Technical report and research writing

1. Writing a report
1.1 Report and Essays
What is a report?
How is it different from an essay? Write your thoughts here.
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Compare your thoughts with the ones below
A report is:
It is a form of professional documentation. in your future carrier, you will
write reports not essays, so good to see the difference between the two,
It is a document for readers that can readily extract information from it.
This information can be: an objective analysis or description,
recommendations, your interpretation of possible effects of something.
A report has to have an informative summary, well chosen sub-divisions
with headings and sub-headings.
An essay
Is not designed as a working document
reading cannot be selective
headings and subheadings are not required
1.2 Structuring a technical report
What do you think the structure of your finalized report should be?
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Which of the following structures do you think is the right order of structuring
your report?

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A B C
Title page Title page Title page
Abstract (summary) Abstract (summary) Abstract (summary)
Glossary of terms Contents page Contents page
Contents page Glossary of terms Introduction or
Theory (if needed) Introduction or Background Background
Introduction or Theory (if needed) Theory (if needed)
Background Middle sections Middle sections
Middle sections Conclusions Conclusions
Conclusions Recommendations (if Recommendations (if
Recommendations (if needed) needed)
needed) References (Bibliography) Glossary of terms
Appendices Appendices Appendices
References (Bibliography) References
(Bibliography)

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Most technical reports have the same basic structure. Besides, the middle part of a technical report
requires structuring information into a logical order. When you do so remember the following ideas
Always think of yourself as a story teller. You have to devise the most logical order for any
story you have to write up as a report.
Think what headings should you have based on the information you collected. But about what
information you require before structuring it.
2. Types of a Report
2.1 General Report
 This report is on a specific area around by using the library and contacting outside
organizations for information.
 The purpose of this report is to give a balanced, illustrated account of a particular area of
knowledge.
Examples: solar power, the potential for wave power, electric and hybrid vehicles, contaminated
sites in an area, waste-water treatment systems

2.2 Progress Report

A progress report is a document that describes the progress of a particular person or event over a
specific period of time. Progress reports are often used to judge the development of a project or person
doing a task before or between official reviews. Progress reports are valuable to determine if projects
are advancing, if a person is making improvements on a job or task, or for ensuring methods created to
reach certain goals are having their desired effects.

Progress reports are often used in various researches to determine if methods were used successfully.
This project report would include an executive summary, which states the main achievements over the
period of the progress report, progress in implementation, description of work and anticipated goals
and achievements. A research progress report also would document unexpected problems, list
meetings and provide an evaluation of results compared with expectations for the period.

The basics of progress reports will include specific information on the project being reviewed and the
time the report covers. It will give an account of the progress that has been made, reasons for the
progress, and goals for next period of time. For example, a six-week progress report on the
construction of a house may include what work has been completed over those six weeks, problems
workers may have encountered because of weather, if contractors are where they expected to be, and

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tasks that should be accomplished over the next six weeks. A report should have at least one sentence
or paragraph as an introduction that describes the purpose of the report.

2.3 Investigative Report

2.4 Case Study Report

A case study is a story about something unique, special, or interesting—stories can be about
individuals, organizations, processes, programs, neighborhoods, institutions, and even events. The case
study gives the story behind the result by capturing what happened to bring it about, and can be a good
opportunity to highlight a project’s success, or to bring attention to a particular challenge or difficulty
in a project. Cases2 might be selected because they are highly effective, not effective, representative,
typical, or of special interest.
Case studies would describe what happened when, to whom, and with what consequences in each
case. Case studies are appropriate when there is a unique or interesting story to be told. Case studies
are often used to provide context to other data (such as outcome data), offering a more complete
picture of what happened in the program and why.
The primary advantage of a case study is that it provides much more detailed information than what is
available through other methods, such as surveys. A common complaint about case studies is that it is
difficult to generalize from one case to another. But case studies have also been prone to
overgeneralization, which comes from selecting a few examples and assuming without evidence that
they are typical or representative of the population.
3. Writing a Research Report
3.1 The Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document of usually three to seven pages that informs others of a proposed
piece of research. This proposed research is usually a Masters or Doctorate by thesis, but it can also be
work for a corporate purpose. University students usually write research proposals for academics who
may eventually supervise the work based on the proposal.
Research proposal:
 gives you an opportunity to think through your project carefully, and clarify and define what
you want to research
 provides you with an outline and guide you through the research process
 lets your supervisor and department or faculty know what you would like to research and how
you plan to go about it
 helps the department choose an appropriate supervisor

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  ·gives you an opportunity to receive feedback from your supervisor and others in the
academic community as well as possible funders
 ·serves as a contract between you and your supervisor and the university
 can be submitted to a scholarship committee or other funding agency
Developing Research proposal
The process includes:
 choosing a topic
 narrowing and focusing your topic
 formulating research objectives, research questions, and
 outlining the key literature in the topic area
 deciding on research methodology: research design, methods, data collection analysis
 proposing a organization of the research e.g. how many chapters and suggested chapter
headings and their idea
 developing a timeline
 developing a budget and resources you will need
 developing a bibliography
3.2 Components of a Research Report
Title page
The title page is the first page of the report that the reader sees. It is especially important therefore that
it should be neat, not overcrowded and contain the relevant information.
The title page should include the title of the report, who wrote it, what course and establishment they
are from and the date. These are always required. Additional items may include: who the report is for,
company logo, report reference number and a security classification, if appropriate.

Abstract (summary)
An abstract is a concise description of the report including its purpose and most important results. The
purpose of the abstract is to give a brief overview of the whole report, not just of the conclusions and
recommendations. Although it is placed immediately after the title, it is written last, after the rest of
the report has been completed.
It is not necessary to give detailed information in the abstract- it is sufficient to give an indication of
the kind of information that found in the report. For a short report, an abstract of about 100-150 words
is enough; for a major research report, the abstract may be as long as one page. It certainly should not
be longer than this. As a general rule, the shorter the abstract, the better it is, as long as the essential

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information is included. Although it must be brief, the summary should be written in complete
sentences, not as notes.
Tables Contents
Include all the report sections, subsections, and appendices. This is not a numbered page of the report.
The list of contents is there to help your reader find specific information in the report quickly. It is
usual to present it as a list of headings with corresponding page numbers. In a long report, or if the
material is complex, it is helpful to split the report into sections which are also presented in the list of
contents. The sections should be given informative subheadings that should be chosen with as much
care as the main title of the report.
Glossary of terms
In this section, define any key terms used in the main body of the report. These could include;
 Specific technical terms to be defined
 Greek or other symbols
 Abbreviations: These are words formed from the initial letters or parts of other words, e.g. PCR:
polymerase chain reaction; SEM: scanning electron microscope.

Introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your readers so that they know what to expect
from the report. It is important to remember that the introduction introduces the report. It does not
introduce the subject.
The introduction answers the questions:
 Why is the report being written?
It is important to set out your brief for the report. You need to give the circumstances which made the
report necessary and what you hope to achieve by writing it. It may be necessary to give some
background information so that there is a framework into which your readers can fit the information
you are presenting. Of course, you need to use your judgment to decide how much detail to include,
and this will largely depend on your assessment of the people who will be reading the report.
 What kind of information does it contain?
You need to give an indication of the subject matter which you are dealing with. It is often helpful to
give the scope of the information as well. For example, you could say how detailed or technical the
information is going to be. You might need to say what kinds of information you are not going to deal
with.
 How is the problem being approached?
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You need to say whether you are dealing with the problem from a theoretical or practical standpoint.
Give an outline of the methods you used in your investigations.
 For whom is the report being written?
It is helpful to state whether you are writing for a technical or general reader - or any other particular
group. This will help your potential readers to decide whether it is worthwhile reading the report. It
will also help you to judge the style, language and degree of difficulty to use in writing the report.
Theory (if needed)
For writing a technical report there is a need to explain some of the theory behind the investigation. The
following are the guidelines for writing the Theory section;
• Don’t include too much. Include the theory as required which is relevant.
• Avoid plagiarism: copying large amounts from text books.
• If the report needs a small amount of theory, it may be included in the introduction.
Middle sections
This is where the real content of the report is presented. It should be given its own title, which
describes the subject matter. It is usual to present the material in three sections: Methods and
materials, findings and discussion.

 Methods and materials

Its purpose is to enable someone else to repeat what you have done and to check that what you have
done is valid, so there must be enough information for them to do so. On the other hand, there is no
need to give detailed descriptions of standard equipment or techniques. It is sufficient to refer to
procedures by name. If you have modified a piece of equipment or a technique in any way, then you
must explain what you have done.
All the materials, samples and specimens that are used must be explained. Give all the relevant details,
e.g. composition, specification, descriptive anatomy, etc.

 Findings
This is the place where you present your evidence. It should be organized logically so that your
conclusions arise naturally from the facts you have written. It is important to confine yourself to
proven facts here and to resist the temptation to indulge in personal views.

It is sometimes helpful Present the results of the work performed using neatly organized and
completely labeled tables and/or graphs whenever possible. When comparative data is available,

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present the data in a way that facilitates the comparison. For example, if theoretical and experimental
values are available, present the values alongside one another accompanied by percent error. If it
would help the reader understand the results, include a few sample calculations but put lengthy
calculations in an appendix.
 Discussion
The discussion explains what the results mean and points out trends. it is not enough simply to present
a graph or table and expect your reader to pick out what is important. It is your job to show the reader
what the main facts are and how they relate to the subject you are presenting. You must, therefore,
include some discussion of the facts.
Conclusions
It is a summary of the major findings you have arrived to in the previous sections. The conclusion
should be a concise description of the report including its purpose and most important results
providing specific quantitative information. The conclusion should not contain figures or make
reference to them. You might include, for example, statements on what has happened? What the
situation is? and what might happen. You might also consider further action that could be taken, and
an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of various courses of action.
You should not include any new information that does not appear in the main body of the report. You
should not make statements that you cannot support from the evidence.

Recommendations (if needed)

Recommendations are not always called for in a report, but if they are included, they should follow on
logically from the conclusions. Usually a brief statement of what should or should not be done is
sufficient.
References (Bibliography)
It includes all the important bibliographical List of works cited in the report. If you have consulted
printed, or other media sources (e.g. books, journals, videos) to help you compile your report, then you
must give a list of your references.
Appendices
This section may not always be present. Materials included in an appendix may include lab sheets, parts list,

diagrams, questionnaires, extensive calculations, error analyses, and lengthy computer programs. Introduce
numbered appendices rather than putting different items in one appendix.

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