GENERAL TOPICS: MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL

Linear Programming

Use of Mathematical concepts and tools in other areas such as in finance, voting, logic, business, network and
systems.

I. Lesson1: The Geometry of Linear Programming

II. Lesson 2:Linear Inequalities
Apportionment and Voting

Use mathematical concepts and tools in other areas such as voting, networks and systems.

III. Lesson3: Introduction to Apportionment

IV. Lesson 4:Voting Methods
Graph Theory

Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavors in life.

V. Lesson5: Basic Terms

VI. Lesson 6:Application of Graph Theory
 Objectives:

This term paper is collaborative effort of Students of Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management in Our lady
of Fatima University Antipolo Campus, At the end of this lesson students should learn to:

 Describe the types, elements and function of mathematics

 Explain how mathematics as a tool affect our everyday life
 Help the students to solve real life problems using concepts
 Solve apportionment problems involving the different method
 Differentiate: Hamilton, Jefferson and Huntington hill-method
 Gain knowledge about how to conduct voting using different methods
 Know the Definition of Graph theory, nodes, edges, paths and different kind of paths
 Determine the Euler and Hamiltonian paths and circuits
 Learn how to make a rational decision
 Learn how to plot the Linear Inequalities in graph
 Know the equation and learn how to solve the Linear inequalities in two variables.
 Application of Apportionment and Voting
 Differentiate the five methods of Apportionment
 Differentiate the five methods of Voting.
 Solve maximum profit using equation in linear inequalities
 Know the function and importance of mathematics as a tool
 Rationale

Learning mathematics may not appeal to some people, but in today’s world, people’s daily lives and
languages are becoming more mathematically influenced. Mathematics is part of our daily life because of the
numbers that we are using in many ways like exchanging and buying of products in both wet and dry market,
paying for services that the company rendered to us and everything in this world have its value. We can say that
money can make the world to move around because everything in this world have its cost and corresponding
amount. Think of finance, retail and sports industries, and the public sector; they all apply math.

The purpose of this research is to have good decision making in our daily life that can affect our life and
the life of the people surrounds us. In the media, journalists speak in mathematical terms, for example more than
50% of the world’s population lives in poverty. Let us start in the world of business, profit is the reason why
businessman build infrastracture and other business corporate and in measuring the business profit, numbers
can make it easier so that the company will know if their business can maximize profit or the company loss the
profit. In our political system, we are move with freedom because of democratic government system so we are
the one who elect our president and the rest of the position in the government, we simply apply the numbers by
counting the votes of each candidates in designated position or using Borda Count Method so that we will know
who are the candidate won.

Linear programming and its application in our life is that linear programming has caught on to many
different parts of business and has become a key tool in making business decisions. Example of linear
programming used in the major functional areas of a business organization like engineering problems industries
like buildings and highways by combining the shapes and design to come up to the best design of buildings and
highways. Linear Programming can be used to differentiate what are the most effective way or plan by solving
and applying the concept of it to real life. All the theory of mathematics is very important in building
inftrastracture of the businessman because the spaces and edges of the building must have right measurement
so that the design or draft of the building must build appropriate and have its firm to its structure. We also need
to consider the pipeline of water and the electric so that there is no harm or hazard to all the people that are
using that building by applying the Graph Theory.

This research also tackled the charts and graphs. Charts and graphs are simple way in presenting the
data in interesting and dramatic way. Using charts and graphs it can help the audience grasp the message
visually that has to be conveyed. The audience are surely understand the comparison, relationship, highlight
and trend if we are using charts and graphs to present it. It also way of providing the information quickly and
direct to the point. Advantage of using a chart or data is based on the information we need to present.

Aid or tools that can be used to document the data from a checklist are using tables, flowchart, pictures
or drawings and choices. Tables are those rows and columns of numbers and sometimes words to see the
information and the comparison of each information. Flowchart are useful when giving complex instructions and
explaining the process in simple way to better understanding. All of these suggest that math is important to
people and society.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Apportionment - action or result

Complete graph - A graph in which every pair of vertices is adjacent.

Connected - A graph is connected if there is a path from any vertex to any other vertex.

Cycle - A path that starts and stops at the same vertex, but contains no other repeated vertices.

Degree of a vertex - The number of edges incident to a vertex.

Euler path - A walk which uses each edge exactly once.

Forest – A non- connected Graph with no cycle

Graph - A collection of vertices, some of which are connected by edges

Linear inequality - is an inequality which involves a linear function.

Linear Programming - subfield, convex optimization, determining or planning for the best outcomes,
maximizing/minimizing a linear function.

Loop – is an edge connecting a vertex to itself

Multiple Edges – two vertices are connected by more than one edge

Simple Graph – a graph with no loops and no multiple edges

Tree - A connected graph with no cycles.

Vertex Coloring - An assignment of colors to each of the vertices of a graph.

Voting - aggregating, vote, register to give.

 DISCUSSION

Lesson 1: The Geometry of Linear Programming

A linear optimization or linear programming is a subfield of a much broader optimization field called convex
optimization. It is a special case of a general constrained optimization problem. The objective function is linear,
and the set of feasible points is determined by a set of linear equations and/or inequalities. The geometric
approach to a linear programming problem involves sketching a feasible region, which is the solution to the
system of linear inequalities.The fundamental theorem of linear programming says that if there is a solution to a
linear programming problem then it will occur at one or more corner points or the boundary between two corner
points. In other words, the solution is going to be on the edge of the region, not in the middle. A corner point is a
vertex of the feasible region, so we need to figure out where those are.

Here are some terminologies that will help students understand the geometry of linear programming.

 Boundary point - A point X is called a boundary point of S if each deleted neighborhood of X

intersects S and its compliment S.

 Interior point- A point X = S is said to be an interior point of S, if there exists a neighborhood of X

which is contained in S.

 Open set -A set S is said to be open if for each X ∈ S there exists a neighborhood of X, which is
contained in S.

Example: S = {X ∈ R n: |X −X0| < 2} is an open set.

A set is open ⇔ it contains all its interior points, and the union of any number of open sets is an open set is left
as exercises for the reader.

 Close set - A set S is closed if its compliment S c is open.

Example: S = {X ∈ R n: |X − X0| ≤ 3} is a closed set Intersection of any number of closed sets is closed.

 Convex set- A set S is said to be convex of any two points of S belongs to S.

Example: X = α1X1 + α2X2 ∈ S, α1 + α2 = 1, α1, α2 ≥ 0 ∀ X1, X2 ∈ S

This definition may be interpreted as the line segment joining every pair of points X1, X2 of S lies entirely in
S.

 Hyperplanes and Half-spaces- A hyperplane is an equation whereas a halfspace is an inequality. This is

also known as line equation.  Therefore, a hyperplane in 2-dimensional space is line. In more dimension than
three, the geometric object constructed by a linear equation is called hyperplane.
Halfspace is similar to hyperplane, but it covers the area on the one side of a hyperplane. In the above picture,
the side red dots are in is a halfspace, and the side green dots are in is another halfspace and hey are
separated by a hyperplane. In other words, a hyperplane is the boundary of a corresponding halfspace.

A hyperplane separates the whole space into two closed half-spaces

HL = {X ∈ R n: a T X ≤ β}, HU = {X ∈ R n: a T X ≥ β}

Removing H results in two disjoint open half-spaces

H 0 L = {X ∈ R n: a T X < β}, H 0 U = {X ∈ R n: a T X > β}

 Polyhedral set-A set formed by the intersection of finite number of closed half-spaces is termed polyhedron
or polyhedral.

 Converting equalities to inequalities -To study the geometric properties of an LPP we consider the LPP in
the form, where the constraints are of the type≤ or ≥.

Example:

Solve 2x - 5 < 12

Solution:

2x - 5 < 12
(2x - 5) + 5 < 12 + 5
2x < 17
(1/2)2x < (1/2)17
x < 17/2

The solution set of the inequality is {x.:.x.<.17/2} which is read as "the set of all x such that x is less than 17/2.
 Convex hull-The Convex Hull Or Convex Envelope Of A Set X Of Points In The Euclidean Plane Or
Euclidean Space Is The Smallest Convex Set That Contains X.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

Example 1:

x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 4
2x1 + x2 − x3 = 3
5x1 + x2 = 10
x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

In this example r(A) = r(A, b) = 2 which is less than number of equations. The third constraint is the sum of the
first constraint and two times of the second constraint. Hence, the third constraint is redundant. Actually, if the
system is consistent, then the rows in echelon from of the matrix which contain pivot elements are to be
considered. All non-pivot rows are redundant.

Another type of redundancy happens when r(A) = r(A, b), but some of the constraint does not contribute
anything to find the optimal solution. Geometrically, a constraint is redundant if its removal leaves the feasible
solution space unchanged. However, in this case r(A) = r(A, b) = m, the number of equations.

The following simple example illustrates the fact.

x1 + x2 + s1 = 1

x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 2

x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Here r(A) = r(A, b) = 2. The vertices of the feasible region are (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1). The second constraint is
redundant as it contributes only (0, 1) which is already given by the first constraint. It is advisable to delete
redundant constraints, if any, before an LPP is solved to find its optimal solution, otherwise computational
difficulty may arise.

Basic solutions

Let AX = b be a system of m simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns (m < n) with r(A) = m. This means
that there exist m linearly independent column vectors. In this case group these linearly independent column
vectors to form a basis B and leave the remaining n − m columns as nonbasis N. In other words, we can
rearrange A = [B|N].

Example 2:

A juice stand sells two types of fresh juice in 12 oz cups. The Refresher and the Super Duper. The Refresher is
made from 3 oranges, 2 apples and a slice of ginger. The Super Duper is made from one slice of watermelon
and 3 apples and one orange. The owners of the juice stand have 50 oranges, 40 apples, 10 slices of
watermelon and 15 slices of ginger. Let x denote the number of Refreshers they make and let y denote the
number of Super Dupers they make. Last day, we saw that the set of constraints on x and y were of the form :

3x + y ≤ 50

2x + 3y ≤ 40
x ≤ 15

y ≤ 10

x≥0

y≥0

The conditions x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 are called non-negative conditions. We can now draw the feasible set to see what
combinations of x and y are possible given the limited supply of ingredients:

Now suppose that the Refreshers sell for $6 each and the Super Dupers sell for $8 each. Lets suppose also that
the juice stand will sell all of the drinks they can make on this day, then their revenue for the day is 6x + 8y. Lets
assume also that one of the goals of the juice stand is to maximize revenue. Thus they want to maximize the
value of 6x + 8y given the constraints on production listed above. In other words they want to find a point (x, y) in
the feasible set which gives a maximum value for the objective function 6x + 8y. [Note that the value of the
objective function (6x + 8y = revenue) varies as (x, y) varies over the points in the feasible set. For example if (x,
y) = (2, 5), revenue = 6(2) + 8(5) = $52, whereas if (x, y) = (5, 10), revenue = 6(5) + 8(10) = $110. ]

Lesson 2: Linear Programming

Linear programming is a method to achieve the best outcome in a mathematical model whose requirements are
represented by linear relationships. 

Linear programming LP, also called linear Optimization

Linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective function, subject to linear

equality and linear inequality constraints. Its feasible region is a convex polytope, which is a set defined as
the intersection of finitely many half spaces, each of which is defined by a linear inequality. Its objective function
is a real-valued affine (linear) function defined on this polyhedron. A linear programming algorithm finds a point
in the polyhedron where this function has the smallest (or largest) value if such a point exists.

Linear programs are problems that can be expressed in canonical form as:

minimize
subject to
and

where x represents the vector of variables (to be determined), c and b are vectors of (known) coefficients, 

A is a (known) matrix of coefficients, and  is the matrix transpose. The expression to be maximized or minimized
is called the objective function (c,x in this case). The inequalities Ax ≤ b and x ≥ 0 are the constraints which
specify a convex polytope over which the objective function is to be optimized. In this context, two vectors
are comparable when they have the same dimensions. If every entry in the first is less-than or equal-to the
corresponding entry in the second, then it can be said that the first vector is less-than or equal-to the second
vector.

Samples #1

A pictorial representation of a simple linear program with two variables and six inequalities. The set of feasible
solutions is depicted in yellow and forms a polygon, a 2-dimensional polytope. The linear cost function is
represented by the red line and the arrow: The red line is a level set of the cost function, and the arrow indicates
the direction in which we are optimizing.

Polygon is a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a
closed polygonal chain or circuit.

Polytope is a geometric object with "flat" sides. Polytopes may exist in any general number of dimensions n as
an n-dimensional polytope or n-polytope.

Samples #2

A closed feasible region of a problem with three variables is a convex polyhedron. The surfaces giving a fixed
value of the objective function are planes (not shown). The linear programming problem is to find a point on the
polyhedron that is on the plane with the highest possible value.

Polyhedron is a solid in three dimensions with flat polygonal faces, straight edges and sharp corners or
vertices. The word polyhedron comes from the Classical Greek as poly- stem of "many" + -hedron form of "base"
or "seat”
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

1. Let’s say a FedEx delivery man has 6 packages to deliver in a day. The warehouse is located at point A.
The 6 delivery destinations are given by U, V, W, X, Y and Z. The numbers on the lines indicate the
distance between the cities. To save on fuel and time the delivery person wants to take the shortest
route.

2. Finding the shortest path between two intersections on a road map may be modeled as a special case of
the shortest path problem in graphs, where the vertices correspond to intersections and the edges
correspond to road segments, each weighted by the length of the segment.

Shortest path (A, C, E, D, F) between vertices A and F in the weighted directed graph
 APPLICATION
Lesson 1:
Activity 1: Simple Example

Find the solution of following linear programming problems using

the graphical method

(a) min z = −x1 + 2x2 (b) max z = 3x1 + 4x2

s.t. − x1 + 3x2 ≤ 10 s.t. x1 − 2x2 ≤ −1
x1 + x2 ≤ 6 − x1 + 2x2 ≥ 0
x1 − x2 ≤ 2 x1, x2 ≥ 0
x1, x2 ≥ 0

Activity 2: Problem Solving

A machine component requires a drill machine operation followed by welding and assembly into a larger
subassembly. Two versions of the component are produced: one for ordinary service and other for heavy-duty
operation. A single unit of the ordinary design requires 10 min of drill machine time, 5 min of seam welding, and
15 min for assembly. The profit for each unit is $ 100. Each heavy-duty unit requires 5 min of screw machine
time, 15 min for welding and 5 min for assembly. The profit for each unit is $ 150. The total capacity of the
machine shop is 1500 min; that of the welding shop is 1000 min; that of assembly is 2000 min. What is the
optimum mix between ordinary service and heavy-duty components to maximize the total profit?

Lesson 2:
Activity 1: Simple Example
A farmer has 10 acres to plant in wheat and rye. He has to plant at least 7 acres. However, he has only
$1200 to spend and each acre of wheat costs $200 to plant and each acre of rye costs $100 to plant.
Moreover, the farmer has to get the planting done in 12 hours and it takes an hour to plant an acre of
wheat and 2 hours to plant an acre of rye. If the profit is $500 per acre of wheat and $300 per acre of rye
how many acres of each should be planted to maximize profits?

Activity 2: Problem Solving

A company makes two products (X and Y) using two machines (A and B). Each unit of X that is produced
requires 50 minutes processing time on machine A and 30 minutes processing time on machine B. Each
unit of Y that is produced requires 24 minutes processing time on machine A and 33 minutes processing
time on machine B. At the start of the current week there are 30 units of X and 90 units of Y in stock.
Available processing time on machine A is forecast to be 40 hours and on machine B is forecast to be 35
hours. The demand for X in the current week is forecast to be 75 units and for Y is forecast to be 95
units. Company policy is to maximize the combined sum of the units of X and the units of Y in stock at
the end of the week.
 DISCUSSION
Lesson 3: Introduction to Apportionment

The apportionment, sometimes called “the equal proportion” is a method of dividing a whole into various parts. It
is an act or result to divide and share out according to a plan especially to make a proportionate division or
distribution. Example sentences are the following:

 Representatives are apportioned among the states

 Apportioning of representatives or taxes among the states according to the US law.
 Apportion the expenses between the parties involved.

Alexander Hamilton introduced the early apportionment method that is used in US congress. Here is
the formula for the Hamilton plan:

 Standard divisor (D) – the number of voters represented by each representative.

 Standard quota (Q) - the whole part of the quotient when the population of the sub group is
divided by the standard divisor.

total population
Standard Divisor (D) =
number of representative
N
(D) =
R
¿−group population
Standard quota (Q) =
standard divisor
n
Q=
D
Note: 1. standard quota (Q) must be an integer. In case of decimals, just drop the decimal values.

2. when the total standard quota is not equal to given apportioned or the number of representative, place
an additional representative to the next sub-group representative with the highest decimal value until the
representatives are complete.

Jefferson Plan

Another apportionment method is Jefferson plan, introduced by Thomas Jefferson. It uses a modified
standard divisor that arrives at the exact numbers of representative using trial and error. It uses an
assume value always smaller than the standard divisor.

Apportionment principle

 Is the simplest and most universal principle is that elections should give each voter's intentions equal
weight. This is both intuitive and stated in historical documents.
 A new representative is added to a sub-group due to an increase in population.
 The representative is assigned to a group in such a way it gives the smallest relative unfairness of
apportionment.

Formulas

A
R=
C
Where: R= relative unfairness of apportionment

A= absolute unfairness of apportionment = / C 1-C 2 /

C= average population of the sub-group receiving the new representative

¿−group
C=
n o . of representative

Huntington-Hill apportioned method

 The present method of apportionment being use by the US congress

 The method that make use of equal proportion
 The new additional representative to a sub-group must have the highest Huntington number.

(P¿¿ A)2
Formula: H= ¿
a(a+1)

Where: P A = Population of the sub group.

a= the current number of representative of sub-group A

H= Huntington-Hill number

Lesson 4: Introduction to Voting

Voting is a method for a group, such as, a meeting or an electorate to make a collective decision or express an
opinion, usually following discussions, debates or election campaigns. Democracies elect holders of high office
by voting.

1.) Plurality Method

Also called “first-past-the-post” or “winner-take-all” systems, plurality systems simply award a seat to the
individual candidate who receives the most votes in an election. The candidate need not get a majority (50 %+)
of the vote to win; so long as he has a larger number of votes than all other candidates, he is declared the
winner. Plurality systems normally depend on single-member constituencies, and allow voters to indicate only
one vote on their ballot (by pulling a single lever, punching a hole in the ballot, making an X, etc.) Plurality
electoral systems also tend to encourage the growth of relatively stable political systems dominated by two
major parties (a phenomenon known as “Duverger’s Law”). 

Strategic voting

Also known as tactical voting (or strategic voting or sophisticated voting or insincere voting) occurs, in elections

with more than two candidates, when a voter supports another candidate more strongly than their sincere
preference in order to prevent an undesirable outcome.

Runoff Election:

 First, a plurality vote is taken.

  If one candidate has more than 50% of the vote, that candidate wins.
 If no candidate has the majority of the votes, a second plurality election is held with a designated number
of the top candidates
 This process repeats until one candidate has more than 50% of the votes.

Borda count method

The Borda count is a family of single-winner election methods in which voters rank options or candidates in order
of preference. The Borda count determines the outcome of a debate or the winner of
an BALLOT election by giving each candidate, for each ballot, a
number of points corresponding to POINTS the number of candidates
ranked 1ST B lower. Once all votes have B gets 4 points been counted the option or
ND
2 D candidate with the most points is the winner. Because it
tends to elect broadly-acceptable D gets 4 points options or candidates, rather
than those preferred by a majority, the Borda count is
often described as a consensus-based voting system rather than a majoritarian one.
The Modified Borda Count is used for decision-making. For multi-winner elections, especially when proportional
representation is important, the quota Borda system is used.
 Award points to candidates based on preference schedule, and then declare the winner to be the
candidate with the most points.

In general, if N is the number of candidates…

 Each first-place vote is worth N points.

 Each second-place vote is worth N-1 point.
 Each third-place vote is worth N-2 points.
 Each Nth place vote is worth 1 point.

Whichever candidate receives the most points wins the election.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

Lesson 3:

EXAMPLE 1:

A new school offering the complete six grades in high school has the following enrollment in the different grades
below. The administrations are to apportion the 20 teachers for each grade. Calculate a) the standard divisor b)
the standard quota.

Grades Students
Grade 12 40
Grade 11 35
Grade 10 22
Grade 9 38
Grade 8 25
Grade 7 39
Total 199

Solution:

N 199
Standard divisor, D = = = 9.95
R 20
n 40
Grade 12 standard quota, Q 12 = = = 4.02
D 9.95
n 35
Grade 11 standard quota, Q 11 = = = 3.51
D 9.95
n 22
Grade 10 standard quota, Q 10= = = 2.21
D 9.95

Example 2:

Grad Student Q= Q Q Corrected

e n no. of
D teachers
Grade 12 40 40 4.02 4 4
9.95
Grade 11 35 35 3.51 3 4
9.95
 Grade 10 22 22 2.21 2 2
9.95
Grade 9 38 38 3.81 3 4
9.95
Grade 8 25 25 2.51 2 2
9.95
Grade 7 39 39 3.91 3 4
9.95
Total : 199 17 20

Analysis:The above example is already an application of apportionment. If the given problem represents the
states, voters and representatives related to the origin of apportionment then,

1. Grades represent the different state in the problem.

2. Students represent the different voters in the problem.
3. The corrected number of teachers represents the number of representatives in the problem.

EXAMPLE 2:A new school offering the complete six grades in high school has the following enrollment in the
different grades below. The administration is to apportion the 20 teachers for each grade. Calculate the number
of teachers for each grade using the Jefferson apportionment method.

Grades Students
Grade 12 40
Grade 11 35
Grade 10 22
Grade 9 38
Grade 8 25
Grade 7 39
Total 199

Solution:

a) Assume values modified standard divisor. D m say, D m = 9

b) By trial and error, solve the number of teachers.

n 40
Grade 12 standard quota, Q 12 = = = 4.44
D 9
n 35
Grade 11 standard quota, Q 11 = = = 3.88
D 9
n 22
Grade 10 standard quota, Q 10 = = = 2.44
D 9
NOTE: grade 12 supposedly must have 4 teachers.

c) Another assumption and trial

Say, D m= 8.7

n 40
Grade 12 standard quota, Q 12 = = = 4.59
D 8.7
n 35
Grade 11 standard quota, Q 11 = = = 4.02
D 8.7
 n 22
Grade 10 standard quota, Q 10 = = = 2.52
D 8.7
Grade Student n Q Corrected
Q= no. of
D
teachers
Grade 40 40 4.59 4
12 8.7
Grade 35 35 4.02 4
11 8.7
Grade 22 22 2.52 2
10 8.7
Grade 38 38 4.36 4
9 9.95
Grade 25 25 2.87 2
8 8.7
Grade 39 39 4.48 4
7 8.7
Total : 199 20
Analysis: the above problem, the number of apportionment is exact using the modified standard divisor.

Lesson 4:

Plurality Method

1. If we vote on a coffee shop for the kind of drinks and 14 people vote for black coffee, 9 for mocha frappe,
and 10 for tea, then the winner of the plurality election is black coffee.

ANSWER: Black coffee did not win by majority, because it has fewer than 50%of the votes. Black coffee
won by plurality.

2. (minimum votes needed to win) There are 100 voters in plurality elections between Duterte, Roxas, and
Poe. After 70 votes have been counted, Duterte has 38 votes, Roxas has 18 votes, and Poe has 14
votes. How many remaining votes does Duterte need to guarantee he wins?

How to solve: First, pick your candidate’s biggest competition, in this case Roxas. Pretend all 30 votes to go
to Roxas and Duterte. Let x be the number of votes Duterte needs to tie Roxas in this scenario. The Roxas
gets 30-x of the remaining votes. Since it’s a tie, 38 + x =18 + (30-x). Solve for to get x=5. If Duterte gets
more votes than this, he is guaranteed to win, and so the answer is the smallest number bigger than x, in
this case, 5 votes.

Strategic Voting

1. In may 2016 presidential elections, Duterte with 16,601,997 votes, Roxas with 9,978,175 votes, and Poe
with 9,100,991 votes. If there had been a runoff between Duterte and Roxas, what percentage of Poe’s
supporters would have needed to vote for Duterte for him to have a majority of the vote?
How to solve this: First, adding up the voted from all three candidates, we see that there are 35,681,163 votes
1
total. A majority is 1 more than half of this so 1+
(35,681,163) = 17,840,582.5 or 17,840,583. Duterte already
2
1,238,586
has 16,601,997 votes so he needs 17,840,583-16,601,997= 1,238,586. This is × 100%= 13.61% of
9,100,991
Poe’s votes.
APPLICATION

Lesson 3:

Activity 1: Simple Example

RBSN Company wants to add a new call center agent in one of its office. Report indicate an increase in the daily
calls of the offices in the past month. Determine which office should get the additional agent. Use the
apportionment principle to justify your answer.

Activity 2: Problem Solving

Six provincial construction projects will start two months from now. To maintain orderliness in the construction
site, 158 security guards will be assigned. Find the apportionment of the security guard using the Hamilton and
Jefferson plan.

Location Workers
Manila 3,240
Baguio 1,286
Cebu 2,085
Nueva Ecija 872
Naga 1,901
Bulacan 2,692

Lesson 4:

Activity 1: Simple Example

A corporation would like to invite a new investor. The possibilities are Ayala (A), Bonifacio (B), Calixto (C), and
Dancel (D).

Activity 2. Problem Solving

Six hundred thirty people responded their preferences of four dance groups in dance contest, using 1 for their
favorite and 4 for their least favorite. Results of the text votes were tailed below.

Contestants Rankings
A 4 3 2 1 3
B 3 1 1 2 2
C 2 2 4 3 1
D 1 4 3 4 4
Number of Voters 150 78 83 175 144

Who would win the contest using the

A) Plurality voting system?

B) Plurality with elimination method of voting?
C) Borda count of method voting?
D) Pairwise comparison voting method?

DISCUSSION
Lesson 5: BASIC TERMS

Graph is a diagram that containts information and depicts connection and relationship between the various parts
of the diagram. The stated below are the example of graph:

1. Road Map
2. Circuit Diagram
3. Flow Chart
4. Transportation Route
5. Tree Diagram
Graph is an open source application used to draw mathematical graphs in a coordinate system. Anyone who
wants to draw graphs of functions will find this program useful. The program makes it very easy to visualize a
function and paste it into another program. It is also possible to do some mathematical calculations on the
functions.

In a mathematician's terminology, a graph is a collection of points and lines connecting some (possibly
empty) subset of them. The points of a graph are most commonly known as graph vertices, but may also be
called "nodes" or simply "points." Similarly, the lines connecting the vertices of a graph are most commonly
known as graph edges, but may also be called "arcs" or "lines."

The study of graphs is known as graph theory, and was first systematically investigated by D. König in the
1930s. Unfortunately, the term "graph" to describe a network of vertices and edges, with the 'graphs' of analytic
geometry (plots of functions) is regrettable, but the term has stuck." Some educators use the term "vertex-edge
graph" for a connected set of nodes in an attempt to preserve the common usage of "graph" to mean the plot of
a function.
 The graph has 4 vertices and 4 vertices

The graph has 4 vertices and 3 edges

The graph has 5 vertices and 8 edges

Graphs come in a wide variety of different sorts. The most common type is graphs in which at most one edge
either one edge or no edges may connect any two vertices. Such graphs are called simple graphs. If multiple
edges are allowed between vertices, the graph is known as a multigraph. Vertices are usually not allowed to be
self-connected, but this restriction is sometimes relaxed to allow such "graph loops." A graph that may
contain multiple edges and graph loops is called a pseudograph.

The edges of graphs may also be imbued with directedness. A normal graph in which edges are undirected is
said to be undirected. Otherwise, if arrows may be placed on one or both endpoints of the edges of a graph to
indicate directedness, the graph is said to be directed. A directed graph in which each edge is given a unique
direction (i.e., edges may not be bidirected and point in both directions at once) is called an oriented graph. A
graph or directed graph together with a function which assigns a positive real number to each edge (i.e., an
oriented edge-labeled graph) is known as a network.
Graph Theory is a relatively new area of mathematics, first studied by the super famous mathematician
Leonhard Euler in 1735. Since then it has blossomed in to a powerful tool used in nearly every branch of science
and is currently an active area of mathematics research.

Loop Parallel Edges

is an edge that connects a vertex to itself.are edges that connect the same vertices

Path

In graph theory, a path in a graph is a finite or infinite sequence of edges which connect a sequence of vertices

1. A path can repeat edges

2. The length of a path refers to the number of edges connected
3. If the direction is not indicated in the graph by an arrow, the movement is can be in any direction to find a
path you can move backward and forward, However if there is an arrow indicating direction the
movement in finding a path is in accordance with the indicated arrow.

Vertex Sequence of a path

A path is written in terms of edges. A path determine a sequence of vertices

1. The number of vertices in vertex sequence is always one larger than the number of edges in the path
2. If a path passes through a loop, the vertex of the loop is repeated in the vertex sequence.

In the time of Euler, in the town of Königsberg in Prussia, there was a river containing two islands. The
islands were connected to the banks of the river by seven bridges (as seen below). The bridges were very
beautiful, and on their days off, townspeople would spend time walking over the bridges. As time passed, a
 question arose: was it possible to plan a walk so that you cross each bridge once and only once? Euler was
able to answer this question.

The problem above, known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg, is the problem that originally inspired graph

theory.

Different types of graphs and their function

There are various types of graphs depending upon the number of vertices, number of edges, interconnectivity,
and their overall structure. We will discuss only a certain few important types of graphs in this chapter.

Closed Path

A closed path is said to be closed path if the first and the last vertices of its vertex sequence are the same

Cycle

A cycle is a path of edges and vertices wherein a vertex is reachable from itself. A path is called cycle if the
following conditions are satisfied:

a. The path is closed

b. The path repeat no edges
c. The vertices of the vertex sequence of the path are all distinct except for the 1 st and last vertices which
are the same vertice

Connected Graph

A graph in which there is a path joining each pair of vertices, the graph being undirected. It is always possible to
travel in a connected graph between one vertex and any other; no vertex is isolated. If a graph is not connected
it will consist of several components, each of which is connected; such a graph is said to be disconnected.
 - connected

- connected

- connected

The graph shown above is connected graph because any two points that you select there is path from one to
another.

Complete Graph

A simple graph with ‘n’ mutual vertices is called a complete graph and it is denoted by ‘Kn’. In the graph, a
vertex should have edges with all other vertices, then it called a complete graph.
In other words, if a vertex is connected to all other vertices in a graph, then it is called a complete graph.

Degree of a Vertex

In graph theory , the degree of a vertex is the number of edges connecting it. If a graph contains a loop, the loop
contributes 2 to the degree of a vertex

Acyclic Graph
This graph has no cycle. An acyclic graph may refer to:

 Directed acyclic graph, a directed graph without any directed cycles

 Forest (graph theory), an undirected acyclic graph
 Polytree, a directed graph without any undirected cycle

Weighted Graph

A graph whose edges are assigned with weights. Weight may represent mileage, time, cost, or some other
quantities.

Tree

is an undirected graph in which any two vertices are connected by exactly one path.

Every acyclic connected graph is a tree, and vice versa. A forest is a disjoint union of trees, or equivalently an
acyclic graph that is not necessarily connected

Properties of a tree:

a. Acyclic graph
b. No cycle path
c. Connected graph

- This graph is example of a tree graph because it is acyclic and connected

Spanning Tree

A subgraph tree of a graph that contains all the vertices of the graph.

Note: If a graph has an n-edges then there are n! Spanning tree in the graph.
Minimal Spanning Tree

The minimal spanning tree of a graph is a spanning tree of the graph with a minimum total weights.

A connected graph has always at least one minimal spanning tree.

Example:

The example graph above is have 1 minimal spanning tree of 3+2+2+8+8+7+4+1+3 (38 total weights)

TWO SPECIAL CIRCUITS

A. Euler Circuit:
- A closed path in a graph which uses each of the edges exactly once,
- Named after Leonard Euler (April 15, 1707- September 18, 1783), a Swiss Mathematician and
Psysicist. He started working on graphs from year 1736

Euler Theorem
- The graph has an Euler Circuit if the graph is connected and the degree of the vertices must be even

Euler Path
- A path that uses each edge of a graph exactly once.

Euler Path Theorem

- A connected graph has an Euler path if and only if the graph has two vertices of odd degree with all
other vertices of even degree.

Solution in Konigsberg Bridge Problem

Konigsberg Bridge problem:
Does there exist a walk crossing each of the seven bridges of Konigsberg exactly one?

Graph Representation:

By Euler Theorem, the graph contains vertices having an odd degree the graph has no Euler Circuit. There is no
closed path that will bring us to each island by crossing each bridge exactly once.

Therefore, the Konigsberg brisge problem has no solution.

Fleury’s Algorithm
Is used to find an Euler Circuit in a graph if the graph has one.

Steps:
1. Select any of the vertices in the graph as the starting point
2. Select any edge connected to the vertex selected in step 1. Remove the edge. (The removal of the edge
must not disconnect the starting vertex or the starting point). After the removal of the edge a new vertex
is reach.
3. Select an edge connected to the new vertex and repeat step 2
4. Repeat step 3 until the starting vertex is reach

B. HAMILTON CIRCUIT
- A closed path which uses each vertex of the graph exactly once, except for the last vertex which
duplicate the 1st vertex.
- Also known as Hamiltonian Circuit
- Named after Sir William Rowan Hamilton He marketed a puzzle in the mid 1800 in the form of a
dodecahedron that contains the name of a city in each corner. The problem is to visit each city
exactly onece by travelling along the edges and be able to return to the starting city.
 Thepicture above is the puzzle that sir William hamilton marketed in the mid 1800

Dira’s Theorem
- Dirac's theorem may refer to: Dirac's theorem on Hamiltonian cycles, the statement that an n-vertex
graph in which each vertex has degree at least n/2 must have a Hamiltonian cycle. Dirac's theorem
on chordal graphs, the characterization of chordal graphs as graphs in which all minimal separators
are cliques.

Algorithm used to find a Hamiltonian Circuit

Greedy Algorithm
- Also known as shortest path algorithm
- Develop by Dijkstra
Steps:
1. Choose a vertex to start at, then travel along the connected edge that has the smallest weight. (if two or
more vertices have the same weight, pick any one)
2. After arriving at the next vertex, travel along the edge of smallest weight that connects to a vertex not yet
visited. Continue this process until you have visited all vertices
3. Return to the starting vertex

The Edge picking Algorithm

Steps:
1. Mark the edge of the smallest weight in the graph. (if the two or more edges have the same weight, pick
only one)
2. Mark the edge of the next smallest weight in the graph, as long as it does not complete a circuit does not
add a third marked edge to a single vertex.
3. Continue this process until you can no longer mark any edges. Then mark the final edge that completes
the Hamiltonian circuit.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE:

Lesson 5:

Path
Paths Length Paths Length

ADE 3 e4 e3 2

ADC 3 e3 e2 e4 3

BCE 3 e1 e5 e4 3

ABCED 5 e1 e5 e4 e3 e2 5

ADECB 5 e1 e5 e5 e4 4

Vertex Sequence of a path

Path Length Vertex Seq. # of Edges # of Vetex

e1 e5 e4 3 YZZX 3 4

e1 e5 e4 e3 e2 5 YZZXYZ 5 6

e1 e5 e5 e4 4 YZZZX 4 5

Closed Path

Path 4 1 -7 are closed path Path 3 1 4 are closed path, path 2 1 2 are closed path

Degree of a Vertex
Vertex Degree
X 2
Y 4
Z 4

Weighted Graph

Let assume that the graph is a transportation route of a salesman and the vertices correspond to the different
countrieswhile edgesrepresents the distances in kilometers

V1 to V6= 5+3+7= 15 kilometers

Euler Circuit

This graph has many euler circuits, each of which is also an euler path.
This graph has no odd vertices one example is A, D , B ,C, D, B,

This graph has an euler path but it does not have an Euler Circuit.One Euler path
is E, C, B, E, D, B, A, D each path must begin or end at vertex D or E.
this graph has two odd vertices.

Hamilton Circuit and Path

 Hamiltonian circuit A D B C A

Hamiltonian path A B C D E

APPLICATION:
Lesson 5:
Activity 1: Simple Example

Find the number of spanning trees in the following graph.

Activity 2: Problem Solving

If 10 people each shake hands with each other, how many handshakes took place? What does this question
have to do with graph theory?

Lesson 6:

Activity 1: Simple Example

Color the map using the four color theorem

Activity 2: Problem Solving

How the map should be colored with 4 colors if no two adjacent states should have them with the same color ?

DISCUSSION
Lesson 6: Application of Graph Theory

The Pipeline Problem

In computing, a pipeline, also known as a data pipeline, is a set of data processing elements connected in
series, where the output of one element is the input of the next one. The elements of a pipeline are often
executed in parallel or in time-sliced fashion. Some amount of buffer storage is often inserted between elements.

•The MAYNILAD is considering 8 cities to be connected by a pipeline. The distances in (km) between cities are
given in the graph below:

Determine the minimum length of pipe that

MAYNILAD is needed to connect the 8 cities. Use
the minimal spanning tree.

Solution:

Total weight of the minimal spanning tree

=80+90+80+150+60+70+105=635

Therefore, Maynilad needs 635km length of pipeline to connect the 8 cities.

Euler's Method
• Euler's method is a numerical method that you can use to approximate the solution to an initial value problem
with a differential equation that can't be solved using a more traditional method, like the methods we use to solve
separable, exact, or linear differential equations

•The Euler's Method is named after Leonhard Euler, who treated it in his book Institutionum calculi integralis. He
was a Swiss mathematician who is thought to be one of the greatest and most productive mathematicians of all
time.(published 1768-1870).

•Euler's formula deals with shapes called Polyhedra. A Polyhedron is a closed solid shape which has flat faces
and straight edges.

Euler's formula states that for Polyhedra that follow certain rules:

F+V-E=2

Where F= Number of faces, V= Number of vertices (Corners), E=Number of edges

Illustrative Example No. 1

Tetrahedron & Cube

Shape Faces Vertices Edges F+V-E

Tetrahedron 4 4 6 4+4-6=2

Cube 6 8 12 6+8-12=2

Rule: The shape must not have any holes, and that it must
not intersect itself. It also cannot be made up of two pieces
stuck together, such as two cubes stuck together by one vertex.

There are in fact shapes which produce a different answer to the sum F+V-E. The answer to the sum F+V-E is
called the Euler Characteristic χ, and is often written F+V-E=χ. Some shapes can even have an Euler
Characteristic which is negative.
Example No. 2

Can you now work out which of the following shapes should have an Euler Characteristic of 2?

Answer: A and D have an Euler Characteristic of 2 as

they are polyhedral which follow all the required rules.

Simple Sample:

Find the number of faces, vertices, and edges of the regular octahedron using Euler's formula.

Application:

A soccer ball is made up of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, how many vertices does the soccer ball have?
The Map Coloring Problem

The four color theorem

Every map in the plane consisting of connected region without a hole can be colored with four different colors
without coloring two adjacent regions with the same color

Example: consider the map that shows the South Africa’s Countries

Use graph coloring to determine the least number of colors that can be used to color the map of southern africa
so that countries with common boundaries have different colors

Problem solving strategy:

• Assign label to each country

• Use edges to connect the vertices of countries that share borders

• Use the procedure for coloring a graph

*Label degrees

*Start coloring with highest degree vertex

The color of each region is the color of the corresponding vertex .

The result is a 4 color graph it turns out that 4 colors are necessary for this map although other configurations
are possible

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE 1: Color the map using four color theorem

EXAMPLE 2: Color the different countries using four color theorem

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