Experiment no.

3
“To calculate area of irregular shapes by using planimeter.”

Objective:
 To Study and use of planimeter.
 To study working of planimeter
 To study error in calculated and experimental value

Apparatus:
 Planimeter
 Graph paper
 Pencil
 Scale
 Compass

Theory:
Description:
Area:
The extent or measurement of anything on the ground, world.

Types of area:
 Circle Area
 Polygon Area
 Rectangle Area
 Square Area
 Quadrilateral area
 Ellipses Area

Units of area:
 Square meters
 Square centimeters
  Square millimeters
 Square yards
 Square kilometers
 Hectare
 Acre

Area measuring devices:

Some area measuring devices are.
 Measuring tape
 Planimeter
 Mesh tape
 Vinyl paper Composite tape
 Metal tape
 Theodolite
Of all these we’re concerned with planimeter as it is convenient, easy and simple to use.

Planimeter:
A planimeter, also known as a platometer, is a measuring instrument used to determine
the area of an arbitrary two-dimensional shape.
Planimeter is a mechanical integrator to measure irregular plan areas. Its major
application in the thermodynamics lab is to find area of actual P-V diagram of the heat
engines.

History:
A practical, inexpensive polar planimeter was invented by the Swiss mathematician
Jacob Amsler about 1854.

General working:
The planimeter is a mechanical device for measuring areas in the plane. It has the shape
of a ruler with two legs. The intersection is unique if the angle between the two
planimeter legs is smaller than 180 degrees. The measurement consists of dragging (x, y)
along the boundary of the region R.

Types of planimeter:
The main types of planimeter are.
  Linear
 Polar
 Prytz or “hatchet”

1. Linear planimeter:
The main working parts of polar and linear planimeters are the
same. Each has a rod, called the tracer arm, one end of which is
the tracing point T, and a wheel attached to the rod with its axis
parallel to the rod. A scale attached to the wheel records how
much the wheel turns. linear planimeter

Principle of linear planimeter:

The working of the linear planimeter may be explained by measuring the area of a
rectangle ABCD (see image). Moving with the pointer from A to B the arm EM moves
through the yellow parallelogram, with area equal to PQ×EM. This area is also equal to
the area of the parallelogram A"ABB". The measuring wheel measures the distance PQ
(perpendicular to EM). Moving from C to D the arm EM moves through the green
parallelogram, with area equal to the area of the rectangle D"DCC". The measuring wheel
now moves in the opposite direction, subtracting this reading from the former. The
movements along BC and DA are the same but opposite, so they cancel each other with
no net effect on the reading of the wheel. The net result is the measuring of the difference
of the yellow and green areas, which is the area of ABCD. The two planimeters differ in
the movement of the end of the tracer arm opposite the tracer point.  In the linear
planimeter, that end is restricted to move along a straight line.  The drawing suggests that
it runs along a track, but a more common way to cause this motion is to have this end
attached to a set of wheels that are fixed to an axis so that the wheels turn together.

Principle of linear planimeter

2.Polar Planimeter
Definition:
The polar planimeter is a mechanical device for measuring areas
of regions in the plane which are bounded by smooth boundaries.
The measurement is based directly on Green's theorem in multi-
variable calculus: the planimeter integrates a line integral of a
Polar Planimeter
vector field which has constant curl.

Construction:
The Amsler (polar) type consists of a two-bar linkage. At the end of one link is a pointer,
used to trace around the boundary of the shape to be measured. The other end of the
linkage pivots freely on a weight that keeps it from moving. Near the junction of the two
links is a measuring wheel of calibrated diameter, with a scale to show fine rotation, and
worm gearing for an auxiliary turns counter scale. As the area outline is traced, this wheel
rolls on the surface of the drawing. The operator sets the wheel, turns counter to zero, and
then traces the pointer around the perimeter of the shape. When the tracing is complete,
the scales at the measuring wheel show the shape's area.
When the planimeter's measuring wheel moves perpendicular to its axis, it rolls, and this
movement is recorded. When the measuring wheel moves parallel to its axis, the wheel
skids without rolling, so this movement is ignored. That means the planimeter measures
the distance that its measuring wheel travels, projected perpendicularly to the measuring
wheel's axis of rotation. The area of the shape is proportional to the number of turns
through which the measuring wheel rotates.
Here are some pictures of a polar planimeter
The picture on the left shows the planimeter ready to measure the area of a region.  On
the right is a disassembled view.  The tracer point is equipped with a magnifying glass to
make it easier follow the curve.  The box at the left end of the tracer arm is a carriage
containing the wheel and the counter with its scale.  The wheel rests lightly on the paper
and can roll when the tracer point is moved.  The pole is at the top and is held in place by
a weighted block that allows the pole arm to pivot. 
   Planimeter Disassembled
Measuring Area of Planimeter
shape

The axis of the wheel is easily seen on the underside of the carriage.  The wheel itself
(indicated by the pointer) is a steel disk attached directly to the cylinder with the scale. 
The plastic wheel on the same axis that is visible in both pictures is slightly smaller than
the steel one and does not contact the paper.  It is used to set the scale to zero.

Axis of Wheel: Planimeter arrangement:

Principle of Polar Planimeter:

The working of the linear planimeter may be explained by measuring the area of a
rectangle ABCD (see image). Moving with the pointer from A to B the arm EM moves
through the yellow parallelogram, with area equal to PQ×EM. This area is also equal to
the area of the parallelogram A"ABB". The measuring wheel measures the distance PQ
(perpendicular to EM). Moving from C to D the arm EM moves through the green
parallelogram, with area equal to the area of the rectangle D"DCC". The measuring wheel
now moves in the opposite direction, subtracting this reading from the former. The
movements along BC and DA are the same but opposite, so they cancel each other with
no net effect on the reading of the wheel. The net result is the measuring of the difference
of the yellow and green areas, which is the area of ABCD. The two planimeters differ in
the movement of the end of the tracer arm opposite the tracer point.  In the linear
planimeter, that end is restricted to move along a straight line.  The drawing suggests that
it runs along a track, but a more common way to cause this motion is to have this end
attached to a set of wheels that are fixed to an axis so that the wheels turn together.

Working:
The planimeter is a mechanical device for measuring areas in
the plane. It has the shape of a ruler with two legs. One leg of
length 1 connects the fixed origin (0,0) to (a, b). A second leg of
length 1 connects (a, b) with the end point (x, y). The point (x, y)
determines (a, b) as the intersection of two-unit circles centered
at (0,0) and (x, y). The intersection is unique if the angle between
the two planimeter legs is smaller than 180 degrees. Planar view of Planimeter

The measurement consists of dragging (x, y) along the boundary of the region R. The
wheel at (x, y) measures the motion in the direction orthogonal to the leg. After
completing the path along the boundary of the region R. the total wheel rotation indicates
the area of the region.
Let F (x, y) = (P (x, y), Q (x, y)) be the Planimeter vector field. It is
defined by attaching a unit vector orthogonal to the vector (x-a, b-b)
at (x, y). The wheel rotation is the line integral of F along the
boundary of R. Green's theorem tells that this integral is the double
integral of curl(F) over the region R. The planimeter vector field is
explicitly given by F (x, y) = (P (x, y), Q (x, y)) = (- (y-b (x, y)), (x-a
(x, y))).
Planimeter vector field
Furthermore, curl(F)=Qx-Py is equal to 2+(-ax-by) which is 2 plus the curl of the vector
field G (x, y) = (b (x, y), -a (x, y)). A direct verification shows that curl(G)=-1. The
Planimeter line integral is therefore the area of the enclosed region.

Planimeter method

Where,
T = Tracing point and tracing support.
A = Adjustable arm
P = Anchor arm
F = Dial or disc
D = Measuring wheel or graduated roller or drum
V = Vernier
To measure an area first find the accuracy of polar planimeter.
After that measure the area of any shape, set the anchor point of the adjusted planimeter
at a convenient position outside the plotted area. Place the tracing point on a selected
point on the perimeter of the cross section. Take an initial reading from the disc, drum,
and Vernier. Continue by tracing the perimeter clockwise, keeping the tracing point
carefully on the lines being followed. When the tracing point closes on the initial point,
take a reading again from the disc, drum, Vernier. The difference between the initial
reading and the final reading gives a value of area being measured.
To measure the areas larger than the capacity of the planimeter, divide the area into
sections and measure each section separately, then add all in order to find the
accumulative area.

Maximum and Minimum readings on disc, drum and Vernier:

Disc: On disc following are extreme value that are possible in measurement.
Maximum reading: 100 inch2
Minimum reading: 10 inch2
Drum: on disc following are extreme value that are possible in measurement.
Maximum reading: 10 inch2
Minimum reading: 0.1 inch2
Vernier: the minimum reading on the drum is further divided into ten divisions on the
Vernier scale, therefore the least count Vernier will be: L.C = 0.1/100 = 0.01 inch2
Therefore,
Total reading = (Disc reading) + (Drum reading) + (Vernier reading)
Note: clearly if area is less than 10 in2 than disc reading will not be taken.

Calculations:
No of Actual Planimeter
obs. Shape: Reading: reading: Error: % error:
(sq. inch) (sq. inch)

1. 6 5.82 0.18 3.00%

2. 9 9.02 -0.02 -0.22%

 3. 1.79 1.75 0.04 2.23%

Comments:

Factors effecting result of experiment:

Factors effecting the result of the experiment are following.

1. Zero circle
2. Vibration influence

Zero circle:
The anchor point A is the center of rotation and AT (R') is known as the radius of
the zero circle. When the anchor point is inside the figure the area of the zero circle is
added to the area computed by planimeter. 

On examining the graduation of the wheel, it will be seen that when the wheel revolves in
the direction of a right-handed screw the revolution will be positive, while revolution in
an opposite direction would be backward or negative.

When the Tracer moves about P as a center in the direction of the hands of a watch
the direction of the tracing is positive, while motion an opposite direction negative.

 Outside the Zero Circle, tracing in a positive direction gives a positive rolling of

the Wheel while tracing in a negative direction gives a negative rolling.

 Inside the Zero Circle, tracing in a positive direction gives a negative rolling of the

Wheel, while tracing in a negative direction gives a positive rolling.

Vibration influence:
The main reason of errors in planimetry owes to the vibration influence.

In fact, all errors are because of the vibrations. While tracing the arm over the area no
matter how much we try the human vibrations, wind influence and all other parameters
will cause us to deviate from the selected area.
This causes or you can say produces the error.

Remedy:
This can be reduced by taking different readings from different investigators

The above results are from single, not repeated, tracings of the given area, and from the
table it is seen that

1. Absolute Errors differ but little and are not proportional to the Actual Area traced.

2. The Relative Error diminishes rapidly as the Area increases and are almost inversely
proportional to the increase in Area.

The results of similar experiments made by other investigators have been stated in many
different ways, most of them however being the results of experiments involving some
one particular application, so that the empirical formulas as given by Prof. Lorber
probably is more general and covers the subject more completely than do any or all of the
others.