002) carried out full-scale closed-ended pile tests in
the young bay mud deposit of the San Francisco Peninsula. Higher
excess pore pressures were observed for points close to the piles,
and decreased with increasing distance from the pile wall. Exponen-
tial decay of excess pore pressure with time was also observed. At
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distances of more than one pile diameter from the pile wall, excess
pore pressure dissipated upto 80% between 50 and 80 days.
Fellenius et al. (2003) conducted static loading tests on a 45-m-long
pile and showed that pore pressures induced by pile driving dissi-
pated 48 days after pile driving. Bogard and Matlock (1990a, b) and
Bogard et al. (1991) presented results of open- and closed-ended
model pile tests performed in normally consolidated clays. Pore
pressures and total lateral stresses were highest for closed-ended
penetration, with relatively small influences from pile diameter.
Cooke and Price (1973) studied a 168-mm-diameter instru-
mented pile jacked into overconsolidated London clay. Outward
lateral displacements ranging from 10 to 20 mm were observed,
depending on initial distance from the pile. Data from Hwang et al.
(2001) showed that lateral displacement of soil due to pile driving
decreased with increasing distance from the pile. The lateral dis-
placements at distances of 3 and 1.5 pile diameters from the pile
were 29 and 36 mm, respectively. Massarsch and Wersäll (2013)
concluded from model tests of pile group installation that ground
and pile movements do not occur in straight lines but follow an
incremental path in a direction that depends on the order of pile
installation. However, the displacement of a given element of soil
depends on the cumulative effect of all installed piles, regardless of
their order of installation.
Results of ground heave measurements by Gue (1984) of open- and
closed-ended piles from model tests showed that the amount of heave
resulting from driving closed-ended piles was about four times that
of similar open-ended piles (with an area ratio of 34%). In contrast,
Steenfelt et al. (1981) conducted model tests to observe soil deforma-
tion patterns around open- and closed-ended piles jacked into
clay. The results showed no measurable ground heave. Pestana et al.
(2002) drove a 610-mm-diameter, 36.6-m-long closed-ended pile
into young bay mud. No soil heave was noticed at the site, and this
was attributed to the confining effect of the stiff fill layer at the site.
The literature review shows a significant number of studies con-
ducted on pile installation and its influence on ground movement
and pore water pressure generation in the ground. However, a vast
majority of these studies focused on the effects of driving a single
pile, with only a few focusing on pile groups. Also, there is gen-
erally a lack of information on the effects of jacking pile groups
on existing structures. Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the
influence of jacking open-ended prestressed high-strength concrete
(PHC) piles on an existing highway foundation based on field
measurements of pore pressure and lateral soil displacement in
the Guangqing Highway Expansion Project in China.
Test Site Description
The Guangqing highway lies mainly in Quaternary flood plains
made up of organic clay, silt, and other organic soils, which are
widely spread in plains and valleys. The geology of the test site,
© ASCE
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2019, 145(2): 05018006
which lies within the K55+630 to K55+660 and K55+670 to
K55+720 sections of the highway, consists of fill, silty clay, organic
clay, and slightly weathered limestone. The geological profile of
the site, developed from cone penetration test (CPT) test data, is
presented in Fig. 1(a). Fig. 1(b) shows the undrained shear strength
of the soil obtained from quick direct shear tests at K55+660 and
K55+680. The properties of the soil at sections K55+630 to K55
+660 and K55+670 to K55+720 are presented in Table 1.
Pile Setup and Instrumentation
Pile Setup
Fig. 2 shows the pile setup of sections K55+630 to K55+660
and K55+670 to K55+720. The pile identity is expressed as #
(row number)-(column number); for example, #4-8 indicates the
pile in the fourth row and the eighth column. The arrows show
the sequence of pile installation. For the purpose of investigating
the effect of jacking a single pile on the surrounding ground, piles
#4-8 and #4-4 in sections K55+630 to K55+660 and K55+670 to
K55+720, respectively, were jacked and their effects investigated
two days before the installation of the entire pile group began
in each section. A total of 52 piles, arranged in a square pattern
with center-to-center spacing of 2.6 m, were installed in section
K55+630 to K55+660. Pile installation started with row 4 (pile
#4-0), followed by rows 5, 3, and 2. The piles in this section had
a length, diameter, and wall thickness of 11 m, 0.3 m, and 0.07 m,
respectively. A total of 66 piles, arranged in a square pattern
with center-to-center spacing of 3.0 m, were installed in section
K55+670 to K55+720. In this section, pile installation started from
row 2 (pile #2-18), followed by rows 3, 4, and 5. The piles in this
section had a length, diameter, and wall thickness of 13 m, 0.3, and
0.07 m, respectively. In both sections, the piles were jacked into the
slightly weathered limestone.
Inclinometer Instrumentation
In-place inclinometers with an automatic data collection system
were used to record changes in lateral soil displacement during pile
installation. The inclinometers used (model JMQJ-74XX, Chang-
sha Kingmach Measurement & Monitoring Technology, Changsha,
China) have micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) dual axis
tilt sensors. They have a measurement range, resolution, and accu-
racy of
30°, 0.008°, and 0.1%, respectively, for temperature ranges
between −20°C and þ60°C. The coordinates were set with the x-axis
parallel to the existing embankment and the y-axis perpendicular to
the existing embankment, with its positive direction pointing away
from it. Four inclinometer casings were installed to different depths
within the limestone in each section. The inclinometers were in-
stalled to different depths because of slight variations in the grade
of the limestone at different locations. Details of the inclinometer
instrumentation are summarized in Fig. 2 and Table 2.
Piezometer Instrumentation
Excess pore pressure measurements were obtained with vibrating
wire (VW) piezometers installed in four different boreholes in each
of the sections. The boreholes were grouted with cement-bentonite
grout in order to increase the response time of the piezometers; VW
piezometers respond rapidly to pore pressure changes when in-
stalled in material similar to bentonite (Penman 1961; Mckenna
1995). The piezometers used (model JTM-V3000B, Changzhou
Jintumu Engineering Instrument, Changzhou, China) have a meas-
urement range of up to 200 kPa and a measurement accuracy
05018006-2 J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
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(a)

Undrained shear strength (kPa)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

K55+660
4
K55+680
Depth (m)

(b)

Fig. 1. (a) Geological profile of test site; and (b) undrained shear strength for section K55+660 to K55+680.

Table 1. Soil properties

Section Soil category w (%) γ (kN=m3 ) e Cc PL (%) LL (%)
K55+630 to K55+660 Fill of existing embankment 20.3 17.9 0.78 0.15 — —
Silty clay 20.3 16.9 0.89 0.23 26.0 40.0
Organic clay 47.8 17.8 1.60 0.34 33.3 52.6
K55+670 to K55+720 Fill of existing embankment 27.6 17.8 0.88 0.21 — —
Silty clay 28.5 19.1 0.77 0.17 21.0 31.9
Organic clay 41.9 17.3 1.17 0.34 28.6 48.1
Note: w = moisture content; γ = unit weight; e = void ratio; Cc = compression index; PL = plastic limit; and LL = liquid limit.

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 Y

2011-12-18
Starting point

0.8m
#4-4 4
3.6m 3.4m 8.6m
I4 X
13.6m I3 I2 I1
13.0m 13.0m 14.5m

3.0m
5
4.6m 3.0m 7.9m

P4 P3 P2 P1
6

17 0.16m
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2011-12-22

3.0m 2011-12-20 0.3m

18
3.0m
#2-18

10
0.4m 3.6m 3.0m 9.0m

K4 K3 K2 K1

9
1.0m 4.8m 3.5m 7.4m
2011-12-9

C4 C3 C2 C1
11.2m 12.0m 15.0m 19.0m

8
2.6 m

Starting point 2.6m LEGEND

#4-8
Pile

7
Piezometer
2011-12-11

Inclinometer

#4-0 0
C-1

6.0m

Existing
Embankment
9.5m

Pile Driving
Area C-4 C-3 C-2
0.0m
6.5m
Fill Fill Silty
3.5m

1.8m 2.0m Clay

8.5m
K4-3.5 K3-3.5 K2-3.5 Silty K1-9.5
Clay
2.0m

K4-5.5 K3-5.5 5.0m

11.0m
11.2m

5.0m

Organic K2-5.5
K3-7 Organic
Clay
Clay
K1-14.5
Organic
Clay
10.0m
Slightly weathered 16.5m
Limestone
Slightly weathered
Pile
Limestone
2.6m 2.6m 2.6m 12.5m
19.0m
Slightly weathered
Limestone
15.0m

Fig. 2. Setup of piles and instrumentation.

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 Table 2. Inclinometer instrumentation of 0.1 kPa for temperature ranges between −25°C and þ60°C. The
Distance from piezometer layout for the pile groups is shown in Fig. 2 and Table 3;
shoulder of the piezometers were installed in four borings (K1, K2, K3, and K4
Depth embankment in Fig. 2) located within and outside the pile installation area. The
Section Inclinometer Location description (m) (m) initial pore pressure readings were taken when the piezometers
K55+630 to C1 Shoulder of embankment 13.0 0 equilibrated after curing of the grout.
K55+660 C2 Within pile group 16.0 7.4
C3 Within pile group 11.5 10.9
C4 Edge of pile group 11.2 15.7 Test Results and Analysis
K55+670 to I1 Shoulder of embankment 9.0 0
K55+720 I2 Within pile group 13.0 8.6 Excess Pore Pressure due to a Single Pile
I3 Within pile group 13.0 12.0
I4 Edge of pile group 13.0 15.6 In order to obtain accurate measurement of pore pressure, pile jack-
ing was carried out intermittently to allow the piezometers to equili-
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brate before readings were taken. Fig. 3 shows a plot of excess pore
pressures generated at various depths during pile jacking as a func-
tion of time and pile tip depth. The pile tip depth is plotted against
Table 3. Piezometer instrumentation pile jacking time, and excess pore water pressure is plotted against
Distance from pile jacking time. A point on the pile tip depth curve is projected
shoulder of vertically onto the pore pressure curves for pore pressure values to
Piezometer Location Depth embankment be read. Excess pore pressures are generated and increased simul-
Section Borehole number description (m) (m) taneously at all depths with increasing depth of pile tip penetration
K55+630 K1 K1-9.5 Shoulder of 9.5 0 and time. It can also be observed that excess pore pressure is gen-
to K55+660 K1-14.5 embankment 14.5 0 erated at a particular depth before the pile tip reaches that depth. For
K2 K2-3.5 Within pile 3.5 9 instance, for the data for section K55+630 to K55+660 presented in
K2-5.5 group 5.5 9 Fig. 3(a), excess pore pressures of 0.2 and 0.8 kPa were generated
K3 K3-3.5 Within pile 3.5 12 at the piezometers located at depths of 5.5 and 7.0 m, respectively,
K3-5.5 group 5.5 12 when the pile tip reached a depth of 3.0 m. Although the piles
K3-7 7.0 12 in this section had a design length of 11 m, pile #4-8 was driven
K4 K4-3.5 Edge of 3.5 16
only 10 m because bedrock was encountered at that depth. A sim-
K4-5.5 pile group 5.5 16
ilar trend can be observed for section K55+670 to K55+720 in
K55+670 P1 P1-9.5 Shoulder of 9.5 0 Fig. 3(b), in which excess pore pressures of 0.2 and 0.2 kPa were
to K55+720 P1-11.5 embankment 11.5 0 generated at piezometers located at depths of 4.0 and 8.5 m, respec-
P2 P2-4.0 Within pile 4.0 7.9 tively, when the pile tip reached a depth of 3.0 m. Therefore, excess
P2-6.0 group 6.0 7.9 pore pressure generation is not limited to areas along the pile length
P3 P3-4.0 Within pile 4.0 10.9
but also reaches beyond the pile tip. From the general trend of
P3-6.0 group 6.0 10.9
P3-8.5 8.5 10.9 excess pore pressure increment with pile tip depth in both
P4 P4-4.0 Edge of 4.0 15.5 Figs. 3(a and b), pore pressure at a depth of 7 m is expected to
P4-6.0 pile group 6.0 15.5 be lower than that at a depth of 5.5 m, but the piezometer at a depth
of 5.5 m recorded a relatively low pore pressure. In addition, when

Fig. 3. Excess pore pressure at different depths as a function of time and pile tip depth: (a) section K55+630 to K55+660; and (b) section K55+670 to
K55+720.

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Fig. 4. Excess pore pressure histories at specific depths: (a) section K55+630 to K55+660; and (b) section K55+670 to K55+720.

the pile tip reached or passed the depth of the piezometers, a sharp after pile jacking was completed. Increased pore pressure at the pile
increase in pore pressure was recorded for all piezometers except surface due to pile installation induced a pore pressure gradient in
the one at a depth of 5.5 m. This relatively low initial increment of the soil and a transient flow occurred in the soil with pore pressure
pore pressure at a depth of 5.5 m may have been due to the occur- migrating radially outward from the pile to the location of the
rence of relatively high permeability around that depth, leading to piezometers. This was responsible for the observed excess pore
rapid drainage and low pore pressure. pressure delay and the longer time needed for the piezometers far-
Fig. 4 shows excess pore pressure histories at various lateral dis- ther from the pile to reach peak excess pore pressures. Also, at the
tances and depths from the pile. In both Figs. 4(a and b), excess same distance of 4.0 m from the pile, peak excess pore pressures
pore pressures continued to increase, and then reached peak values were reached in 74, 332, and 1,352 min at depths of 3.5, 5.5, and
after pile jacking ceased, and the time at which peak values were 7.0 m, respectively. This may have been due to decreasing hydraulic
reached was later for deeper zones than for shallower zones. Table 4 conductivity with depth, as void ratio is expected to decrease with
presents a summary of excess pore pressure generation at vari- depth within the same material (note that the piezometers were in-
ous piezometer locations. In Fig. 4(a), as summarized in Table 4, stalled in the same material) due to increasing overburden stress,
the jacking of pile #4-8 in section K55+630 to K55+660 was causing reduced flow velocity with depth and increasing the time
completed in 26 min, but peak excess pore pressure was reached needed for pore pressures to migrate in the lateral direction. The
in 214 and 1,352 min at distances of 4.89 and 13.3 m, respec- data in Table 4 also show that peak excess pore pressure was reached
tively, for a constant depth of 3.5 m. A similar trend can be seen as long as 24 h after the completion of pile jacking. It can also be
in Fig. 4(b), also summarized in Table 4; the jacking of pile #4-4 in observed from Table 4 that pile jacking pore pressures influenced
section K55+670 to K55+720 was completed in 35 min, but peak a range not less than 13.0 m from the pile, which corresponds to
pore pressures were reached after a considerable length of time. 43 pile diameters. However, the ratio of maximum pore pressure to
The results strongly show a delay in excess pore pressure after the effective overburden stress varied from 0.6% at a distance of 13 m
end of pile jacking. In fact, data from a subsequent section on lat- to 26.7% at a distance of 3.8 m, which corresponds to 13.3 pile
eral displacement indicates that soil displacement increased after diameters. This value falls within the 10–20 pile diameters, reported
pile jacking, with maximum displacement attained several minutes by Seed and Reese (1957), Bjerrum and Johannessen (1960), Lo and
Stermac (1965), and Hwang et al. (2001), at which driving pore
Table 4. Summary of excess pore pressure generation pressures become negligible in clays.
Location End of Figs. 4(a and b) and Table 4 also show that excess pore pressure
jacking Peak Peak increased with increasing depth. The resistance of the soil to pile
Pile number/pile 0
Distance Depth EPWP EPWP time Dumax :σvo penetration increases with depth due to increasing confining stress
length/jacking time (m) (m) (kPa) (kPa) (min) (%) with depth, resulting in the pile exerting a higher radial stress (Ds
#4-8/10.0 m/26 min 4.0 3.5 2.5 4.6 74 16. or sr ) on the soil. According to Terzaghi’s effective stress principle,
4.0 5.5 1.3 9.6 332 23.4 the change in total stress (in this case sr ) must be equal to the
4.0 7.0 2.5 13.9 1,352 26.7 change in pore pressure (Du) under undrained conditions. There-
4.89 3.5 1.65 3.9 214 13.8 fore, as the change in total stress (sr ) increases with depth, there
13.3 3.5 0.1 1.6 1,352 2.2 should be a corresponding increase in the excess pore pressure
#4-4/13.0 m/35 min 4.69 4.0 1.7 5.1 175 14.9 (Du). This explains the increase in excess pore pressure with depth.
4.69 8.5 2.0 7.2 263 11.2 Fig. 5 shows excess pore pressure as a function of pile jacking
5.51 4.0 0.2 3.7 233 10.8 time and pile tip depth at constant depths and various lateral dis-
13.0 4.0 0.3 0.5 383 0.6 tances from pile. In the same way as in Fig. 3, a point on the pile
0 =
Note: EPWP = excess pore pressure; Dumax = peak pore pressure; and σvo tip depth curve is projected vertically onto the pore pressure curves
initial effective overburden stress. for pore pressure values to be read. Excess pore pressure at all

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Fig. 5. Excess pore pressure at various lateral distances as a function time and pile tip depth: (a) section K55+630 to K55+660; and (b) section
K55+670 to K55+720.

distances increased simultaneously with pile tip penetration in ap-
proximately linear fashion. The trend of the curves is identical at all
distances, and this indicates that soil disturbance due to pile jacking
may occur at different distances from the pile at almost the same
time. The relationship between excess pore pressure and distance
is well defined, such that excess pore pressure increased with de-
creasing distance to the pile. In section K55+620 to K55+660, as
shown in Fig. 5(a), excess pore pressures at the end of pile jacking
(26 min) were 2.5, 1.6, 1.2 and 0.1 kPa at 4.0, 4.89, 5.6, and 13.3 m,
respectively. Similarly, in section K55+670 to K55+720, as shown
in Fig. 5(b), excess pore pressures increased with decreasing dis-
tance to the pile, from 0.3 kPa at 6.24 m to 1.7 kPa at 4.69 m at the
end of pile jacking (35 min).
Fig. 6 shows excess pore pressure histories at constant depths
and various lateral distances from the pile during and after pile
jacking. It can be seen in section K55+620 to K55+660 [Fig. 6(a)]
and section K55+670 to K55+720 [Fig. 5(b)] that the trend of ex-
cess pore pressure as time progressed was similar at all distances
from the pile. It is also apparent that excess pore pressure decreased
with increasing distance from the pile. In Fig. 7, the ratios of maxi-
mum excess pore pressure Dumax due to the jacking of piles #4-4
0
and #4-8 to initial effective overburden stress svo at depths of 5.5
and 6.0 m, respectively, are plotted as a function of the ratio of
radial distance from pile r to pile radius a and then compared to
some previous published results, such as Bjerrum and Johannessen
(1960), Soderman and Milligan (1961), Lo and Stermac (1965),
Airhart et al. (1969), D’Appolonia and Lambe (1971), and Hwang
et al. (1994, 2001). The excess pore pressure values in this study
were measured beyond r:a values of 25 and are in good agreement
with the results of previous studies. Fig. 8 illustrates the process of
excess pore pressure generation and dissipation at various distances
from the pile over time.

Fig. 6. Excess pore pressure histories at constant depths and various lateral distances from the pile: (a) section K55+630 to K55+660; and (b) section
K55+670 to K55+720.

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Fig. 7. Variation of normalized excess pore pressure with normalized
radial distance from pile. a = pile radius; r = radial distance from
pile.
Fig. 8(a) shows excess pore pressures at various times and
distances from the pile at a depth of 3.5 m in section K55+630 to
K55+660. It took a longer time to reach peak values at longer dis-
tances from the pile than at shorter distances from the pile. Thus,
the excess pressure at a distance of 13.3 m, 35 min after pile jack-
ing, is lower than that at the same distance 1,325 min after pile
jacking, since the peak value was not reached in 35 min. However,
2,816 min is within the period of dissipation of excess pore pressure
(i.e., after peak value is attained) for all distances from the pile, so
the excess pore pressure is lowest at all distances. Excess pore pres-
sure decreased at distances closer to the pile while at the same time
increasing at distances farther from the pile as time progressed until
equilibrium was reached; at equilibrium, excess pore pressure is the
same at all distances. Fig. 8(b) presents a schematic of excess pore
pressure distribution over distance from the pile at different times,
t1 < t2 < t2 < t3 < t4 < t∞ , after pile jacking. The closest point to
Fig. 8. Excess pore pressure generation and dissipation over time: (a) field data; and (b) schematic representation.
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the pile experiences a reduction in excess pore pressure during the
dissipation time, whereas the farthest point experiences an increase
in excess pore pressure. At points far from the pile, say D2, excess
pore pressure increases from t1 through t2 to t3 , followed by a de-
crease to t4 . At t4 there is excess pore pressure dissipation at all
distances from the pile. The dissipation continues until equilibrium
is reached at some time, t∞ .
Lateral Displacement of Soil due to a Single Pile
Lateral soil displacement due to a single pile jacking was assessed
with inclinometers in four inclinometer casings installed in section
K55+670 to K55+720. Lateral displacement monitoring began
before the start of pile jacking and continued up to 3 h after the
end of pile jacking.
Fig. 9 shows the variation of resultant lateral displacement
with depth immediately after pile jacking for the four inclinometer
casings. Lateral displacement generally decreased with increasing
depth, which is reasonable, because the inclinometer casings were
fixed into the competent stratum. This observation is in agreement
with that of Massarsch and Wersäll (2013). It can also be observed
that lateral displacement decreased with increasing distance from
the pile, with I3 (1.6 m from the pile) showing the highest value
of 6 mm, whereas I1 (12.7 m from the pile) showed the lowest value
of about 1 mm. The highest displacement in I3 occurred around a
depth of 5 m. This may have been due to the higher stiffness and
strength of the surface fill, which restricted horizontal deformation
to some extent, or to the rebound of the ground after the pile pen-
etrated to a deeper level. The small lateral displacement recorded at
I1 is as expected, because it was far away from the pile and very
close to the existing embankment, which had higher stiffness and
strength and restricted lateral deformation to some extent. However,
the maximum displacement at a point was not attained immediately
after the end of pile jacking.
Fig. 10 shows the variation of resultant lateral displacement with
depth at different times after pile jacking at I3. The lateral displace-
ment of 6 mm at I3 immediately after the end of pile jacking in-
creased to 8 mm after 10 min and then reached the maximum value
of 13 mm 22 min after the end of pile jacking. Thus, the maximum
lateral displacement was not reached instantly at the end of pile
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Fig. 9. Resultant lateral displacement immediately after pile driving.
Fig. 10. Resultant lateral displacement at I3 at certain times after pile
driving.
jacking, in response to a similar phenomenon in excess pore
pressure. The increasing lateral displacement after the end of pile
jacking was in response to the continuous increase in excess pore
pressure after the end of pile jacking. It was mentioned in the pre-
vious section that peak excess pore pressure was attained some time
after pile jacking ceased, which implies that the effective stress of
the soil kept decreasing until the time at which peak excess pore
pressure was attained. Reduced effective stress implies reduced
confining stress and therefore higher lateral displacement.
Pore Pressure due to Pile Group Installation
The piezometers in sections K55+630 to K55+660 and K55+670 to
K55+720 were used to monitor the excess pore pressure generated
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due to pile group installation during pile group installation and up
to 20 days after pile group installation.
Fig. 11 shows excess pore pressure histories for the various
piezometers over a period of more than 86 h for the entire pile
group in section K55+630 to K55+660. Excess pore pressure gen-
erally increased with time during pile group installation, with occa-
sional oscillations—the troughs indicating periods of dissipation at
night after pile installation in the day. Pile installation was carried
out within three days during the daytime, and the excess pore pres-
sure dissipated only slightly at night. As seen in Figs. 11(a and b),
piezometers at depths of 3.5 and 5 m experienced rapid dissipation
of excess pore pressure during breaks in pile installation, while the
excess pore pressures of piezometers at depths of 7.0 and 8.0 m
stabilized. The rapid dissipation of excess pore pressures at shallow
depths was due to the higher hydraulic conductivity of the soil at
these depths. The higher hydraulic conductivity was likely caused
by the presence of cracks, because depths closer to the surface are
more likely to develop cracks. It is evident that piezometers within
the pile installation area experienced faster and higher excess pore
pressure increments than those outside the pile group. K2, K3
[Fig. 11(a)] and K4 [Fig. 11(b)], which were within the pile instal-
lation area, recorded maximum pore water pressure values exceed-
ing 35 kPa at a depth of 5.5 m. K3 experienced higher excess pore
pressures at the initial stage since pile rows closer to it were driven
first. K2, however, experienced higher excess pore pressures at later
stages because pile installation proceeded toward it and ended clos-
est to it. Therefore, the order of pile installation influenced the dis-
tribution of excess pore pressure and the trend of the curves at the
two different positions. A clear contrast in excess pore pressure in
the pile installation area and at the shoulder of the existing embank-
ment can be seen in Fig. 11(b); K4 recorded a maximum excess
pore pressure value of 46 kPa at a depth of 5.5 m, whereas K1,
which was at the shoulder of the existing embankment (7.5 m from
the edge of the pile installation area), attained a maximum excess
pore pressure of 15.7 kPa at a depth of 14.5 m (i.e., a depth of 9.5 m
relative to construction ground surface). The relatively low excess
pore pressure at K1 was a result of its greater distance from the
pile installation area and its different soil conditions from the pile
installation area.
During pile group installation, excess pore pressure at all
piezometer boreholes increased with depth; in particular, K4 in
Fig. 11(b) showed a significant difference in pore pressure values
in the piezometers at depths of 3.5 and 5.5 m, which attained maxi-
mum values of 20 and 46 kPa, respectively. Fig. 12 shows the re-
lationship between excess pore pressure and depth at various times
at K3 for piles driven on the first day (i.e., row 4 piles and half of
the piles in row 5) in section K55+630 to K55+660. Pile installation
started with pile #4-1 at 10:55 in the morning and ended with pile
#5-5 at 5:03 in the evening.
The generation and dissipation of excess pore pressure at each
piezometer location in the two sections is summarized in Table 5.
The ratio, in percentage, of the maximum excess pore pressure
(Dumax ) to the effective overburden stress (σvo 0 ) of all the piezom-
eters in section K55+630 to K55+660 varied from 13% to 134%. In
section K55+670 to K55+720, the values varied from 7% to 132%.
For the piezometers at K1 and P1, which were outside the pile in-
stallation area at the shoulder of the existing embankment, the ex-
cess pore pressures and the ratios of excess pore pressure to initial
effective overburden stress were very low. This indicates that the
influence of pile installation on the shoulder of the existing em-
bankment, 7.5 and 6.5 m away from the pile installation area in
sections K55+630 to K55+660 and K55+670 to K55+720, re-
spectively, was small. Thus, the existing embankment was at a safe
distance from the pile installation area. Excess pore pressure
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Fig. 11. Excess pore pressure histories for (a) K2 and K3; and (b) K1 and K4.
Fig. 12. Relationship between excess pore pressure and depth at K3.
dissipation varied from 54% to 98% over a period of 20 days in
section K55+630 to K55+660. Within the same time period, the
amount of excess pore pressure dissipated in section K55+670 to
K55+720 varied from 59% to 100%. In both sections, the amount
of excess pore pressure dissipated was higher for shallow zones
than for deep zones.
Lateral Displacement of Soil due to Pile Group
Lateral soil displacement due to pile group installation was as-
sessed through inclinometer measurements in section K55+630
to K55+660. Fig. 13 shows the y-axis cumulative lateral displace-
ment due to row 4 piles at C3. Pile installation began from #4-0
toward C3, and the cumulative displacement due to piles #4-0,
#4-1 , #4-2, #4-3, #4-4 and #4-5, which are at a distances not less
than 30 pile diameters from C3, is 2 mm, whereas the displace-
ments produced solely by #4-6 and #4-7 were 2 and 3 mm, re-
spectively. This indicates that lateral displacement decreased with
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increasing distance from the inclinometer, and piles more than 30
pile diameters from the inclinometer produced very small lateral
displacements.
Fig. 14 shows the cumulative lateral displacement perpendicular
to the existing embankment due to row 2 piles at C2. Pile #2-9 was
on one side of the inclinometer while the other three were on the
opposite side. The displacement curves of #2-6 and #2-7 almost
coincide with that of #2-8, which implies that jacking of #2-6
and #2-7 produced smaller displacements, because they were far-
ther away from the inclinometer than #2-8. However, the lateral
displacement due to #2-6 was higher than that due to #2-7, which
could not have been the case under normal circumstances, because
#2-6 was farther from the inclinometer than #2-7. Thus, there could
have been a contribution to the displacement measured after jack-
ing #2-6 from some previously driven piles, and this could be an
indication that the soil displacement produced by a pile continued
to increase for a period of time after the pile had been driven.
Fig. 15 shows the variation of y-axis lateral displacement at the
surface with distance from C2. The lateral displacement caused by
pile installation decreased with distance from the inclinometer and
became zero at a distance of 8.3 m, which is equivalent to 28 pile
diameters. It can be concluded from Figs. 13–15 that the measured
lateral displacement caused by pile driving decreased with distance
to about 28 pile diameters, at which point the soil displacement
became insignificant. It is worth mentioning that the lateral dis-
placement and the range of influence will be higher if the pile is
closed-ended or has a larger thickness.
Fig. 16 shows the variation of cumulative lateral displacement
perpendicular to the existing embankment with depth at C1, which
was located on the shoulder of the existing embankment. The dis-
placements due to the installation of some piles in rows 2 and 3
differed only slightly. The difference in displacement was less than
1 mm, and the displacement curves almost coincide. After instal-
lation of all the piles in the section, the maximum cumulative dis-
placement measured at C1 was about 6 mm. This indicates that the
effect of the pile group installation on the existing embankment was
negligible.
Fig. 17 shows the cumulative lateral displacement perpendicular
to the existing embankment at C1, C2, and C4 at the end of pile
installation. C2 was located at the toe of the existing embankment,
0.5 m away from the edge of the pile installation area, while C4 was
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
 Table 5. Excess pore pressure data
Piezometer Depth Dumax 0
Dumax :σvo EPWP
0
Section Borehole number (m) Soil layer σvo (kPa) (kPa) (%) (kPa) DR (%)
K55+630 to K55+660 K1 K1-9.5 9.5 Organic clay 73.4 15.7 21.3 — —
K1-14.5 14.5 Organic clay 107.7 14.4 13.3 — —
K2 K2-3.5 3.5 Organic clay 25.8 34.6 134.1 1.7 95.2
K2-5.5 5.5 Organic clay 36.3 36.8 101.4 7.4 79.8
K3 K3-3.5 3.5 Silty clay 27.9 35.9 128.7 2.5 93.1
K3-5.5 5.5 Organic clay 41.7 42.1 100.8 13.6 67.8
K3-7 7.0 Organic clay 51.9 45.5 87.6 21.0 53.8
K4 K4-3.5 3.5 Organic clay 27.9 20.1 72.1 0.4 97.9
K4-5.5 5.5 Organic clay 41.7 46.1 110.5 14.4 68.8
K55+670 to K55+720 P1 P1-9.5 9.5 Organic clay 80.9 7.1 8.8 — —
P1-11.5 11.5 Silty clay 96.9 6.5 6.7 — —
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P2 P2-4.0 4.0 Organic clay 34.0 24.5 72.1 1.6 93.5

P2-6.0 6.0 Organic clay 49.1 45.9 93.5 1.4 97.0
P3 P3-4.0 4.0 Organic clay 34.0 34.2 99.4 0.6 98.7
P3-6.0 6.0 Organic clay 49.1 40.0 122.6 7.5 81.26
P3-8.5 8.5 Organic clay 64.6 48.5 132.1 12.9 73.4
P4 P4-4.0 4.0 Organic clay 34.0 18.3 53.9 0.0 100.0
P4-6.0 6.0 Organic clay 49.1 39.4 80.2 16.1 59.1
Note: Dumax = maximum excess pore pressure; σvo0 = initial effective overburden stress; EPWP = excess pore pressure 20 days after pile installation; and

DR = percentage reduction in pore pressure 20 days after pile installation.

Fig. 13. Cumulative lateral displacement along the y-axis at C3 due to

row 4 piles.
Fig. 14. Cumulative lateral displacement along the y-axis at C2 due to
row 2 piles.

located on the opposite side, 1.0 m away from the outer edge of the
pile installation area, under natural soil conditions. C1, C2, and C3
recorded maximum displacements of 7, 20, and 75 mm, respec-
tively. This shows that lateral displacement decreased with decreas-
ing distance to the existing embankment, which was due to higher
stiffness and strength of the soil closer to the existing embankment.
Although C2 was closer to the pile installation area than C4, its
measured lateral displacement was much smaller than that of C4.
The reason for the relatively small displacement at C2 was that
the load of the existing embankment increased the stress on the
foundation soil, thereby increasing its stiffness and strength and
consequently decreasing its displacement. The small cumulative dis-
placement of 7 mm at C1, which was 7.5 m from the edge of the pile
installation area at the shoulder of the existing embankment, was a
result of the long distance of C1 from the pile installation area and
the high stiffness and strength of the soil due to the stress of the
embankment. Therefore, the influence of pile group installation on
the existing embankment was negligible.
Volume Displacement
The volume of displaced soil should be equal to the volume of
the piles installed. Given that the piles in this study were open-
ended, the volume displaced should be less than closed-ended piles
of similar diameter and length if no soil plug occurs. The volume of
soil displaced or ground heave induced by open-ended piles de-
pends on the volume of soil plug. The amount of ground heave

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Fig. 15. Variation of lateral displacement with distance from C2.

Fig. 17. Lateral displacement along the y-axis at C1, C2, and C4 after
pile group installation.

Length of soil plug (m)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0

2
Length of pile penetration (m)

10

12
Fig. 16. Lateral displacement along the y-axis due to row 2 and 3 piles
at C1.
Fig. 18. Degree of soil plugging.

was not measured in this study. Soil plug was, however, measured
for some of the piles and is presented here. Fig. 18 shows a plot of
the length of pile that penetrated the soil versus the length of the soil
plug. Fig. 18 indicates various degrees of soil plug formation, rang-
ing from almost unplugging to almost fully coring behavior. The
ratio of the total volume of soil plugs to the total volume of all the
piles considered was 12%. The total volume of the piles was cal-
culated by considering only the total length that penetrated the soil
and the solid section of the piles (i.e., the annulus of the pile was
deducted from the total volume). This implies that closed-ended
piles would have displaced 12% more volume than open-ended
piles of similar size (the additional displacement could occur in
the form of ground heave), and the volume of ground heave caused
by the open-ended piles would be 88% of the total volume of the
piles. As stated earlier, heave measurements were not made during
pile installation. However, previous studies (e.g., Cummings et al.
1950; Hagerty and Peck 1971; Bozozuk et al. 1978) have indicated
that about 50% of the volume of piles inserted in the soil appears as
ground heave within the pile group. From the driving of 116 con-
crete piles with diameters and average lengths of 0.3 and 26 m,
respectively, Bozozuk et al. (1978) showed that average heave of
450 mm occurred within the pile group. A heave value of 110 mm
was measured 3 m outside the pile group, which decreased rapidly
to zero at a distance of 12 m from the group. Because the piles used
in this study were open-ended piles driven to a maximum depth
of 13 m and considering the volume of the soil plugs, it can be
concluded that ground heave would have had an insignificant effect
on the existing embankment, which was 7.8 m away from the edge
of the pile group.
Conclusions
Pore water pressure and lateral soil displacement measurements
were made during and after jacking of two large groups of open-
ended PHC pipe piles during expansion of an existing highway

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J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2019, 145(2): 05018006

 embankment in order to assess the extent of soil disturbance result-
ing from pile installation and the influence of pile group installation
on the existing embankment. The results can be summarized as
follows.
Peak excess pore pressure due to jacking a single pile, which
was attained some time after pile jacking, increased with increasing
depth and decreased with increasing distance from the pile. It took a
longer time to attain peak values of excess pore pressure in deeper
zones and at longer distances from the pile than in shallower zones
and at closer distances to the pile. For pile groups, significantly
higher excess pore pressures were generated in the pile installation
area as compared to outside the installation area. The amount of
excess pore pressure dissipated decreased with increasing depth
and ranged from 54% to 100% over a period of 20 days. Because
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excess pore pressure did not fully dissipate at every location, the
bearing capacity is not expected to reach its maximum within
20 days after pile group installation. The ratio of maximum excess
pore pressure to initial effective overburden pressure varied from
7% to 134%.
Lateral soil displacement resulting from single pile and pile
group installation, which continued to increase for a period of time
after the end of pile driving in response to the excess pore pressure,
decreased with increasing distance from the pile, and the range of
influence was less than a distance of 26 pile diameters. The lateral
displacement decreased with decreasing distance to the existing em-
bankment. The small displacement at the shoulder of the existing
embankment was a result of the high stiffness and strength of the
soil produced by the embankment loading and a result of the em-
bankment lying outside the range of influence of the pile installation.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude and sincere appreciation
for the financial support received from the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 41272327) and the Department of
Communications of Guangdong Province, China [Grant No. 2011
(794)-02-021].
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