XVIII Potash Fertilizers
In traduction and phosphorus (the three primary nutrients) are
Potash was first mined commercially as carnallite
ore in the Stassfurt region of Germany in 1861 soon
after the investigations of Liebig indicated that potas-
sium salts might be used advantageously as a chemical
fertilizer. Within 2 years, 14 plants had come into
operation. In 1864 the total production was 110,000
tons of salts, and this value gradually increased to
about 3 million tons in 1900 and to about 44 million
tons in 1978-79 (calculated as 60% K2 0 product).
Potassium is the seventh most abundant element
in the earth's crust. In addition to being an essential
constituent of plant and animal life, it occurs in very
low concentrations in rocks and soils; in the oceans,
lakes, and rivers; and in the saline residues of salt
lakes. The most widespread economic source of potash
is the evaporite deposits--sedimentary deposits formed
by the evaporation of seawater under very arid con-
ditions ( 1). Commercial deposits, such as those in the
Elk Poi~Basin in western Canada, required the flow
of large amounts of seawater into a lagoon where the
dissolved salts precipitated in the inverse order of
their solubilities, first calcium carbonate, calcium sul-
fate, anhydrite, and sodium chloride, followed by the
highly soluble potassium and magnesium salts when
the seawater reached about 100 times its original
concentration.
The principal potash evaporite minerals of com-
mercial importance are sylvite, langbeinite, kainite,
and carnallite. Sylvinite, a mixture of potassium
chloride and sodium chloride crystals, is the easiest
to process and is mined in the largest quantities. It
normally occurs in layers, underlain and overlain with
sodium chloride. The sylvinite occurs in more than
one stratum.
AU North American potash mines recover sylvinite.
Two mines in the United States also produce lang-
beinite, which is sold as a source of water-soluble
magnesium as well as potassium and sulfur. One pro-
ducer also reacts langbeinite with potassium chloride
to produce potassium sulfate and the waste product
magnesium chloride. Potassium chloride or sulfate is
also recovered from brine deposits.
Carnallite (KCl· MgCl 2 • 6H 2 0) is more difficult to
process, but it is refined in Europe, Israel, and the
U.S.S.R. to recover its potassium chloride.
Kainite (KCl· MgS0 4 • 3H 2 0) occurs in several
European mines, usually in combination with other
potash ores.
The purpose of this chapter is to state the im-
portance of potash, to review its mineralogy and prin-
cipal deposits, to give an overview of the processes
for refining it, to indicate trends in its products, to
report price levels and typical production costs, and
finally to summarize world potash commerce and
consumption.
Agronomic and Industrial Significance of Potash
Although some 17 elements are normally required
to support healthy plant growth, nitrogen, potassium,
T. P. Hignett (ed.), Fertilizer Manual
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1985
required in much larger quantities than are the other
elements. In order to attain the maximum effective-
ness, these primary nutrients have to be supplied to
crops in essentially the same proportions as they exist
in most plant life, where the ratio of nitrogen to
potassium is about 2:1. Thus, among the commercial
fertilizers, about half as much potash is used as ni-
trogen, except when the soil is capable of supplying
potash. Thus, the ever-increasing use of nitrogen
fertilizers necessitates the application of potash in
similarly increasing quantities.
The physiological functions of potassium in plants
include at least the following:
l. Promotion of carbohydrate metabolism or forma-
tion, breakdown, and translocation of starch.
2. Promotion of nitrogen metabolism and the syn-
thesis of protein in green plants.
3. Control and regulation of activities of various
essential mineral nutrients.
4. Neutralization of the physiologically important or-
ganic acids.
5. Activation of various enzymes.
6. Promotion of the growth of young meristems.
7. Control of stomatal movement and internal water
relationships.
About 95% of all potash mined is used as fertili-
zers (2). The other 5% is used in various industrial
applications. A higher purity (99. 92% KCl) chemical
grade of potash is used by the chlor-alkali industry
in the electrolysis of KCl-water solutions to form
chlorine and potassium hydroxide (KOH), commonly
called caustic potash. Caustic potash is used in
liquid soaps, textiles, greases, catalysts, engraving,
alkaline batteries, and rubber fabrication. A substan-
tial amount of caustic potash is further processed to
form potassium carbonate and other potassium com-
pounds. More than half of the potassium carbonate
produced annually is used in glass manufacture.
Caustic potash is also used in relatively small amounts
to make potassium phosphates for special fertilizers
such as liquid fertilizers for foliar application. Small
quantities of agricultural grades of muriate of potash
are used with sodium chloride and other chemicals as
fluxes in the secondary smelting of aluminum and
magnesium. Muriate of potash is included in drill
muds used in oil well drilling.
Mineralogy of Potash Ores
Potassium accounts for 2. 35% of the earth's crust,
where it is mixed mainly with deposits of sodium com-
pounds. But it is also found in feldspars, muscovite
(white mica), granite, and gneiss. Sedimentary rocks
comprise about 5% of the earth's crust. The sand-
stones contain about 1. 1% potassium, shales about
2. 7%, and limestones about 0.27%. Potassium, a mono-
valent alkali metal, does not occur in nature because
it is highly reactive and has a strong affinity for
225
other elements. It has a melting point of 63. 5°C, a Silicates and other nonsoluble minerals (except
specific heat of 0. 177 cal/mole/°C, and a specific alunite) are not included in the tabulation above.
gravity of 0 . 86. Potash deposits can be classified into three basic types
according to the mineralization of the principal hori-
Potassium mineral deposits are usually the result zons, namely:
of evaporation of water from landlocked seas that have
become separated from the main oceanic body and from 1. Carnallitic mineralization including a carnallite-
which the contained salts have gradually precipitated. kieserite-halite zone, a carnallite-anhydrite-halite
In some cases inland seas have evaporated to form zone, and a carnallite- halite zone.
such deposits. Potassium and other alkali metals were
brought into the oceans and inland lakes by river 2. Sylvinitic mineralization, including a sylvite-
water that leached these materials from rocks and kieserite-halite zone, a sylvite-anhydrite-halite
soils. Sodium is leached more easily from soils zone, and a sylvite-halite zone.
because potassium becomes fixed to clay particles in 3. Kainitic mineralization, containing sulfates, chlo-
soil. rides, and a kainite-langbeinite-picromerite-
glaserite-polyhalite zone.
Salts crystallize in an inverse ratio of their solu-
bilities; the order of deposition usually is calcium
ca,rbonate, magnesium carbonate, calcium sulfate, so- World Potash Reserves
dium chloride, magnesium sulfate, magnesium chloride,
and finally potassium chloride. Other conditions alter
the deposition, and they may account for the various World potash reserves are enormous and sufficient
strata encountered. to meet requirements for many centuries to come. The
U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1978 estimated the reserves
The mother liquor or bittern of seawater after of potash at about 12 billion 1 tons of K2 0 at 1976 do-
the moderately soluble salts have precipitated is rich mestic mine prices, with total resources at 132 billion
in magnesium chlorides and sulfates and smaller tons (3). The fact that potash can be recovered from
amounts of potassium and bromine. seawater means an additional, almost unlimited, but
more costly, resource of this material.
Bittern salts of marine origin include:
Enormous quantities of potash are present in
Sylvite KCl Canada and the U.S.S.R. These two countries to-
gether probably represent more than half the world's
Carnallite KCl·MgCl 2 ·6H 2 0 reserves and about 80% of the world's resources. The
Kieserite MgS0 4 ·H 2 0 remaining known reserves are distributed among the
United States, Europe, the Middle East, Thailand, the
Poly halite 2CaS0 4 • MgS0 4 • K 2 S0 4 • 2H 2 0 Congo, and South America. An estimate of world
Langbeinite K 2 S0 4 • 2MgS0 4 potash reserves and resources is given in table 1
which was taken from a recent U.S. Bureau of Mines
Boracite 5MgO·MgC1 2 ·7Bz03 report (3). A similar estimate has been published by
The World Bank ( 4). A brief description of each
The minerals associated with brines of lake beds deposit follows ( 5, 6).
include other minerals such as those found in Searles
Lake in California. In the U.S. Bureau of Mines classification, "re-
serves" are described as ores that can be recovered
Halite NaCl at or near the current market prices; whereas, "re-
sources" are potentially minable ores which, because
Hank site 9Na 2 S0 4 ·2Na 2 C0 3 · KCl of cost or other constraints, could not necessarily be
Trona Na 2 C0 3 ·NaHC0 3 ·2H 2 0 recovered at current prices but might be at a later
date (3). The World Bank estimates use a similar
Borax Na 2 B 4 0 7 ·10H 2 0 classification. The necessary data for making such
Glaserite 3KzSO• · Nazso. estimates are not always available or may be subject
to different interpretations. Locations of the major
The following potash minerals are found in na- potash deposits are indicated in figure 1.
ture. The most important is sylvite which is usually
found mixed with sodium chloride; the mixture is
called sylvinite. Other ores being used in fertilizer Canada
potash production are carnallite, langbeinite, niter and
kainite. Saskatchewan--The development of the vast
potash deposits in the Devonian Prairie Evaporite
formation in Saskatchewan and adjacent Alberta and
Manitoba has been the most important event in the
Mineral Com1>0sition % KzO potash industry in the last three decades. Three main
potash zones in this evaporite have been defined.
Chlorides Zone 1 (Esterhazy), the lowest, attains a maximum
Sylvite KCl 63.1 thickness of about 21 m and consists of a central syl-
Carnallite KCl·MgC1 2 ·6H 2 0 17.0 vinite region surrounded by carnallite-rich mineraliza-
Kainite KCl·MgS0 4 ·3HzO 18.9 tion. Zone 2, the Belle Plaine member, reaches a
Hanksite KCl·9NazS0 4 ·2NazC03 3.0 maximum thickness of 23 m with a central sylvinite
Sulfates region, but the center carnallite zone is narrower than
Polyhalite K2 S0 4 ·MgS0 4 ·2CaS0 4 ·2H 2 0 15.5 in Zone 1. Zone 3, the Patience Lake member, is over
Langbeinite K2 S0 4 ·2MgS0 4 22.6 24 m thick, and the carnallite mineralization sur-
Leonite K2 S0 4 ·MgS0 4 ·4Hz0 25.5 rounding the sylvinite is narrower still. In general,
Schoenite Kzso.·Mgso.·6HzO 23.3 the grade in all three zones increases toward the
Krugite K2 S0 4 ·MgS0 4 ·4CaS0 4 ·2H 2 0 10.7 south from 20% to 30% K 2 0 and is comparable in all
Glaserite 3K 2 so.·NazS0 4 42.6 three. The depth of the Prairie Evaporite ranges from
Syngenite K2 S0 4 ·CaS04•H 2 0 28.8 660 m along its northern edge to 3,050 m at the inter-
Aphthitalite (K, Nal2S04 29.8a national boundary.
Kalinite K2 S0 4 ·Alz(S04)3·24Hz0 9.9
Alunite Kz•Als(OH)lz•(S04)4 11.4 Seven organizations operate 10 mines in Saskat-
Nitrates chewan with an aggregate annual capacity of 8. 0 mil-
Niter KN03 46.5

a. Assuming equimo1ecu1ar proportions of K and Na. 1. In this manual the term "billion" is equivalent to 1,000 million.

226
TABLE 1. ASSESSMENT OF WORLD POTASH RESOURCES (MILLION TONS OF K20) 8

Other Total
Location Reservesb Resources Resources

North America
Canada 9,000 58,000 67,000
U.S.A. 180 ~ ~

Total 9,180 63,260 72,440

South America
Chile 9
Peru 0 9
Brazil 45 ~

Total 54 243

Europe
France 35 145 180
Germany, Democratic Republic 270 4,260 4,530
Germany, Federal Republic 180 3,080 3,260
Italy 9 27 36
Spain 27 154 181
U.S.S.R. 1,800 43,500 45,300
United Kingdom 45 ~ ~

Total 2,366 51,391 53,757

Asia
Israel and Jordan 218 870 1,088
China, Peoples Republic of 9 9 18
Laos 18 27 45
Thailand --.22 ~ ~

Total 300 9,921 10,221

Africa
Congo 0 180 ~

Total 0 180 180

Oceania
Australia 0 18 18

TOTAL 11,900 125,013 136,913

a. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1978. "Potash," Mineral Conunodity Profiles MCP-11, (Converted from short to metric
tons).
b. At average 1976 domestic mine price.

lion tons . One of the mines is a solution mine; the
others are shaft mines. Total resources may be
74 billion tons of K2 0, of which 18 billion tons may be
economically recoverable--5 billion by conventional
mining and 13 billion by solution mining (3, 6).
Maritime Provinces--The evaporite deposits of ad-
jacent parts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have
been known since the beginning of the 20th century;
gypsum and rock salt have been mined for many years.
Potash was discovered in the Nova Scotia salt deposits
in 1919 and again in 1939, but the low grade and un-
favorable mining conditions discouraged further
interest. More intensive exploration started in 1965.
Economic reserves have been found in an adjacent area
of New Brunswick in the Moncton Basin at a depth of
about 600 m. The potash zones range from 3 to 15 m
in thickness, and the average grade is 21%-30% K2 0.
One mine is currently (1979) under construction, and
plans for a second mine and refinery have been an-
nounced. The combined capacity of these two projects
is expected to be 2 million tpy or more of muriate of
potash. A favorable factor is the location within
50 km of the deepwater seaport of St. John.
Potash deposits have also been found in New-
foundland, and exploration is expected to continue
there and in Nova Scotia.
United States
North Dakota--The Prairie Evaporite formation
underlies 20,700 km 2 of the North Dakota-Montana
section of the Williston Basin at depths of 2, 000-
4, 000 m. This is an extension of the Canadian de-
posits. The ore beds are thick and high grade, but
the depth would require expensive solution mining.
PPG Industries reported in 1976 that tests of the
effectiveness of solution mining would be made at
depths of 3,000-3,600 m which is about twice the
depth of the Kalium solution mine in Canada. (Kalium
is a subsidiary of PPG Industries.)
New Mexico--A sedimentary basin of Permian age
covering some 104,000 km 2 in western Texas and
southeastern New Mexico has been outlined by explor-
atory drilling. The most abundant mineral is poly-
halite, but minable sylvinite occurs in the area around
Carlsbad. At least 60 potash layers have been en-
countered, of which 11 ore zones are significant. The
productive zones are located 250-610 m below the sur-
face, dipping gently southeast, and are between 1.5
and 3 m thick in the mining area. The ores are syl-
vinite with more than 3% water-insoluble material and
two mixed ore beds containing sylvite and langbeinite.
Reserves are estimated to be about 85 million tons of
K20.

227
 16

I. CANADA[Sookot.:h•wonl
2. CANAOA\N-II<~,_.;u)
3.USA\NewMuicol
4.U.SA(Utah)
5.U5.A(Cololornoa)
6.6RAZIL[Se•'ii'""J
7.CHILE(A""'f"gcnto)
8.fNGLAND(Cia-lclnd)
9.SPAIN(Catalotuo,No•orro}
10. FIANCE [AIMu[

l
Jl.ITALY(Socolrl
12. GUM.t.NY(Ol.G.!. FRGI
13.uSSJI.[WeotiJ..o.,..)
14.US.S.R [B,.Ioru.. og)
15.u.s.s.R.\Uralo]
16.uss.R (SiH<~a)
17. JOli),I,N&I51AEl\Deo4S.o)
18. CONGO (Poonta NoN-•)
\9.£THIO,IA(0...,.kil)
20. CHINA (lob (h.,..t..loo)
21. THAILANO[Khoret Ple-j
22. AUSUALIA (Lok. Me L...4)

Source: The World Bank.

Figure 1. World Major Potash Deposits.

Seven mines are in operation in New Mexico.
Five recover only sylvite, one recovers only lang-
beinite, and one recovers both. The average grade
of the ore is about 16% K2 0.
Utah--The Cane Creek potash deposits near Moab
in southeast Utah lie at depths of around 1, 200 m.
The sylvinite horizon which is exploited is 3-4 m
thick, and it contains 25%-30% K2 0. The formation is
highly faulted and folded. It is estimated that reserves
of 200 million tons of potash-bearing salts are present
in a 31 km 2 area.
One mine is in operation in the area. It was
originally a shaft mine, but because of difficulties
caused by faulting, it was converted to a solution
mine in 1972. Water pumped into the mine becomes
saturated in 300-350 days and attains a temperature
of 32°-33°C after which it is pumped into a series
of evaporation ponds. A sodium and potassium
chloride mixture is slurried from the ponds to the
original refinery for recovery of potassium chloride.
The Great Salt Lake in Utah covers a variable
area between 2,600 and 5,200 km 2 . It is a remnant
of ancient Lake Bonneville. The Bonneville Salt Flats
in western Utah are another remnant of Lake Bonne-
ville. They are a desert deposit of salt or mud flats
impregnated with a saturated or nearly saturated
brine. A 1-m top layer of hard-packed salt is
underlain by a layer of fissured clay beneath which
lies the brine. The brines which contain about 2.4%
K2 0 are pumped to evaporation ponds.
Two plants are in operation in this area. In one
plant brine from the northern part of the Great Salt
Lake is carried by canal to 7,000 ha of evaporation
ponds. Sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, and a
mixture of kainite, carnallite, and schoenite are
successively crystallized. Schoenite is crystallized in
settling tanks and converted to potassium sulfate.
In another operation brines in the Bonneville
Salt Flats are recovered from a 35,000-ha area in
about 145 km of ditches from which they are pumped
into 3,000 ha of evaporation ponds. Following a short
(about 3 months) evaporation season, sylvinite is
trucked to a flotation plant. Standard potash and
compacted granular muriate of potash are produced.
California--Searles Lake covers an area of about
104 km 2 and is a remnant of a much larger fresh
water lake. Today, it is a mud and sand flat within
which are two superimposed crystal bodies of mixed
salts permeated with concentrated br:L.>es. The upper
layer from which the potash is obtained averages 20 m
thick and has a total area of 31 km 2 • The upper
brine contains about B% K2 0. Muriate and sulfate of
potash are produced together with nonferti!izer
products.
Central America
Mexico--Potassium minerals have been reported in
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Yucatan Peninsula.
Carnallite is the most prevalent, but sylvinite is also
present. These deposits are not yet being mined, but
exploration indicates that they may be economically
promising.
South America
Brazil--The potash deposits of northeast Brazil
are estimated to contain 500 million tons of sylvinite
and 6 billion tons of carnallite at depths in excess of
550 m. Although plans have been announced for re-
covery of these deposits, near-term commercialization
is hampered because of difficult access and its loca-
tion.
Peru--Brine deposits have been located in the
western half of the Sechura Desert Region of northern
Peru. It is estimated that 30 billion tons of brines
circulate in the desert sediments and that they contain
17 million tons of KCl and 146 million tons of MgC1 2 .
No plans for exploitation are currently under consid-
eration.
Chile--The nitrate deposits of Chile are located
on the plateau lying between the coastal range and
the Andes, principally in the Atacama Desert in

228
northern Chile. The deposits which vary in thickness
from a few centimeters to several meters are patchy,
poorly stratified layers of red-brown gravel cemented
together with sodium nitrate and other soluble salts.
Potassium salts·, mainly nitrate, are recovered as a
byproduct from sodium nitrate production. The com-
position and processing of the Chilean ore are de-
scribed in more detail under the heading "Sodium
Nitrate" in chapter VIII.
Africa
Congo--During the course of exploratory work in
the Congo Basin between Pointe Noire and Brazzaville,
an area of approximately 4.1 km 2 of salt and potash
deposits was outlined in 10 evaporite cycles. Carnal-
lite beds are regular and extensive with a cumulative
thickness of up to 90 m. The zones are located a-
round Holie-St. Paul where sylvinite occurs in three
beds at relatively shallow depths (90-120 m) with K2 0
contents at a range of 20%-35%. There are two beds
containing sylvinite averaging about 20%-21% K2 0.
Large-scale mining operations were started in 1969,
but floodin.g of the mine has terminated production.
There are no known plans to resume it.
Ethiopia--The evaporite deposits of the Danakil
Depression contain substantial reserves of potash as
sylvinite, carnallite, and kainite. In the area south
of Dallal, the potash horizon has been found at 730 m.
The prospected potash bed is 3-15 m thick and con-
sists of sylvinite grading downward into carnallite,
kieserite, poly halite, and kainite. The deposit has
not yet been exploited although several feasibility
studies have been carried out in the last few years.
Morocco--The potash reserves in the Khemisset
Basin extend over an area of more than 31 km 2 . The
principal ore is carnallite which occurs in two beds
1-10 m thick. There are also low-grade sylvinite
deposits. No exploitation has yet taken place.
Middle East
Israel and Jordan--The Dead Sea lies between
Israel and Jordan and now covers an area of about
700 km 2 to a maximum depth of 400 m. It is fed by
the Jordan River and natural springs, but it has no
outlet. The potassium resources of the Dead Sea are
being exploited by Israel, and plans call for exploita-
tion by Jordan also.
Solar evaporation is utilized to crystallize halite,
followed by carnallite. The latter salt is harvested
and converted to muriate of potash. Bromine is also
recovered as a byproduct. The Dead Sea is estimated
to contain over 1 billion tons of K2 0 of which about
20% may be economically recoverable (3).
Pakistan--Pakistan possesses potential for potas-
sium reserves, both in bedded salts and brine. The
salt bed occurrences thus far reported are sporadic
zones of sylvite and langbeinite in salt mines. The
area of potash -rich beds is believed to include the
greater part of the Salt Range and the Potwar and
Indus Plains. The brine occurrences were discovered
in the Punjab province during oil-drilling operations.
The brine is hot and under great pressure and is
saturated with carnallite. It contains about 7% KCl,
17% MgCl2 , 3% CaCl 2 , 2% NaCl, and fractional percen-
tages of boron and bromine compounds. Utilization
of the brine to recover KCl and other soluble products
has been proposed, but no definite plans have been
made.
France--The Alsace potash occurrences lie in a
faulted depression of about 210 km 2 between the Rhine
River and the Vosges mountains. Two sylvinite beds
229
are found in three separate basins. The Mulhouse
Basin is a source of the present production where the
beds are 400-1,100 m below the surface. The upper
zone contains 20%-25% K2 0 as sylvite 1-3 m thick, and
the lower bed is 2-5 m thick with 15%-20% K2 0 as
sylvite. Total resources for the French deposits are
estimated at about 300 million tons. The potash de-
posits also extend across the French border into the
Buggingen district of Germany, but mining has now
ceased in this area.
Federal Republic of Germany--In West Germany,
the Kali und Salz mines the Zechstein deposits in the
southern Werra district and the north German plain
near Hannover. Kali-Chemie has a mine nearby at
Friedrichshall where it mines hartsalz (a rock com-
posed of sylvite, halite, anhydrite, and/or kieserite)
at about 900 m depth. Muriate of potash and a 12%
K2 0 product, magnesia- kainite, are produced at
Friedrichshall. All the mines of the Hannover region
exploit the highly concentrated potash beds of salt
domes in the Permian Zechstein evaporites.
No further changes are anticipated in the potash
production capacity of this country in the next few
years.
Democratic Republic of Germany--VEB Kombinat-
kali operates mines in four groups;
Kalibetrieb Werra
Kalibetrieb Zielitz
Kalibetrieb Sud-Harz
Kali und Steinsalzbetrieb Saale
Various ores are mined to produce muriate and sulfate
of potash as well as kieserite and minor amounts of
miscellaneous products. The total annual production
is now slightly over 3 million tons of K2 0. In the
early 1980s with the Zielitz mine operating at full
capacity plus other minor expansions, the East German
potash industry should have a capacity of nearly
4 million tons of K 2 0 ( 7).
England--All four Zechstein evaporite cycles have
been found in the coastal areas between Durham and
Scarborough and have been correlated with the German
deposits. The evaporite beds thicken from the north-
west and south to a central area around Whitby and
Scarborough where the lower, middle, and upper
evaporites occur. In the Whitby area sylvinite de-
posits occur at depths of 1, 000-1,200 m and at
1, 500 m. One mine is in operation at a depth of
1, 160 m where the ore grade is 27% K2 0. The opera-
tion has been hampered by a badly faulted seam, but
production is gradually incr;easing.
Denmark--Potash-bearing evaporite beds have
been found to be up to 0. 46 m thick in North Jutland
at depths of 800-1,300 m.
Poland--The eastern extension of the Zechstein
formation from Germany contains bedded potassium
deposits in the vicinity of Klodawa. The known
deposits contain low-grade (8% K2 0) carnallite ores
that are 500-1,600 m in depth.
Spain--In Spain there are up to four potash beds
which contain carnallite and sylvinite ore within the
range of 15%-29% K2 0 in the area between Barcelona
and Pamplona. These mines are operated at depths
of 300-500 m. Further west, the deposits are mined
in an area south of Pamplona. These beds ·also con-
sist of carnallite and sylvinite, but they are less
faulted than those in the Catalonian field. Two
potash beds occur in the Navarre district at depths
of 130-650 m. The upper seam contains principally
carnallite with an average grade of 14% K 2 0. The
grade of the sylvinite bed is 18%-20% K 2 0. Four
mines are in operation in Spain.
Italy--Potash deposits in Italy are found only in
Sicily. It is one of the few areas of the world where
kainite is the principal ore mineral although some syl-
vite and carnallite occur in the ore mined. The four
mines in operation produce potassium sulfate and
potassium-magnesium sulfate.
U.S.S.R.
In the U.S.S.R. potash is produced in three
main regions: the north Urals, southern Byelorussia,
and the western Ukraine. Sylvinite occurs in the
first two of these regions, while both sylvinite and
kainite are mined in the Ukraine. Muriate of potash
is the principal product. Actual production in the
U.S.S.R. in 1975 was 8. 7 million tons of K 2 0 from the
following sources:
Byelorussia 3.8
Urals 4.3
Ukraine 0.6
These three major projects will probably increase
the Russian potash production significantly during the
next 10-15 years.
The deposits near Stebnik and Kalush in the west
Ukraine contain hartsalz, sylvinite, kainite, and lang-
beinite. These deposits are inclined, and mining in
steeply dipping beds is common.
Additional potash deposits are present in east
and south Russia. In Siberia, comparatively deep-
bedded deposits are known at Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk,
and Yakutsk. Widespread mineralization exists north
and east of the Caspian Sea, and several beds of
potassium minerals have been found in salt deposits
in Turkmenistan. Total resources are estimated at
45 billion tons of K 2 0, of which about 1. 8 billion tons
is currently classified as reserves ill-
Asia
China--Potash has been recovered from salt lakes
in China for several years, and production from
underground mines began in the early 1960s. Potash
is also recovered from underground brine seams and
from sea salt operations. Over 3, 000 salt lakes are
found in northwest China in Tsinghai Province. Lake
Cha-erh-han is one of the lakes from which potash is
recovered. The brines which occur in Szechuan Pro-
vince have been processed for many years to recover
potash.
There are deposits of potash in west central
China containing 10%-20% K 2 0. These are currently
being exploited.
Thailand--A potash deposit has been discovered
in northwest Thailand extending into Laos. This de-
posit is essentially carnallite which lies at depths be-
tween 80 and 400 m. Sylvite is also present in some
areas. Only a small area of the potential deposits has
yet been explored, but it is believed that the deposits
may be extensive. The deposit has been estimated to
contain 10 billion tons of K2 0, of which 60 million has
been classified as reserves (3).
Australia--Several extensive evaporite basins have
been found in Australia. Lake McLeod in western
Australia contains about 6. 5 billion tons of rock salt
below the dry surface of the lake. Underground
water dissolves the salt and produces a saturated
brine which contains 3% K 2 0. Langbeinite was re-
covered from the brines in a plant that was recently
destroyed by a typhoon. There are no known plans
to rebuild it.
Potash is very largely extracted from under-
ground deposits of sylvinite, primarily mixed crystals
230
of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. The shaft-
room -and-pillar method of mining is generally prac-
ticed. Long-wall mining is used in limited instances.
Solution mining technology is well developed and is
practical on a limited scale; the cost of energy re-
quired is the main deterrent. Shaft mining is generally
practiced when the ore body is less than 1, 300 m from
the surface. At greater depths solution mining is
necessary. Potash is also recovered in much lesser
(juan tities from brines, such as those in the Great Salt
Lake and the Dead Sea.
Shaft Mining
Shaft excavation and construction are generally
conven tiona! and costly. In Canada the Blairmore zone
of high water pressure and unstable formations neces-
sitated freezing the material to be removed before the
shaft could be excavated and tubbed. Similar diffi-
culties were experienced in Yorkshire.
The success of underground room-and-pillar
mmmg is dependent on the character of the ore body;
thick, flat beds are preferred. A thin sylvinite or
other potash-bearing ore zone necessitates mining
sodium chloride above and/or below the sylvinite, and
this dilutes the ore grade. Equally difficult and ex-
pensive is a badly faulted mine, which also results in
the excavation of an undue amount of debris in order
to operate mobile equipment or to install conveyor
belts.
The proportion of ore removed (rooms) during
the initial mining depends upon mine depth, roof con-
dition, and other factors. Primary mining often re-
moves in the range of 40%-50% of the ore. Secondary
mining can increase the removal to the 80%-90% range.
Ammonium nitrate and oil mixtures have virtually
displaced dynamite as the blasting agent because they
result in a substantial cost saving. Improved drill
patterns increase the yield per charge and thereby
further reduce cost. More recent installations use
continuous mining machines having the capability of
up to 5 tons of ore per minute.
Mechanical loaders gather the fragmented ore,
whether dislodged by blasting or by continuous
miners. Conveying from the mine face to the hoist
shaft has traditionally been by railcars. Belt haulage
is rapidly replacing rails, thus reducing labor and
other costs, especially as the distances increase from
mine face to hoist shaft. Mine maintenance and other
underground services are usually rendered from facil-
ities located underground. Working conditions, in-
cluding temperature, freedom from harmful dust,
utility services, and mechanization, are nearly ideal
in most potash mines.
Ore storage and facilities for primary crushing
to a maximum of about 15 ern are located at the hoist
shaft. The crushed ore is automatically loaded into
skips for hoisting to the surface.
Solution Mining
This method of mining involves the application of
phase chemistry as well as large amounts of increas-
ingly expensive energy. Techniques include investi-
gations of the salt solution, brine flow, selective
extraction of KCl from .sylvinite, and control of cavity
geometry. Advantages are reportedly that the method
(1) avoids the construction of shafts which are also
costly and ( 2) permits the mining of land or marine
deposits without regard to overburden and at depths
not feasible by shaft mining. With solution mining the
preferred approach is to employ rnultiwells circulating
the solvent between the wells. Most of the solution can
take place from the cavern roof. Achieving a high
level of dissolved potassium chloride per unit of sol-
vent is the key to efficiency. One technique to assist
in controlling contact of the brine with the potash ore
is to inject diesel fuel to blanket the brine. Drilling
costs for identifying the ore zone as well as for pro-
duction holes are high; yet, solution mining is an es-
tablished technology.
A hole is drilled to a level near the upper level
of the potash strata and is then cased down to this
level. A pipe is placed in the casing to a level below
the lower level of the potash strata. An aqueous
medium is pumped between casing and pipe to the
potash bed where a cavity is established. When the
cavities of two adjoining cased holes meet, water un-
saturated with regard to potassium chloride and sodium
chloride is added through one cased hole, and the
saturated solution is withdrawn through the other.
The concentration of the solution can be partially con-
trolled by the rate of pumping which determines the
retention time in the cavity, which can be very
lengthy.
Brine Recovery
The recovery of potash from natural brines is
practiced in a few locations, most notably the Dead
Sea where the net evaporation rate is exceptionally
high. At both the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake,
brine is taken from that part of the lake where reten-
tion has been longest and, thus, the brine concentra-
tion is the highest. Brines can be accumulated from
certain "dry" lakes by ditching and accumulating
brines that move laterally through the soil to the
ditches from which the brine can be pumped to solar
evaporation ponds.
Beneficiating - Refining
Beneficiation of Sylvinite Ores
There are three principal methods of beneficiating
sylvinite ores: flotation, heavy-media separation, and
solution-crystallization (8).
Froth Flotation--This method of refining is the
most widely practiced and the most economical method
of recovering sylvite (KCl) from sylvinite, a mixture
of potassium chloride and sodium chloride crystals with
some attendant clay and clay slimes. Flotation, as the
name suggests, is a method of floating off either the
potassium chloride or the sodium chloride on a froth.
Flotation of the potassium chloride is the preferred
commercial method.
The steps in flotation of sylvite from sylvinite
after the ore is hoisted include the following:
1. Crushing and classifying.
2. Adding a saturated brine of NaCl and KCl to
produce a pulp containing 50%-75% solids.
3. Wet grinding the ore to a size that liberates the
sylvite from the sodium chloride crystals. This
size varies according to the size of the crystals.
4. Adding the chosen sylvite conditioning agents
usually including an amine to make the potassium
chloride more hydrophobic. A blinder is also
added to depress slime flotation and an alcohol to
act as a frothing agent.
5. Diluting with brine to 20%-25% solids.
6. Introducing the sylvite-containing brine into a
series of rougher flotation cells, providing agita-
tion and introducing air which adheres in the
form of bubbles to the sylvite particles and
causes them to float to the surface. The sylvite
float is raked off mechanically from the top of
the flotation cells. This flotation process in the
rougher cells is repeated usually through five
cells.
231
7. Harvesting the flotation concentrate from the top
of the rougher cells. The concentrate contains
some sodium chloride as well as a high percentage
of the sylvite in the raw ore. For that reason it
is introduced into a "cleaner" flotation circuit
which further refines the sylvite. The unfloated
particles from the cleaner circuit can be and
usually are recycled to the rougher cells.
8. Drying the sylvite either in a rotary dryer or in
a fluid bed dryer.
9. Screening the dried sylvite according to the sizes
chosen to be marketed.
10. Compacting the off size material from the screen-
ing operation. Screened-out fines are processed
through a compactor which produces "flakes" of
potash. These flakes are crushed to the desired
size, and the fines and oversize are recycled to
the process.
Both flotation and compaction involve the applica-
tion of considerable chemistry and mechanics. There
is, however, substantial art to achieving high recov-
eries, good production rates, and stable particles in
each chosen size range of products.
Beneficiation of sylvinite ores by flotation
(figures 2 and 3) necessitates conditioning the ores
with selective collectors and depressing agents before
they enter the flotation cells. Amines are used to
make potassium chloride more hydrophobic; a blinder
is used to depress slime flotation; and an alcohol
serves as a frothing agent.
A clay and slimes impurities range of 3. 5%-4. O%
requires more extensive mechanical de sliming. Above
this recoveries decrease, and this necessitates more
equipment to recover slime-entrained sylvite.
Flotation techniques for removing insoluble slimes
from potash ore can become complex. One arrange-
ment is four flotation stages for insoluble flotation and
one cell for potash rougher and cleaner flotation. Re-
agents for insoluble slime flotation can include
Superfloe 127-Aero 870 at a rate of about 68 g of each
reagent per ton of ore. Armeen TD at about 100 g
and Barrett's oil 634 at about 45 g/ton can be used in
potash rougher flotation while about 20 g each of
Armeen TD and Barrett's oil 634 can be used in potash
cleaner flotation. High insolubles removal is encour-
aged by recycling potash cleaner tails back to insolu-
ble flotation.
Slimes have been removed from low-grade ores
containing 5% water insolubles using nonionic or cat-
ionic polyacrylamide flocculants and cationic, anionic,
and/or nonionic collectors. Subsequent potash flota-
tion recovers a high percentage of the potash.
Heavy Media Beneficiation--This modification of
the. beneficiation technique is especially useful in pre-
serving large potassium chloride crystals which may
be classified without further processing to products
for use in blended mixed fertilizers or for direct
application (8). The process utilizes the difference
in specific gravity of sylvite (KCI) and halite (NaCI).
Halite is the more dense (specific gravity 2.13 versus
1. 98 for sylvite); therefore, in a liquid of intermediate
specific gravity, halite will sink and sylvite will float.
U.S. patent No. 3,638,791 to International Minerals
and Chemical Corp. describes this technique as "Ore
beneficiation by treatment with a heavy media, e.g. ,
an aqueous liquor and a very finely divided weighting
agent, typically magnetite or ferrosilicon of minus
200-mesh. The efficiency of the magnetite separation
operation is restored by treating the rinse liquor in a
second hydrocyclone. The density of the rinse liquors
is much less than the density of the ore constituents,
and the ore constituents in the wash liquor report to
the hydrocyclone underflow while the overflow com-'
prises a suspension of the finely divided weighting
 SLIMES

r:='~
AIR
CLASSIFIERS

OOMPACTION
PLANT
BRINE
STORAGE

GRANULAR
CLASSIFYING BULK

TAILS POND
~~ld~~.£~g:Q~
TO MARKET

CONDITIONING

Source: Amax Chemical Corporation.

Figure 2. Simplified Flowsheet of Potash Refining System Using Flotation.

SYLVINITE agent in the liquor. This liquor is suitable for sep-

ORE FROM STORAGE aration in the magnetic separator at high efficiency.
The underflow is treated to separate ore impurities
from the weighting suspension. This may be accom-
plished by means of a fine screen."

Solution-Crystallization--Dissolution of the ore

with recovery of KCl by crystallization is necessarily
used in solution mining. lt is also used to some
extent for beneficiating shaft-mined ore. Its advan-
tages are that it can utilize ores with a high percent-
age of insoluble materials such as clay, and it
produces a high-grade (62%-63% K2 0) product tf,at is
fully soluble and hence suitable for use in liquid fer-
tilizers. The beneficiation process is based on the
solubilities of NaCl and KCl in hot and cold water
which are:

Solubility, g/100 ml of Water

at 20°C at 100°C

KCl 34.7 56.7

NaCl 35.4 39.1

The data shown above are the separate solubili-

ties of KCl and NaCl. For solutions containing both
salts, the solubility of NaCl decreases slightly as the
temperature increases. Thus, when a brine that is
saturated with both NaCl and KCl at 20°C is heated to
100°C, it is capable of dissolving substantial amounts
of KCl but no NaCl.
MURIATE OF POTASH
TO PRODUCT STORAGE
Figure 4 shows a typical flow diagram of a solu-
tion-crystallization process. Sylvinite ore is crushed
Figure 3. Diagram of Flotation Process for Recovery of Muriate of Potash. to minus 3-mesh and washed with a cool, saturated

232
 ORE
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Figure 4. Diagram of Solution-Crystallization Process for Recovery of
Muriate of Potash.
NaCl-KCl solution. Most of the ~lay is carried off in
the solution to a desliming step where the clay is dis-
carded as tailing. The clarified solu lion is then
heated and used to dissolve the KCl from the washed
ore. As mentioned earlier, NaCl is not soluble in the
hot brine, and the undissolved NaCl is discarded as
tailing. The brine is then cooled, crystallizing KCl
which is separated from the brine, washed, and dried.
The remaining brine is recycled. When a high-purity
product for chemical use is desired, the crystalline
KCl is redissolved and recrystallized to provide a
double-refined product containing more than 99.9%
KCJ.
Electrostatic Beneficiation--This method of bene-
ficiating potash utilizes mutual triboelectric charg-ing
of the salt components. This can be done by heating
the material to 300°-700°C, followed by cooling to
100°-200°C, or by treatment with specific conditioning
agents. These agents selectively alter the electrical
properties of the individual minerals to separate one
or more components from a salt mixture. Preferred
agents are aliphatic and aromatic monocarboxylic acids,
ammonium salts, or aliphatic monocarboxylic acids.
The raw material is ground, conditioned, and treated
in a heating apparatus with air of a specific moisture
content and simultaneously triboelectrically charged by
friction. A charged residue and a preconcentrate are
obtained in the preseparator.
Beneficiation of Carnallite Ores and Brines
Carnallite ore is the source of a small percentage
of the world's potash supply even though there are
large deposits of such ores in many regions. One
233
disadvantage of carnallite ores is their low grade;
even pure carnallite (KCl· MgC1 2 ·6H 2 0) contains only
17% K 2 0. A second disadvantage is that dissolution
and recrystallization methods must be used which are
energy intensive, A third disadvantage is the large
volume of byproduct magnesium chloride solution which
is likely to pose a difficult disposal problem. The
magnesium chloride can be hydrolyzed to magnesium
oxide at elevated temperatures.
Magnesium oxide is useful as a material for manufac-
ture of refractories and other purposes, but disposal
of HCl is another problem.
In spite of its disadvantages, ores or brines con-
taining carnallite are processed to recover KCl in sev-
eral countries including Spain, Israel, and East and
West Germany and may be utilized in the future in
developing countries such as Brazil, Thailand, Congo,
Jordan, and Pakistan.
Processing methods vary widely and depend on
what accessory minerals are associated with the car-
naliite. Halite (NaCl) is a common accessory mineral,
and there are various other combinations as mentioned
in the preceding description of world potash deposits.
Because of the wide variety of carnallite-containing
ores, no attempt will be made to describe any specific
beneficiation process in detail. A recent article sum-
marizes methods for treating carnaliite ores (9).
There are two general types of processes: cold
leach and hot leach. Cold leach processes are carried
out at 20°-25°C. Carnallite ore, which usually con-
tains some NaCl, is leached with water or dilute brine
which dissolves MgC1 2 preferentially. Actually, KCl
dissolves and reprecipitates as the MgC1 2 content of
the solution increases. The rates of dissolution and
recrystallization affect the size of the crystals; rela-
tively coarse crystals which may be separated from
the MgC1 2 solution by centrifuging are preferred. If
the ore contains insoluble material such as clay, it
remains in suspension in the solution. The mixture
of NaCl and KCl crystals may be separated by either
of two previously described methods that are used for
refining sylvinite--by flotation or by a hot leach which
dissolves the KCl preferentially. The MgC1 2 solution
is clarified and then evaporated to a high concentra-
tion to recover potash by crystallizing carnallite which
is recycled. The MgC1 2 solution can then be dis-
carded or utilized.
Alternatively, carnallite ores may be treated by
a hot leach at about 100°C which dissolves both MgC1 2
and KCl and also any NaCl that may be present. The
hot solution is clarified to remove solid impurities and
then cooled and evaporated; after the KCl and NaCl
crystab are recovered, one of the above-described
sepa,ration techniques is employed. Part of the
mother liquor, which has a high MgC1 2 content, is
diluted, heated, and returned to the hot leach step.
The remaining mother liquor is evaporated further to
recover the remaining KCl as carnallite and then
discarded.
The Dead Sea brine typically contains 11 . 5 g/liter
of KCl. The concentration of the other salts in
grams/liter is MgCl 2 , 130; NaCl, 87; CaC1 2 , 37; and
MgBr 2 , 5. At the Dead Sea Works in Israel, brine
from the sea is first fed into large shallow ponds cov-
ering about 155 km 2 where the brine is concentrated
by solar evaporation until about 90% of the NaCl crys-
tallizes. The brine is then transferred to a second
series of evaporation ponds where the carnallite crys-
tallizes and is recovered by dredging. The brine is
then pumped as a slurry to the refinery. The car-
nallite slurry is treated by a cold leach process similar
to that described above to separate KCl and NaCl from
the brine. Both flotation and hot leach processes are
used to separate NaCl from KCl. The KCl is dried
and marketed in several grades differing mainly in
particle size; all grades contain 60%-61% KCl. The
grades are granular (compacted), coarse (crystalline),
11 standard' rr "fine' It and 11 highly soluble. I!
The firm also markets table salt, industrial salt
(NaCJ), and bromine compounds. Part of the brine
remaining which contains MgCl 2 and CaCl 2 is used to
produce HCl for phosphoric acid production and re-
fractory grade MgO, and part of it is returned to the
Dead Sea.
Beneficiation and Utilization of Sulfate Ores
Langbeinite--Langbeinite (K 2 S0 4 ·2MgS0 4 ) is
separated from sylvite and halite by selective washing,
froth flotation, or heavy media. The langbeinite may
be marketed as such as a source of K, Mg, and S, or
it may be converted to other products. Potassium sul-
fate is produced by reacting one molecule of langbein-
ite with four molecules of muriate of potash (figure 5).
LANGBEINITE FINES
Note: LomiJbeinite and muriate fines are
concentrate products from the
Jon9beinite leach and sylvite flo-
totron circuits.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Figure 5. Diagram of Process for Production of Potassium Sulfate from
Langbeinite and Muriate of Potash.
Potassium magnesium sulfate is produced by refining
langbeinite. The reaction to produce potassium sul-
fate from langbeinite is:
(1) K2 S0 4 ·2MgS0 4 + 4 KCl 3K 2 S0 4
langbeinite mur. of potassium
potash sulfate
(2) 2(K 2 S0 4 ·2MgS0 4 ) + 2KCl 3(K 2S0 4 ·MgS0 4 ) + MgCl 2
langbeinite mur. of potas. magnesium
potash sulfate
*Discarded.
For each 100 tons of potassium sulfate
56.7 tons of muriate of potash is required for
100% conversion
70.9 tons of muriate of potash is required for
80% conversion
79.3 tons of potassium-magnesium sulfate is re-
quired for 100% conversion
99.1 tons of potassium-magnesium sulfate is re-
quired for 80% conversion
Alunite--Alunite [K 2 ·Al 6 (0H) 12 • (S0 4 ) 4 ] is a po-
tential source of potassium sulfate, alumina, and sulfur
dioxide byproduct. The economics of its production
hinges on the value of the alumina. Technology has
been developed in the U.S.S.R. (10, 11). A major
operation utilizing a large alunite deposit in south-
western Utah has been intensively investigated tech-
nically and economically without reaching any satisfac-
tory solution to date, mainly because of the lower cost
of alumina from Australia.
It was proposed that the alunite ore would be
mined in an open pit operation. The ore, after it has
been stockpiled, would be crushed to minus 2-mm size
before drying and further grinding of the ore that is
coarser than 14-mesh. This would be roasted to con-
vert the potassium to a salt soluble in water or dilute
alkali. Leaching would follow to recover potassium
sulfate solution. Washed, filtered solids would be
transferred to a Bayer-type plant for alumina
MURIATE FINES recovery.
In a Bayer alumina plant, the filtered solids are
digested with caustic soda to dissolve alumina. Alu-
mina is precipitated as aluminum hydrate followed by
calcining. To recover sulfuric acid from the sulfur
dioxide stream, a double absorption acid plant is in-
stalled. The sulfuric acid can be used in the manu-
facture of the concentrated phosphates or other prod-
ucts using massive quantities of sulfuric acid.
Production of 1 million tpy of alumina (Al 2 0 3 )
would require about 10 million tons of alunite ore and
would yield about 500,000 tons of potassium sulfate
and nearly 800,000 tpy of sulfuric acid. The magni-
tude of the coproducts tends to limit the potential for
the production of alumina from alunite.
Complex Sulfate Ores--Complex mixtures of potash
ores have been successfully beneficiated in Russia
(10, ll). These ores may contain any or all of the
following minerals: anhydrite, epsomite, halite, kai-
nite, kieserite, langbeinite, poly halite, and sylvite,
along with clay. Extraction of potassium salts from
such ores becomes quite complicated because the
mineralogical forms of the various components are
unstable, and the chemical composition of the group
as a whole varies considerably. The process used to
extract the ore depends upon the various proportions
of the different minerals present. For example,
whenever potassium sulfate is the desired product,
free sylvite and kainite must be present in the same
molecular proportions or the potassium chloride must
be added if there is an excess of kainite. Ideally,
the reaction is:
When the ore is deficient in sylvite, schoenite is
produced.
+ ZMgCl2'~
magnesium 2KCl·MgS0 4 ·3H 2 0 K 2 S0 4 ·MgS0 4 ·6H 2 0 + MgCl 2
chloride (kainite) (schoenite)
(In both equations above the interaction of the solvent
mag. has been omitted.) Thus, the product varies between
chloride potassium sulfate and schoenite according to the com-
position of the ore.
A new method for extracting potassium compounds
from Carpathian ores that contain several minerals is
being extensively tested on an industrial scale at
Kalush. A flowsheet of the process is shown in
figure 6. In this process natural ore containing about
9% potassium is ground and leached in two steps, with
a hot "synthetic kainite" solution (described later) in
dissolving tanks. The leach dissolves epsomite, kai-
234
 n y-
,...._---, r - - ~~~~~~~~RES: KAINITE, SYLVITE, EPSOMITE,
~~xi~ ~~~~F DIS SOLUTION f-s:;.;o:;.;o:;.;I;.;U;.;M;;;;_SA:;.;L..;T;.;s......;AN..;D......;c,;.L;;.A~Y;.;..:......;.:..:..:...;:..:........;.:..:...,.j DORR
PRELIMINARY----.---+!
REDUCTION
CHAMBER IKCI, MgCI 2 ,K 2 S04 , MgS0 4 ,No 2 S0 4 1

CLAY
SED lMENT
SETTLER
,.
INSOLUBLE ORES:
WATER AND MINERALS
RECOVERED FROM
SEDIMENT i
LANGBEIN IT£ COUNTER- WASHED CLAY

I
POLYHALITE CURRENT TO DISCHARGE
SATURATED
HA L1 T E WASHER Mg504 , K2S0 4

WA1ER

SYNTHETIC
KAINITE
SCHOE NITE LIQUOR
VACUUM I-
CRYSTALLIZATION

SLURRY OF SCHOE NITE

PURGE
(K2S04, Mg504 , 6 H 2 0)

,._,;.......;;__:.___-ILI EVAPORATION
KCI,MgCI2 SLURRY

SCHOENITE

1------.tCENTRIFUGE-

WATER

I SODIUM
SULFATE AND
I
SCHOENITE
POTASSIUM
SULFATE
MAGNESIUM LIQUOR END PRODUCT END PRODUCT
IEND PRODUCTS I

Source: Phosphorus and Potassium, 59, 1972.

Figure 6. Flowsheet for the Processing of Carpathian Polymineral Ores.

nite, and sylvite as well as any other readily soluble The potassium sulfate is removed as an end
mineral, but langbeinite, halite, and poly halite are product by centrifugation, and the hot liquor is re-
practically insoluble in this liquor. If the ore con- cycled to the settling tanks.
tains significant quantities of langbeinite and polyha-
lite, then the residue from the leaching process should
be treated to recover them. The ore as mined nor- The thickened slime from the settling tanks con-
mally contains about 15% clay which remains suspended tains salty clay which is washed with a countercurrent
in the hot leach liquor until it is clarified in Dorr flow of water in a washer to minimize losses of potas-
settling tanks. As the liquor begins to cool, potas- sium. This washing liquor along with the filtrate from
sium salts begin to crystallize out. Normally, potas- the schoenite filtration is sent to the dissolving tanks
sium chloride and sodium chloride would precipitate to act as a solvent for the original ore.
first, but since the desired product is schoenite, the
precipitation of these chlorides is inhibited by the During the conversion of kainite to schoenite
addition of a solution that is saturated with magnesium (second equation above), magnesium chloride is also
and potassium sulfate. (This solution is obtained from formed. If the concentration of this magnesium chlo-
the later decomposition of part of the schoenite to ride were allowed to increase indefinitely, the process
form relatively pure potassium sulfate.) This, in would not function properly. To circumvent this
effect, leaves a solution that is saturated with respect problem, a part of the schoenite filtrate is withdrawn
to schoenite but unsaturated with respect to the and sent to an evaporator where enough of both sodi-
chlorides. Under these circumstances, only schoenite um and potassium are removed to maintain a constant
will precipitate. concentration of these materials in the system. The
remaining slurry is recycled to the dissolving tanks
as "synthetic kainite." The concentrated magnesium
chloride liquor is used to make products that require
The clarified liquor, plus the added sulfate solu- magnesium.
tion, is cooled in a vacuum crystallizer to 20°C. The
schoenite so formed is thickened and filtered. Part This process permits the use of Carpathian ores
of the filtered schoenite is mixed with water to pro- to produce several commercially valuable products,
duce potassium sulfate according to the reaction: such as potassium sulfate, potassium-magnesium sul-
fate, potassium chloride, sodium sulfate, and mag-
nesium chloride liquors.

235
Production of Potassium Sulfate by Ther-mal Processes
Mannheim Process
This process for the manufacture of potassium
sulfate from potassium chloride and sulfuric acid in-
volves a two-stage reaction. The following first re-
action is exothermic:
KCl + H 2 S0 4 ~ KHS0 4 + HCl
However, the second reaction is endothermic:
The first reaction proceeds at a relatively low
temperature to produce potassium bisulfate (KHS0 4 )
which is heated in a Mannheim furnace to complete the
second reaction. The process is used in Belgium and
the United States.
In this process, the finely ground potassium
chloride is briq uett.ed, dried, screened, and then
charged into a conversion chamber. Hot sulfur diox-
ide from a sulfur burner flows into the chamber to-
gether with enough excess air and water vapor to
complete the reaction which is:
In practice, the gas flows through a series of
conversion chambers which are charg·ed and discharged
batch wise. The flow of the S0 2 -containing gas 1s
such that it first contacts a converter in which the
potash has most nearly been converted to K 2 S0 4 , and
the gas lastly flows through a converter containing a
fresh charge of KCl briquettes.
HCl Utilization
Both the Mannheim and Hargreaves processes
produce byproduct hydrochloric acid which must be
utilized or disposed of. In Belgium the HCl is used
to mal<e dicalcium phosphate by reaction with phos-
65% KCI from
HN0 3 Recycle gas(NOCI, N0 2 CI plus N 2 0 4 ,CI 2 ,8rCil
~ stream
,condense
totol
II quef1ed
gases
Cl2
N02 Cl
NOCI
BrCI
N20 4
lsi
fractionating
column
81%
HN0 3 .,.
.fY
Lld.I
chlorine
fractionating
column
Source: Phosphorus and Potassium, 52, March/April, 1971.
Figure 7. Flow Diagram of Southwest Potash Process for Production of Potassium Nitrate.
phate rock followed by neutralization with limestone or
lime (see chapter XVI). A CaCl 2 solution is a by-
product of this reaction and may pose a disposal
problem. In the United States the principal use for
the byproduct HCI is for acidulating oil wells to in-
crease oil recovery. The K 2 S0 4 plant may be built in
an oil field to minimize transportation of HCI. Other
possible fertilizer-related uses for HCl are to produce
ammonium chloride (see chapter VIII) or to produce
phosphoric acid by a solvent extraction process (see
chapter XIII).
Uses of Potassium Sulfate
The sulfate or other nonchloride forms of potash
are preferred for fertilizing certain crops for which
the quality may be adversely affected by chloride.
Examples are tobacco, potatoes (in some cases), and
grapes. Also nonchloride potash sources are needed
in areas where chloride accumulation in the soil is a
problem as in the Netherlands or in many arid regions
where chloride salts in irrigation water accumulate in
the soil. Potassium sulfate may be preferred because
of its sulfur content where soils are deficient in both
potassium and sulfur.
Production of Potassium Nitrate 2
Southwest Potash Process
·--------~-----
Potassium chloride is slurried with 65% nitric acid
which has been previously chilled to prevent a re-
action occurring before the slurry is fed into the re-
actor (figure 7) (12). In the reactor, which operates
at about 25 psig ( 1~76 kg/cm 2 ), the slurry is heated
with nitric acid vapor to about 75°C) \Vhcrcupon r~c­
action takes place, according to the following equation:
3KCl + 4HN0 3 ~ 3KN0 3 + CI 2 + NOCl + 2H 2 0
Some 90~) of the chlorine is removed in gaseous
form. Because of the extreme corrosiveness prevailing
) Th1s section has hccn abstracted from_P}1osph9~~~~ ~~-~s~J_n, volume 52,
with the permission of the British Sulphur Corporation(];!_.
to barometric
condenser
BrCI
bleed nitric acid
absorption lowers
99.5%
liquid
C l2
I to
storage
r--2nd
55%
HN0 3
62%HN03
236
in the reactor, this vessel, which is in fact an agitat-
ed autoclave, has to be fabricated from titanium and
lined with acid-resistant brick.
The solution from the reactor flows to the chlo-
ride-stripping column where it is heated with more
nitric acid vapor to its boiling point of around 150°C.
This treatment takes the reaction to completion and
gives rise to a stripped solution containing less than
10 ppm of chlorine. For this degree of completion to
he obtained, it is necessary to maintain an excess of
nitric acid corresponding to a concentration 'of 55% in
the solution.
The gaseous mixture, containing nitrosyl chloride
and chlorine, coming from the agitated reactor, is ox-
idized in the gas reactor by means of hot nitric acid
at a concentration of at least 80% at 150°C. The re-
action which takes place yields nitrogen dioxide and
more chlorine as follows:
NOCl + 2HN0 3 -" \Cl 2 + 3N0 2 + H 2 0
Water formed in the oxidation is condensed and
fed to the primary reactor. The chlorine and nitrogen
dioxide are separated into liquid products; the chlo-
rine is fed to storage, while the nitrogen dioxide is
oxidized with air and absorbed in water to produce
65% nitric acid. This oxidation step is characterized
by the following chemical equation:
The overall reaction throug-h the process is given
by:
ln the gas section of the process, two distillation
columns are used to separate the pure chlorine from
pure nitrogen dioxide. Chlorine is removed from the
top of the first column and nitrogen dioxide from the
bottom of the second column while in the wet section
the potassium nitrate-nitric acid solution is concen-
trated in the acid distillation column. It has been
brine circuit
water
?>-...,
HCI
K N0 3
bulk
storage
Source: Phosphorus and Potassium, 52, March/April, 1971.
Figure B. Flow Diagram of \MI Process for Production of Potassium Nitrate.
practical to concentrate the solution up to 81% nitric
acid; the weak acid vapors in the overhead fraction
are subsequently concentrated to around 62% HN0 3 in
a second distillation column. Bottoms from the first
acid distillation column are fed to a battery of vacuum
crysta1lizers where potassium nitrate is precipitated
and separated by a centrifuge. The product is dried
and may be stored direct or melted and prilled at
340°-350°C in a 35-ft (10. 7-m) tower. Both technical
grade (99. 3%) and an agricultural grade (99%) potas-
sium nitrate are produced for the process.
IMI Process
The alternative to a high-temperature, distil-
lation-based process for manufacturing potassium ni-
trate by direct acid attack is solvent extraction at
relatively low temperature. At low temperatures, the
potassium nitrate formation reaction proceeds, with
the aid of solvent extraction and with no side reac-
tions occurring, according to the equation:
KCl + HN0 3 _, KN0 3 + HCl
In this way the solvent extraction route obviates some
of the intense corrosion problems which are an inher-
ent feature of the process previously described.
However, solvent extraction installations, with the
associated regeneration facilities, are fairly expensive;
thus, the economic advantage of reduced corrosion is
at least partially offset.
In this process developed by Israel Mining In-
dustries, potassium chloride, together with stoichio-
metric quantities of chilled 60%-70% nitric acid, is fed
into the first of a series of conversion reactors at 5°-
100C (figure 8). Recycled brine and solvent are also
added. The reaction between potassium chloride and
nitric acid is, under normal circumstances, reversible,
but in this case because of the presence of solvent,
the reaction goes almost entirely to completion.. Po-
tassium nitrate is produced in the solid phase. Both
hydrochloric acid and the unreacted nitric acid dis-
solve into the solvent phase and are removed, while
wash
water
water
:solvent
cooler 1water
fRII' .J
r---------l_
I ~ I _ _)IQ/ __ _
I I
rj
isteam 1mull i pie
1 effect
1L _______ 1 evaporator
22% HC I
237
the potassium nitrate crystals are separated, by de- Refinement of muriate of potash to produce the
cantation and centrifugation, and dried for storage. chemical grade is achieved by redissolving and recrys-
Part of the product is melted and prilled. tallizing an already crystallized potassium chloride.

The remainder of the process is concerned with
the treatment of the solvent phase to recover hydro-
chloric acid of reasonable purity and to recycle the
solvent-nitric acid mixture to the reactor system.
Both hydrochloric and nitric acids are soluble in the
solvent, but fortunately the distribution coefficients
differ sufficiently for the hydrochloric acid to be re-
moved separately in a countercurrent liquid-liquid ex-
traction system. The hydrochloric acid is utilized to
produce phosphoric acid by the IMI solvent extraction
process as described in chapter XIII.
Other Processes
Potassium nitrate may be recovered as a coprod-
uct in certain nitrophosphate processes as described
in chapter XV.
Most chemical-grade potash is used in the pro-
duction of potassium hydroxide (KOH). The process
entails electrolysis of a KCI brine to yield KOH and
chlorine. The main use of caustic potash is in the
manufacture of liquid soaps which are becoming in-
creasingly popular. Other uses are in textile opera-
tions, greases, catalysts, engraving, alkaline bat-
teries, and rubber fabrication. In addition to direct
use of caustic potash in liquid soaps or other prod-
ucts, a substantial tonnage is used in the production
of potassium carbonate (K 2 C0 3 ) and other potassium
compounds. More than half of the potassium carbon-
ate is used in glass manufacture. Some potassium
carbonate is carbonated further to form potassium
bicarbonate, KHC0 3 , used largely in foods and medi-
cine. KOH is also used to make potassium phosphates
for use in specialty fertilizers.
About 4% of the world potassium consumption is
for industrial applications, as follows:

Waste Disposal
Detergents and soaps 35%
Glass and ceramics 25%
The beneficiation of sylvinite results in byprod- Textiles and dyes 20%
uct sodium chloride containing a small amount of po- Chemicals and drugs 13%
tassium chloride. The waste product slurry usually is Other ~
pumped to a storage area bounded by an earthen re-
taining wall to oolidify gradually as the entrained 100%
water evaporates. A few mines are located where the
slurry can be pumped to an ocean or river. The
latter disposal method is coming under increasing en- Refined potassium chloride is shipped in bags or
vironmen tal criticism and banning. The refining of in bulk form in modified hopper cars called sparger or
other potash ores incurs other byproduct salts that solution cars. An ticaking agents are not added to
are treated similarly. If sufficient solid, level land is chemical-grade KCI since they may cause explosions in
available near the refinery, the cost of containment is the electrolytic cells. With a sparger car the chemi-
not excessive. However, suitable land is not always cal-grade potassium chloride is slurried out of the car,
available, and this presents a serious problem. Also, and with a solution car it is fully dissolved and
the net evaporation rate differs with salts, and this pumped out of the car. Table 2 gives the product
affects the time required for solidification. characteristics of a typical chemical-grade potassium
chloride. Note that it is guaranteed to contain a
Carnallite byproduct liquor contains primarily minimum of 99.9% KCI.
MgCI 2 . One ton of carnallite ore produces 0. 3-0.5 m 3
of brine. Byproduct liquors from potassium sulfate
production also contain largely MgC1 2 . Utilization of
MgCJ 2 by hydrolysis and calcination is practiced in TABLE 2. POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (CHEMICAL GRADE)
Israel. The reaction is:

MgC1 2 + H 2 0 7 MgO + 2HCI Com12onent Unit Guaranteed :r~

The MgO is useful for production of refractories, KCl % 99.9 (min.) 99.92
and the HCI is used to produce phosphoric acid by the K20 % 63.12 (min. ) 63. 13
IMI solvent extraction process. · H20 (@ 105°C) % 0.07 (max. ) 0.02
H20 (@ 700°C) ~' 0.67 (max. ) 0.30
Water insoluble ppm 75 (max.) 12
Acid insoluble ppm 75 (max.) 8

Chemical Grade Potash Sodium, Na ppm 150 (max.) 100

Bromine, Br ppm 700 I(max.) 600
Sulf.'lte, so 4 ppm 10 (max.)
Chemical grade potash, a highly refined potassium Calcium, Ca ppm 10 (max.)
chloride, is used almost entirely in the production of Calcium and
chlorine and potassium hydroxide (KOH), commonly Magnesium, Ng ppm 30 (max.)
called caustic potash.
Iron, Fe ppm 5 (max.) 2
High purity of chemical grade potash is important Lead, Pb ppm 3 (max.) 0.5
for at least three reasons: Copper, Cu ppm 0.5 (max.) 0.05
Nickel, Ni ppm 0.5 (max.) 0.05
1. Certain unacceptable impurities in the chemical Chromium, Cr ppm 0. 1 (max.) 0.01
grade potassium chloride are carried forward in Molybdenum, No ppm 0. I (max.) 0.01
the process into the caustic potash. Vanadium, v ppm 0. 1 (max.) 0.01
Titanium, Ti ppm nil (max.) 0.01
2. Efficiency of caustic potash manufacture in an
electrolytic cell is impaired by undue presence of
diluents.
3. Presence of heavy metals causes release of hy- Bulk Density, Loose--I,04I kg/m 3
drogen in the electrolytic cells in the presence
of chlorine, giving rise to the formation of ex- Color - White
plosive mixtures.

238
 Potash Particle Size PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

During much of the history of potash production

in Europe and North America, particle size was of
little consequence. Each company shipped for agricul-
tural purposes the size range most easily produced,
approximating what is now classified as "standard"
grade (13). Agricultural potash was then either ap-
plied asa straight material or used in production of
"pulverized 11 or later 11 ammoniated 11 nongranular com- z 60
0
pound fertilizers. In the early 1950s when granula-
tion of compound fertilizers was being developed in :;J
z
the United States and the initial equipment proved to <i
1-
be sized too small, Southwest Potash Corporation in- w

if'"'
troduced "coarse" grade as an aid to granulation. 40
Coarse potash is now offered by most North American
producers; its particle size is mainly between 0. 8 and
2. 0 mm. The use of larger particle size muriate of
potash did assist in the agglomeration wanted and
thereby reduced the recycle of particles finer than
the bottom size screen being used. This practice led
to increased production rates in many plants with
undersized equipment. Granulation units installed
during the latter 1950s or later in Europe, the United
States, Japan, and other countries were better engi-
TYLER SCREEN MESH
neered with respect to incorporating "standard" grade
potash materials into granular compound fertilizers. Source: AMAX Chemical Corporation.

The advent of "bulk blending" in about 1960 led

Figure 9. Particle Size of Granular and Coarse Potash in Comparison with
to the introduction of "granular" materials. This
Granular Phosphates Available in the United States.
trend was fostered by the introduction of granular
diammonium phosphate, largely in the 6- to 14-Tyler
mesh (1. 2- to 3. 3-mm) range. As the trend to bulk
blending in small plants located in immediate consuming
areas developed, the demand for large particle size used to produce a semicoarse particle at most West
materials increased similarly. Bulk blending is most German plants.
commonly practiced in the United States and Canada,
but its use is growing in Latin America and some
other regions. Granular potash is also preferred for In the German Democratic Republic, the Unter-
direct application. breizbach plant has granulating facilities to produce
about 250,000 tons annually on a K 2 0 basis. This
Both "coarse" and "granular" grades of potash product ranges from 0. 5 to 4. 0 mm but can be
are used by bulk blenders. However, the "coarse 11 screened at Wismar, a port, to 0. 5-l. 5 mm and 1. 5- to
grade does not match well the particle size of nitrogen 4. 0-mm fractions for export.
and phosphate materials commonly used in bulk blend-
ing, leading to unsatisfactory analysis control of The potash industry in the U.S.S.R. intends to
bulk-blend mixtures (see chapter XXII). increase the proportion of granulated product to 75%
of total output. Only about 1. 0 million tpy was pro-
Gradually the potash industry, in North America duced in 1977. Both U ralkali and B yeloruskali mines
especially, is increasing its granular grade compaction have compaction units.
capacity. Likewise, blend plant owners are recogniz-
ing the need for using potash of a size that is similar
to that of the other materials in the mixture and, Price Differential for Grades
therefore, are more generally choosing "granular" pot-
ash. Figure 9 illustrates the similarity of "granular" The following prices ar~ illustrative of the vari-
potash to other granular materials and the dissimilarity ous "grades" of muriate of potash offered by North
of "coarse" grade potash. Studies at the National American producers ( 14):
Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, Alabama,
demonstrate that all materials in a blend mixture
should be within ±10% range of particle size on each
screen size to avoid undue segregation. Price (Feb. -June 1977) 3
Typical Siz£ $/~hart Tone
In Germany, where potash was first produced, Grade Range, mm Un1t of KzO $/kg of KzO
the kieserite, carnallite, and insoluble anhydrite are
Standard less than 0.8 0.80 0.088
finely grained, and the crystals are intergrown, mak- Coarse 0.8-2.0 0.84 0.093
ing separation by grinding and flotation almost impos- Granular 1.2-3.3 0.86 0.097
sible. Crystallization is the principal method of bene- Soluble 62'%,-63% K2 0 less than 0. 8 0.86 0.097
ficiation used in Germany. Some flotation units are
a. List price from Phosphorus and Potassium, 83:14 (1976L f.o.b.
now in use. More recent crystallization units installed mine in Canada.
in Europe are capable of producing a rounded grain b. Specifications vary somewhat from one producer to another.
of about 1-mm diameter. Compaction of fine particles Short-ton unit of K20 ;; 20 lb (l'.t of short ton).
to granular size range has been introduced in Europe.
In North America coarse grade and, with certain ores,
some granular potash can be produced by flotation.

In North America granular grade ranges in size
between 1. 2 and 3. 3 mm. In France compacted potash
ranges between 0. 8 and 5. 0 mm. A screened fraction
sold as "granular" is 1. 5-5.0 mm with the major per-
centage of particles between 1. 8 and 4. 0 mm.
The West German plants have compaction units
for "granular" grade D_:32. Swenson crystallizers are
The prices shown above amount to a premium for
granular potash over a standard of about $4 per met-
ric ton of muriate of potash containing 60% K 2 0.
"Soluble" potash commands a similar premium; it con-
tains no insoluble impurities and is used mainly in
fluid fertilizers. A fine particle size is preferred for
rapid dissolution or, in the case of suspensions, to
prevent rapid settling.

239
 The premium for granular potash has varied con-
siderably since 1976. In mid-1979 the premium for
international sales of granular Canadian or European
potash was about $10/ton, but for sales within North
America the premium varied from $10 to less than $5/
ton, presumably in response to supply and demand
factors.
Sulfate of potash also is offered in standard and
granular sizes; the price of the granular grade in
1976 was about $8. 60/ton more than the standard
grade. For potassium magnesium sulfate, the premium
for granular grade was $6. 60/ton. Granular potash
products may be obtained by screening flotation prod-
uct or by roll compaction as described elsewhere in
this report. However, granular sulfate of potash is
produced only by compaction.
Granulation of Potash Salts
Granulation of fine potash salts is carried out on
a commercial scale by compaction. Some other methods
have been tried, but there is no known commercial
use. A typical f!owsheet of a roll compaction unit for
producing granular muriate of potash is shown in
figure 10. The feed is fine potash plus recycled fines
-CO
GRANULATING
COMPACTING MILL
MILL
-CO
UNOE RSIZE RETURNED
Source: Allis Chalmers.
Figure 10. Simplified Flowsheet for Granulation of Potash by Roll
Compaction.
from the process. The feed is preheated in a
steam-heated conveyor and fed to a hopper above a
pair of smooth rolls. The rolls turn toward each
other and compress the material into a continuous
sheet. The sheet is broken into flakes by a "flake
breaker." The flakes are screened to remove fines
and then fed to two "granulating mills" in parallel.
The granulating mills are corrugated rolls with sharp-
edge corrugations designed to break the flakes in such
a way as to form a maximum percentage of the desired
particle size. Other types of crushers, such as cage
mills, may be used. The product from the primary
mills is screened to remove fines (which are recycled
to the compactor), product size (1. 2-3.3 mm), and
oversize (which goes to a third granulating mill).
The product from the mill is screened to recover more
product size. Oversize is recycled to the mill, and
fines are recycled to the compactor. Of the total
throughput, 40%-60% is recovered as granular prod-
uct, and the remainder is recycled as fines to the
compactor.
In a similar process, the incoming potash is
formed into briquettes by pressing the material be-
tween rolls that have matching pockets rather than
smooth rolls. The shape of the briquettes may be
long and narrow like a cigar. The briquettes are then
crushed and screened to recover the desired size.
The roll compaction machines consist essentially
of a set of two, powered, inward-turning rolls. One
roll has a fixed bearing; the other is floating in a
slide arranged so that it can be forced toward the
fixed roll by hydraulically actuated pistons acting on
the bearing blocks. The material to be compacted is
fed continuously into the nip of the rolls from above.
Very high pressure can be exerted on the material as
it is forced or drawn between the rolls where a mo-
mentary phase change to a plastic flow condition takes
place. The crystals are fused together into an almost
continuous sheet of product which is ejected beneath
the rolls. The void content of the sheet may approach
zero, and the thickness may vary from 1/8 in to
3/4 in (0. 3-1.9 em), depending on the feed texture
and compaction machine in use. Compaction machines
vary in size (table 3), but the mechanism of com-
paction is the same. One of the very few in-depth
studies on compaction has been published by
B. E. Kurtz and A. J. Bardunhn ~-
Factors affecting compaction of potash are as
follows:
Feed Texture--The optimum particle size distri-
bution lies on the slope of approximately 8% plus 14-
mesh to 8% minus 200-mesh. This includes minus 12-
mesh fines and dust recycle from the compaction
circuit, in addition to fresh crystalline feed. Exces-
sively coarse crystalline feed may result in a weaker,
grainy-textured sheet. A high minus 200-mesh con-
teni. increases the void content in the sheet and pro-
duces severe mechanical stresses on the drive gears
of the compactor due to "chattering" in which the
rolls vibrate and slip under load. Segregation can
be a serious problem. It is minimized by using a
OVERSIZE
RETURNED
small volume feed bin so that fresh feed is constantly
blended with recycled material.
Feed Condition--An oil or amine residual film on
the crystal from previous treatment inhibits fusion of
the surfaces and results in weak sheet and heavy re-
cycle to the rolls. The film can be removed by high
temperature drying. Some producers add a small a-
mount of moisture to the feed; others find that trace
GRANULAR
PRODUCT additives, such as starch, improve the quality of the
product.
Feed Temperature--Optimum feed temperature
without water-cooled rolls is 120°-150°F (49°-65°C).
Higher temperatures result in additional maintenance
problems throughout the plant. Hot feed (300°-500°F)
(150°-280°C), however, can be compacted into an ex-
tremely dense sheet at somewhat lower pressures when
the high temperature conditions can be tolerated.
Methods of Introduction--Feed to compactors can
be introduced either by gravity or with assistance by
force feeding screws.
High bulk density of the feed is important to
successful compaction when rolls are fed by gravity.
The density, however, is altered drastically by the
presence of air entrapped in the material, and the
quantities of this air must be decreased to tolerable
levels. The deaeration of feed might be accomplished
by vibration of the feed hopper above the rolls, by
vacuum, or by mechanical stirring. In varying de-
grees, all of these methods help by decreasing the
void content of the feed. Some operators claim that
deaeration and increased bulk density resulting there-
from are quite effectively obtained by using a high,
shaft-like hopper directly over the rolls.
Force feeding utilizes one or more vertical
screws to introduce feed into the angle of nip under
pressure. This serves two purposes, namely, it
assists in displacement of the entrapped air and in-
creases the coefficient of friction between the feed
240
TABLE 3. ROLL COf1PACTION NACHINES IN CURRENT USE

Ail is-Chalmers Komarek-Greaves

--------
Humboldt
-- ---- Vulcan-Koppers

Roll diamelf'r, 61 71 91 102

Roll width, em 61 69 119 127

RP~I 24 42 25 14

Peripheral speed, m/min 46 94 72 47

Rol1 construction Cast iron-alloy Casl iron roll Cast steel. Nonobloc body
shell. Solid 2 11 alloy shell. Internal V.'ater and shaft. Water
stf'Pl shaft. Hollow shaft. cooling. cooled under
roll surface.

Bearings Sleeve or roller Roller Roller Roller

Motor capacity (kW) 149-221, 373 2 X 186 448

Applied pressure, kg/em 3,575 3,932 4, 182 5,362

Feeding method Either gravity Tapered-screw, Hydraulic Five 22-kW

or vertical twin twin-force variable-speed, hydraulic motor-
screw force feeder tv./in-force driven force
feeder. (4: 1 ratio). feeder. feeders.

Throughput, tph 27 45 77 91

Approximate production
rate (6 x 14 mesh), tph 11 20 26 27

mater·ial and smooth surfaces of both rolls. The
benefits claimed for the force feeding method are:
( 1) decreased sensitivity of compaction rolls to fluctu-
ations in texture of the feed; (2) increased angle of
nip, which is reflected in increased thickness of the
compacted sheet and higher production rate by the
compactor resulting therefrom; and ( 3) greater effec-
tiveness of automation by use of screw feeders, e.g. ,
by controlling force feeder speed to maintain a specific
loading on the compactor motor or to produce a con-
stant sheet thickness by transducer signal to a vari-
spced force feeder drive.
]{_oll_~_E'Iecl--This variable must be regulated in
relation to feed texture, method ot its introduction,
and roll diameter. High- speed rolls generally produce
a thinner sheet with less recycle, but they are sensi-
tive to feed texture changes. Slower turning rolls
( 10-25 rpm) are more stable, but they produce a nar-
row sheet.
Roll Pressure--All other variables are controlled
to permit:"the-hlihest possible roll pr"?ssure consistent
with a sustained operation. This is the most critical
factor in the successful agglomeration of free-flowing
potash between compaction rolls. Roll pressure on the
potash is normally quoted in pounds per linear inch
and is commonly in the range of 20,000-30,000 lb/
linear in (about 3,500-5,400 kg/linear em). Pressure
is applied to the bearing blocks of the floating roll by
a hydraulic system which is either set manually or
automatically controlled to maintain optimum pressure.
Roll Surface--Smooth rolls are standard, with a
provisiOn for .. sc-raping fused material from the surface.
The rolls may be solid or duct.ed for cooling water,
but a common practice in the industry is to apply ex-
ternal cooling by water sprays, damp sponges, etc.
Application of moisture results in severe corrosion of
the roll surfaces.
turer of large diameter rolls utilizes a grating immedi-
ately above the angle of nip. The air is drawn down
into the rolls instead of escaping above with some
turbulent effect. The resulting sheet leaves the rolls
as longitudinal strips.
The flowsheet (figure 10) shows a 24 by 24 in (61
by 61 em) Allis-Chalmers compaction unit running in
an independent closed-circuit system. The equipment
is common in the industry, and this f!owsheet, al-
though not standard, is particularly illustrative be-
cause of its simplicity.
Most recent compaction installations are designed
to recycle all or part of the near sized granular mate-
rial back to the mill product screening plant to re-
cover a percentage of the product as coarse or stan-
dard-grade products.
One drawback of roll compaction processes is
that the granules may have thin edges or corners
that break off in handling to form fines. To overcome
this problem, some producers put the granular prod-
uct through a tumbler so that fragile edges are bro-
ken off and can be removed by screening. Also, a
treatment with steam has been developed that helps to
round the edges. Other particle stabilizing treatments
may involve addition of moisture or brine followed by
drying.
Granulation by roll compaction can also be applied
to potassium sulfate, ammonium sulfate, and crystalline
diammonium phosphates. The process also can be
used to granulate some types of compound fertilizers,
as discussed in chapter XIX, and to agglomerate a
wide range of nonfertilizer products.
As to the cost of granulation by roll compaction,
the price differential of about $4-$8/ton for granular
potash salts versus the price of standard grade pre-
sumably reflects an order of magnitude of the cost.

Roll Diameter--Sensitivity to particle size distri- World Potash Production Capacities

butiona~reSidual air content in the feed is
decreased as roll diameter is increased, thereby per-
mitting increased circumferential speed. One manufac- Since the first potash mine was opened in 1861

241
near Stassfurt, Germany, world potash production
capacity has increased to about 32 million tons of K 2 0
equivalent in 1979 ( 4), largely as muriate of potash
and much lesser amounts of potassium sulfate and
small amounts of potassium nitrate. The following
tabulation summarizes the present (1978-79) capacities
by country.
( 4). Over 60% of this forecasted increase will be in
the U.S.S.R. The report estimates that the rate of
capacity increase will be sufficient to satisfy the in-
creased demand at least up to 1982, when the capac-
ity is expected to be 36. 18 million tons of K 2 0.

Prices and Production Costs

World Potash Capacity in 1978-79

Million Historical information in potash prices is not very

Tons K2 0 Percent useful because of the major dip in prices during
1966-72 which resulted from the overambitious devel-
World total 31.96 100 opment of new mining capacity in Saskatchewan and
the U.S.S.R. following:
U.S.S.R. 10.00 31
Canada 7.50 24 1. A worldwide campaign to "feed the world."
German Democratic Republic 3.20 10
2. Discovery of large potash reserves and suitable
German Federal Republic 3.30 10
technology in Saskatchewan and the U.S.S.R.
United States 2.86 9
France 2.39 7 3. Expansion of nitrogen and phosphate production
Spain 0.88 3 which lent encouragement to investment in new
Israel 0.88 3 potash production.
Others 0. 95 3
Figure 11 shows price trends to date for three
major fertilizer materials (16). The potash price,
f. o. b. Vancouver, rose froril$33/ton of 60% K 2 0 muri-
A World Bank report estimates that world capac- ate in 1970 to a maximum of $80/ton in 1974 and then
ity will increase to 39.05 million tons of K 2 0 in 1985 fell below $50/ton in 1977 and rose to about $78/ton

$ /mt
400 400

Diammonium Phosphate
Potassium Chloride
Urea

300 300

E
:::-
~
200 200
"'
a::
....

/' ,;--r-
- - .... --
--'
'- I
100 ) 100
;
;
,.. -.................
,•_.)
--- __ /r - /
\

- -------·--
~,-- .... ..,.. . . .___.. . . --....,- ../ -~-

-·- - -·- - -·-- -·-- ---

---~_c-_-_-_
..... - -
-
0
1968

EXPORT PRICES OF SELECTED FERTILIZER,

1968- 78

Figure 11. Export Prices of Selected Fertilizers, 1968-78 (Potash Prices, f.o.b. Vancouver, Canada).

242
in mid-1979. Note that potash prices rose much less
during the 1973-75 shortage than did most other fer-
tilizer materials (17). Noting also the modest increase
of potash price -c!Uring the past 14 years, it seems
certain that potash prices will have to rise to support
the more rapidly increasing construction costs. On a
constant-dollar basis, potash price is lower than it
was 15 years ago.
Table 4 shows the estimated capital cost of a
plant designed to produce 1. 13 million tpy of product
as muriate of potash at the mine in Saskatchewan.
The ore is very high grade and will be used to pro-
duce agricultural muriate of potash in all size grades.
Some of the product will be used to produce agricul-
tural soluble grade and chemical grade. The estimated
cost is $219 million which equates to about $194/annual
ton of product expressed in 1977 dollars.
Table 5 approximates typical operating costs of
an operation in Canada as described above. It must
be emphasized that ore grade and other conditions are
highly favorable in Saskatchewan, and these costs are
lower than many other potash operations, substantially
lower than some. On the other hand, the capital re-
quirements for opening a mine in Saskatchewan are
unusually high because of the depth of the deposits
and the difficult geological formation (high pressure
aquifer) through which the shafts must be con-
structed. Also, the severe climatic conditions increase
the cost of the ore refining plant.

TABLE 4. 1977 CAPITAL COST OF POTASH MINE AND

REFINERY IN SASKATCHEWAN 1.13 MILLION TONS OF On the basis of the premises expressed in tables
4 and 5, there are calculated prices necessary to yield
PRODUCT/YEAR CAPACITY
5%, 10%, and 15% after tax return on investment, as-
Cost, Million suming further the stated 15-year depreciation rate,
U.S. Dollars royalty /taxes, and general and administrative costs.
Facilit
These calculations made with and without the Sas-
katchewan reserve tax, a business expense peculiar
Mine
shafts, 16-ft diameter x 3,000 ft, to Saskatchewan, are shown in table 6.
with hoisting equipment 53.0
It is difficult to compare the investment and
Mine equipment 30.0 operating costs of solution mining with shaft mining
because solution mining is seldom used except where
Subtotal 83.0 shaft mining is infeasible owing to excessive depths
or geological character of the deposit. Also, in solu-
Surface plant 3 136.0 tion mining there is no clear-cut separation of mining
and beneficiation.
219.0
TV A has estimated the energy requirements for
a. Includes eight compactors and a crystallizer three combinations of mining and beneficiation for
circuit. North American conditions, assuming an ore grade of
b. No working capital included. 26% K 2 0 D_lll:

TABLE 5. CANADIAN PLANT, DIRECT OPERATING COSTS

Annual Cost, $/Ton

Cost Product

Mine Personnel
Office 16
Maintenance 74
Production, face 104
Production, backup and utility 42
Total 236 4,786,000 3.51

Plant Personnel
General and administration 48
Supervisory 19
Operating 88
Maintenance 65
Total 220 4,686,000 3.43

TOTAL PAYROLL
(includes 20% fringe benefits) 9,472,000 6.94
General Plant Overhead 643,800 0.48

Mine:
Operating supplies 876,600
Maintenance supplies 3,123,600
Power 957,200
Expendable and miscellaneous 755,500
Total 5, 712,900 4.19

Plant:
Operating supplies 2,830,100
Maintenance supplies 1,146,100
Power 1,587,000
Expendable and miscellaneous 377 800
Total 5,941,000

Total annual direct operating costs 21,769,700 15.97

243
TABLE 6. POTASH PRICE CALCULATION

Basis:
1.12 million tons of product per year capacity
Plant includes eight compactors and a crystallizer
Capital cost, $218.75 million ($192.50/tpy)
Direct operating cost, $15.97/ton
Costs expressed in 1977 U.S. dollars/rot of product
Reserve tax, $15.00/short ton, nondeductible

Costs Including Reserve Tax

Operating $15.95 $15.95

Depreciation (IS-year life) 12.84 12.84
Royalty/taxes 2.20 2.20
Administrative, etc. 2.20 2.20
Reserve tax 0 16.50

Total $33.19 $49.69

Price necessary to yield indicated after tax return on total investment based on current 1977 Canadian taxes:

Price, $/mt, f.o.b. Saskatchewan

%Return on Investment, After Tax Including Reserve Tax Excluding Reserve Tax

73.59 49.50
10 89.82 65.78
15 106.32 82.12

Energy Requirement, World Potash Commerce

GJ/Ton of 60%-62% K2 0
as Muriate of Potash 3
World potash exports in 1976-77 were 13.3 million
Solution mining 6.5 tons K 2 0 and 51% of world potash production. Thus,
Crystallization recovery 5.4 potash is an important item of world commerce. World
potash fertilizer exports increased at an average an-
Total 11.9 nual growth rate of 7.1% over the 10-year period
ending 1975-76. This was 2% faster than the potash
Shaft mining 2.2 production increased on average during this period.
Beneficiation by flotation 1.0 Nine countries export over 99% of all potash materials:
Canada, the U.S.S.R. , East and West Germany,
Total 3.2 France, the United States, Israel, Spain, and Italy,
about as follows:
Shaft mining 2.2
Beneficiation by crystallization 5.4

Total 7.6
Ex;eorter % of Total Ex:eorts
a. I GJ- 0.948 million Btu- 0.239 million kcal.
Canada 40
United States 7
The above energy requirements include both France 4
electrical energy and fuel with the equivalent fuel re- West Germany 6
quirement of electrical energy calculated on the basis East Germany 19
of a conversion efficiency of 33%. It is evident that U.S.S.R. 19
solution mining is energy intensive and, if based on Israel 3
world market prices for oil (about $2/GJ), it would be
uneconomical at current potash prices. However, any
kind of fuel can be used to generate steam and elec-
tricity which are the major forms of energy needed. North American exporters account for about half
Thus, where low-cost coal or natural gas is available, of the exports to lesser developed countries. North
solution mining may be economically acceptable. In American exporters also supply the major portion of
arid climates solution mining may be modified to take the demand in Oceania and Japan. Western European
advantage of solar energy; a relatively dilute solution countries are supplied mainly by trade within the
can be produced at moderate temperature, and most region.
of the evaporation and crystallization can be carried
out in lagoons by solar energy. This is done at the International trade patterns for potash are de-
Texas gulf mine in Utah. termined largely by:

Beneficiation of shaft-mined ore by crystallization 1. Relative transportation costs.

methods also requires a substantial amount of energy,
but it has the advantage of producing a fully soluble
high-grade (62% K 2 0 or more) product which is pre-
ferred for liquid fertilizers and as an intermediate for
high purity material for industrial uses. Some plants
prepare a portion of their output by crystallization
for these markets.
2. AID and other sales concessions.
3. Political relationships and the European cartel.
This export pattern has been reasonably stable
in recent years but may be altered somewhat if the
U.S.S.R. materially increases its exports.

244
 Table 7 gives the potash trade in 1976 from nine some\vhat hig·her rate of consumption increase,
exporting countries including Spain to developed, de- reaching 34.5 million tons of K 2 0 in 1985 (4).
veloping, and centrally planned economies (19). Im-
ports in 1976 were divided as follows: 60%to devel- North American potash exports are expected to
oped market economies, 15% to developing market continue to increase primarily from Canada but also
economies, and 25% to centrally planned economies. from Carlsbad, particularly because of its logistic ad-

TABLE 7. POTASH TRADE IN 1976 ('000 TONS K 2 0)

Fed. Rep. Dem. Rep. United

---~o_:.~-~~-~ France Germany_ l_tal_y Spain ~_!many_ U.S.S.R. Canada States Israel 1976 1975

World Total a 476 779 54 239 2,303 L.,304 4,923 848 341 12,268 II, 721

Developed
Markel
Economies 371 )66 16 179 639 597 4.,412 323 273 _!,]}] 6,781

North Ameriba 20 15 4,030 14 48 4,132 3,286

West Europe 283 453 11 150 618 462 25 38 172 2' 213 2,237
Oceania 14 5'• 175 245 210
c
Otlwrs 88 91 14 21 121 303 96 53 787 1,048

Developing
Market
Economies 100 190 38 60 349 104 420 524 68 ___1.185!< ~
Africa 47 I 64 42
Latin America 30 78 4 36 20 I 101 147 471 19 1,088 821
Near East
Africa 25 24 56 85
Asia 10 15 8
Far East
South Asia 91 131 110 335 245
East Asia 19 16 4 163 50 41 296 476
Centrally
Planned
Economies 5 23 1_,_315 J_,_E>_Cl3 91 - 3 038 _]_,_~3

Asia 38 33 91 163 292

h 2,875
E. Europe 23 1, 277 l , .570 2' 971
---------------- --------- ------------ ----------

a. Totals rounded, not .1lways comparable.

b. Yugoslavia included in Wesl Europe.
Includes Japan, South Africa, and Israel.

Source: Jnternat.ional Phosphate industry Association (ISHA) L1_9).

vantage to Central and South America. This adds to

the strategic importance of the Carlsbad location.

World consumption of pot;J.sh fertilizers has

mcreased at an average annual growth rate of about
6% during· the past 20 years. Table 8 gives the re-
gional and world potash consumption for 1962-77, with
projections to 1985. During this 15-year period, the
average annual increase of potash consumption for the
world was 6. 8%.
In 1977 world potash fertilizer consumption was
about 23.1 million tons K 2 0. North America, primarily
the United States, consumed 5. 5 million tons and Latin
America, l. 1 million tons. In Asia it is estimated that
Japan consumed 655,000 tons; China, 400,000 tons;
India, 360,000 tons; and South· Korea, 200,000 tons
while others used 522,000 tons.
During the next 7 years, 1977-85, world potash
consumption for fertilizer is projected by TV A to in-
crease about 4. 2% annually from 23.1 million tons K 2 0
in 1977 to 32 .I million tons K 2 0 in 1985 (16). In
terms of muriate of potash, that would be all increase
of 15.0 million tons of product in the 7 years (see
table 8). To meet this demand, production should be
about 10% higher than agriculture! consumption in
order to allow for industrial consumption and the
usual 5% gap between production and consumption
(see chapter I). A World Bank report projects a
In a recent AMAX study using three published
independent projections of world potash consumption,
it was estimated that world consumption will increase
to about 64 million tons of K 2 0 by the year 2007.
To supply this demand, production capacity would
have to be increased by at least 41 million tons of
K 2 0 during the period 1976-2007. The 41 million tons
of K 2 0 is equivalent to about 68 million tons of
muriate of potash. Since new mines will have to
supply most of this added potash, there should be
strong upward long-term pressure on price, sufficient
to justify the investment in ever-increasing potash
operations.
Granular grade is best fitted to the largest and
still growing share of the U.S. market. The blending
of granular materials at small local plants has become
standard procedure in much of the major fertilizer use
states.
Doth granular and coarse grades of potash are
used in bulk- blend mixtures, but educational efforts
on the benefits of the use of granular grade are in-
creasing as shown in table 9. Granular grade more
nearly matches the particle size of other materials
used in the blended mixtures of solid materials.

245
TABLE 8. REGIONAL POTASH FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION

North Latin Western Eastern

America America Europe Europe U.S.S.R. Africa Asia Oceania World
'000 mt K 2 0- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
!962 2,156.4 193.9 3,474.5 1.244 4 703.0 96.2 683.8 130.3 8,682.6
1963 2,372. 7 210.5 3,663.6 1,247 3 826.0 107. I 758.4 91.3 9,277.0
1964 2,585.8 270.3 3,779.0 1,410.4 901.0 124.4 877.6 128.4 10,076.9
1965 2,694.3 268.6 3,895.4 1,522.4 1,421.0 156.5 924.3 152.5 11,035.0
1966 3,064.1 292.7 3,930.0 1,709.5 1,891.0 158.0 1,066.5 171. 1 12,282.7
1967 3,465.4 326.7 3,941.2 1,929.6 1,902.0 184.4 1,165.6 174.9 13,089.8
1968 3,606.6 366.1 4,231.3 2. 092.4 2,136.0 191.2 1,292.1 157.0 14,072.9
1969 3,698.7 536.4 4,191.8 2,308.7 2,176.0 201.7 1,404.9 175.7 14,693.7
1970 3,835.7 556.5 4,371.1 2,468.0 2,319.0 214.7 1,508.6 194.5 15,468.2
1971 4,022.9 646.5 4,796.4 2,678.4 2,574.0 237.0 1,519. I 196.0 16,670.3
1972 4,120.4 659.3 4,996.2 3,015.9 2,788.0 264.1 1,572.4 193.9 17,610.3
1973 4,398.1 769.6 5. 091.2 3,011.3 3,238.0 294.8 1,750.5 240.5 18,794.0
1974 4,803.2 894.7 5,395.7 3,319.4 3,605.0 308.6 2,118.7 287.9 20,733.2
1975 4,246.1 929.6 4,602.3 3,397.4 3,884.0 343.8 2,182.8 237.9 19,824.0
1976 4,968.2 872.0 4,478.1 3,707.6 5,176.0 326.3 1,814.6 195.7 21,538.4
1977 5,545.6 1,097.1 4,74!.6 3,499.4 5,577.0 350.1 2,002.0 251.5 23,064.2
- -Forecast- - - - - - - - - - - -
1978 5,264.8 1,138.5 4,981.2 3,674.9 5,400.0 376.4 2,364.7 274.0 23,474.5
1979 5,557.4 1,261.5 5,125.2 3,819.0 6,143.0 400.7 2,408.9 283.5 24,999.3
1980 5,743.9 1,362.0 5,269.4 3. 949. 1 6,650.0 426.0 2,501.2 292.9 26,194.6
1981 5,930.5 1,464.9 5,344.7 4,078.1 7,174.0 453.5 2,594.7 302.4 27,342.8
1982 6,117.1 1,570.2 5,434.2 4,207.3 7,714.0 479.0 2,687.1 311.7 28,520.6
1983 6,302.6 1,676.9 5,515.6 4,336.3 8,270.0 506.5 2,775.8 321.0 29,704.7
1984 6,488.2 1,787.4 5,604.7 4,465.4 8,850.0 534. 1 2,868.4 330.3 30,928.6
1985 6,673.8 1,897.3 5,692.9 4,593.4 9,430.0 558.6 2,959.4 339.5 32,145.0

Source: (16)

TABLE 9. AGRICULTURAL SALES OF POTASH BY U.S. AND 3. Singleton, R. H. 1978. "Potash," Mineral Com-
CANADIAN PRODUCERS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA modity Profile MCP-11, U.S. Bureau of Mines,
('000 TONS K20J Washington, D . C .

4. Sheldrick, W. E. , and H. Stier. 1978. "World

Potash Survey," World Bank Working Paper 2. 93,
Granular Coarse Standard Washington, D.C.

1973 1,394 2,141 1,394 5. World Survey 2f Potash Resources, second edi-
1974 1,588 2,241 1,476 tion, 1976. British Sulphur Corporation, Ltd. ,
1975 1,191 2,022 1,046 London, England.
1976 1,665 2,485 1, 174
1977 1,824 2,417 1,119 6. Von Peter, A. 1977. "The Potash Situation -
1973-77 increase--percent 31.1% 12.9% (19.7%) Global Status and Development," Proceedings of
the FAI- IFDC Seminar, Paper No. Tech I/5-1,
New Delhi, India.

AMAX Chemical has successfully promoted the use 7. "G.D.R. Potash- Progress Since 1970." 1977.
of granular grade in blend mixtures through the use Phosphorus and Potassium, 87:40-45.
of the trade name K-Gran and promotional/educational
material explaining the merits of its use. Consumption 8. Mitchell, J. B. 1970. "Three Ways to Process
of the granular grade in North America has increased Potash," Mining Engineering, 22(3): 60-62.
by 31.1% during the 5-year period 1973-77 which in-
dicates that retailers and consumers are becoming 9. "Carnallite: The Other Potash Ore." 1976.
aware of the advantages of this grade (table 9). A Phosphorus and Potassium, 84:39-41.
substantial proportion of the potash used in the
United States and some other countries is for direct
application. For this purpose, either coarse or gran- 10. "Potash, A By-Product of Soviet Alumina-From-
ular grades can be used, but the closely sized gran- Nepheline Process." 1971. Phosphorus and
ular grade is likely to give a more even distribution Potassium, 53:40-41.
pattern when broadcast by mechanical application.
11. "Technical Advances by the U.S.S.R. Potash
Industry." 1972. Phosphorus and Potassium,
59:41-45.

12. "Routes to Potassium Nitrate - Part 2." 1971.

References Phosphorus and l;'otassium, 52:5 2-55.

13. "Sized Potash. n 1977. Phos12horus and Potas-

1. Smith, R. C. 1977. "The Potash Industry," sium, 91:39-43.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of Ameri-
can Association of Plant Food Control Officials, 14. "Canada Prices. " 1976. Phos12horus and Potas-
El Paso, Texas. sium , 83: 14.

2. Potash and Potassium Fertilizers. 1966. Chemi- 15. Kurtz, B. E., and A. J. Barduhn. 1960.
cal Process Monograph No. 15, Noyes Development "Compacting Granular Solids," Chemical Engineer-
Corporation, Park Ridge, New Jersey. ~ Progress, 56(1):67-72.

246
16. Harris, G. T., and E. A. Harre. 1979. World
Fertilizer Situation and Outlook, IFDC Technical
Bulletin T-13, International Fertilizer Development
Center, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660.
17. The Commodity Shortages of 1973-74: Case
Studies. 1976. United St~National
Commission on Supplies and Shortages. For sale
by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D . C .
18. Blouin, G. M. 1974. "The Effects of Increasing
Energy Costs on Fertilizer Production Costs and
Technology," TVA Bulletin Y-84, Tennessee
Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660.
19. !SMA Potash Statistics. 1977. International
Phosphate Industry Association, Paris, France.

247