EXPERIMENT#1

To study the temperature profile of given material using conduction heat

transfer equipment.
Apparatus:
Heat Transfer apparatus (Axial Conduction)
Theory:
Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat (internal energy) by microscopic collisions of
particles and movement of electrons within a body. The microscopically colliding objects, that
include molecules, atoms, and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential
energy, jointly known as internal energy. Conduction takes place in all phases of matter, such as
solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. The rate at which energy is conducted as heat between two
bodies is a function of the temperature difference (temperature gradient) between the two bodies
and the properties of the conductive medium through which the heat is transferred. Thermal
conduction was originally called diffusion.
Heat spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder body. For example, heat is conducted from
the hotplate of an electric stove to the bottom of a saucepan in contact with it. In the absence of
an external driving energy source to the contrary, within a body or between
bodies, temperature differences decay over time, and thermal equilibrium is approached,
temperature becoming more uniform.

Heat:
Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference.
Heat transfer:
Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The rate of heat
transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of the intervening
medium through which the heat is transferred.
Modes of Heat Transfer:
Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Conduction:
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can
take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions
and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to the
combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.

Fourier Law of Conduction:

“The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature
difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer.”
the time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative
gradient in the temperature and to the area.

( Area)(Temperature Difference)
Rate of heat Conduction∝
Thickness

(T 1−T 2 )
Qcond =KA
∆x

(∆ T )
Qcond =−KA
∆x

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Where:
Q is the heat flow rate by conduction
K is the thermal conductivity of the material
A is the cross sectional area normal to direction of heat flow and
∆ T/∆ x is the temperature gradient of the section.

Assumptions of Fourier equation:

 Steady state heat conduction.
 One directional heat flow.
 Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character that is constant and
uniform temperatures are maintained at the two faces.
 Isotropic and homogeneous material and thermal conductivity ‘k’ is
constant.
 Constant temperature gradient and linear temperature profile.
 No internal heat generation.

Features of Fourier equation:

 Fourier equation is valid for all matter solid, liquid or gas.
 The vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is normal to an
isotherm and is in the direction of decreasing temperature.
 It cannot be derived from first principle.
 It helps to define the transport property ‘k’.

Convection:

Conductive heat transfer occurs within a fluid itself and it is carried out by transfer of
one fraction of the fluid to the remaining portion.
Convection is transport by random motion of molecules and by Bulk motion of fluid.

Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Qconv =hA (T s−T ∞ )

Where:
T s is the surface temperature
T ∞ is the fluid temperature
h is the heat transfer coefficient
A is the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place

Radiation:

Radiation is the third mode of heat transfer. This mode of heat transfer didn’t require
any medium to occur. Every matter having a temperature above absolute zero will
emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves and called radiation. It is the same
way the energy of the Sun reach us.
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
Temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

Q emit , max =σ A s (T 4 s)

Where,
W
. K 4)
−8
σ =stefan−Boltzman Constant (5.67 ×10 2
m
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody,
and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

Q emit , max =σϵ A s (T 4 s)

ϵ is emissivity of the surface.(it is ratio of radiation emitted by black body to

radiation emitted by anybody).
Figure:
 (Heat Conduction Equipment)

(Schematic Diagram showing Heat Conduction equipment)

Procedure:
  Allow the system to reach stability, and take readings and make
adjustments as instructed in the individual procedures for each
experiment.
 Record the temperatures, voltage and current, with these data; calculate
the power of the heat source.
 Repeat the Lectures three times to assure that the system has reached
stability.
 You should investigate about how to use your information in order to
calculate the thermal conductivity coefficient in all the cases and you
must graph your data to study the behavior of temperature against
distance from the heat source.

Calculation:

Heat transfer = Q = 5W
Diameter of material = d = 25mm
Area = A = 4.901×10−4 m2

Sr.No x (m) T (℃)

1. 0 42.2
2. .01 39.3
3. .02 39.2
4. .03 38.4
5. .04 37.1
6. .05 36.0
7. .06 30.3
8. .07 30.2
9. .08 29.8

Graph:
Result:

From Graph, it is concluded that the Temperature ‘T’ is inversely proportional

to Distance ‘x’.

Experiment#2:
To check the validity of Fourier’s Law using Conduction Heat Transfer
Equipment.

Apparatus:
Heat Transfer apparatus (Axial Conduction)

(Heat Conduction Equipment)

(Schematic Diagram showing Heat Conduction equipment)

Procedure:

 Allow the system to reach stability, and take readings and make
adjustments as instructed in the individual procedures for each
experiment.
  Record the temperatures, voltage and current, with these data; calculate
the power of the heat source.
 Repeat the Lectures three times to assure that the system has reached
stability.
 You should investigate about how to use your information in order to
calculate the thermal conductivity coefficient in all the cases which will
be same for all dT and dx.

Calculations:

Heat Transfer = Q = 7.1 W

Diameter = d = 25mm
Area of Sectional A= 4.90625×10−4 m2

Sr.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x(mm) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
T(℃) 47.2 45.3 43.1 41.2 39.3 37.2 35.1 33.1 32.2

Calculation:

Q × dx
Thermal conductivity =K=
A ×dT

7.1 ×0.01
Thermal conductivi ty=K= −4
4.90625 ×10 ×(47.2−45.3)

W
Thermal conductivity =K=76.16 .K
m

Result:
The factor¿) is same for all values of dx and dT, Hence Fourier Law is Valid.
Experiment # 3
To study the effect of change in X-sectional of material on temperature
profile using Conduction Heat Transfer equipment.
Apparatus:
Heat Transfer apparatus (Axial Conduction)
(Heat Conduction Equipment)
 (Schematic Diagram showing Heat Conduction equipment)

Procedure:

 Allow the system to reach stability, and take readings and make
adjustments as instructed in the individual procedures for each
experiment.
 Record the temperatures, voltage and current, with these data; calculate
the power of the heat source.
 Repeat the Lectures three times to assure that the system has reached
stability.
 You should investigate about how to use your information in order to
calculate the temperature profile by change X-sectional.
Calculations:

Heat Transfer = Q1 = 10W

Diameter = d 1 = 25mm
Area of Sectional A1= 4.90625×10−4 m2

Sr.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x(mm) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
T(℃) 65.3 62.6 60 58.5 55.9 52.7 49.5 46.4 43.9

Q1 dT
= A1
k dx

Q1 −4 ( 65.3−62.6)
=4.90625 ×10
k 0.01

Q1
=0.1324 m. K
k

Calculations:

Heat Transfer = Q 2 = 9.9W

Diameter = d 2= 13mm
Area of section = A2= 1.32×10−4 m2

Sr.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x(mm) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
T(℃) 59.3 58.9 53 - - - 30.6 30.6 30.1

Q2 dT
= A2
k dx

Q2 −4 (59.3−58.9)
=1.3 × 10
k 0.01
Q2
=0.0052m . K
k

Result:
Hence, by increasing cross sectional area the temperature profile decreases.

Experiment#4:
To draw the temperature profile of radial conduction using radial
conduction heat transfer equipment.
To study the effect of change in X-sectional of material on temperature
profile using Conduction Heat Transfer equipment.
Apparatus:
Radial Heat Transfer apparatus (Radial Conduction)
Theory:
Heat:
Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference.
Heat transfer:
Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The rate of heat
transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of the intervening
medium through which the heat is transferred.
Modes of Heat Transfer:
Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Conduction:
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can
take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions
and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to the
combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.

Fourier Law of Conduction:

“The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature
difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer.”

( Area)(Temperature Difference)
Rate of heat Conduction ∝
Thickness

(T 1−T 2 )
Q cond =KA
∆x

(∆ T )
Qcond =−KA
∆x

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Where:
Q is the heat flow rate by conduction
K is the thermal conductivity of the material
A is the cross sectional area normal to direction of heat flow and
∆ T/∆ x is the temperature gradient of the section.

Convection:

Conductive heat transfer occurs within a fluid itself and it is carried out by transfer of
one fraction of the fluid to the remaining portion.
Convection is transport by random motion of molecules and by Bulk motion of fluid.
Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Qconv =hA (T s−T ∞ )

Where:
T s is the surface temperature
T ∞ is the fluid temperature
h is the heat transfer coefficient
A is the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place

Radiation:

Radiation is the third mode of heat transfer. This mode of heat transfer didn’t require
any medium to occur. Every matter having a temperature above absolute zero will
emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves and called radiation. It is the same
way the energy of the Sun reach us.
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
Temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

Q emit , max =σ A s (T 4 s)

Where,
W
. K 4)
−8
σ =stefan−Boltzman Constant (5.67 ×1 0 2
m
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody,
and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

Q emit , max =σϵ A s (T 4 s)

ϵ is emissivity of the surface.(it is ratio of radiation emitted by black body to

radiation emitted by anybody).

RADIAL HEAT CONDUCTION

When the inner and outer surfaces of a thick walled cylinder are each at a different
uniform temperature, heat flows radially through the cylinder wall. The disk can be
considered to be constructed as a series of successive layers. From continuity
considerations the radial heat flow through each of the successive layers in the wall
must be constant if the flow is steady but since the area of the successive layers
increases with radius, the temperature gradient must decrease with radius.
 2 πkL(T 2−T 1)
Q=
r
ln ⁡( 2 )
r1

Figure:

(Radial Heat Conduction Experiment Setup)

(Schematic Diagram of Radial Heat Conduction Equipment)

Calculations:
Heat Transfer = Q = 10.1W
Dia of X-section = d= 25mm
Area of X-section = A =

Sr.No x (m) T(℃)

1 0 35.5
2 0.01 33.5
3 0.02 32.0
4 0.03 31.4
5 0.04 30.7
6 0.05 30.1

2 πkL(T 2−T 1)
Q=
r
ln ⁡( 2 )
r1
Graph:
 Temperature profile of Radial surface

36
35
34
Temperature (oC)

33
32
31
30
29
28
27
0 10 20 30 40 50
Thickness (mm)

Result:
By increasing thickness, the temperature decreases. So, temperature
is inversely proportional to thickness.