Unit 2:

Dimensions
of Learner-Centered
Learning

Module 4:
Developmental and
Socio-Cultural
Dimensions of
Learning
Introduction:
 In the earlier chapters, the basic
theories of learning have been discussed. One
view is that learning is explained by outside
processes, where learning is thought to have
occurred because of what the individual show in
his external behavior. Another school of
thought also posits that learning happens
because of internal cognitive processes. In
addition, there is another thinking which tries
to explain that learning occurs because of the
ability of the individual to construct his own
learning using as his base, the socio-cultural
context upon which he exists or operates.
This school of thought argues that learning
is socially constructed. It keeps to the idea
that learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others. This because human
beings are social creatures and that much of
learning involves interacting with people, as
well as acquiring knowledge and skills from
them. It should be mentioned again that
theories try to explain from a particular
perspective why and how learning occurs and
in this case, the socio-cultural perspective.
Learning Point: Defining Key
Terms Related to Social
Constructivism

This chapter deals with the views on learning as explained by socio

cultural factor. This perspective argues that learning is a result of
the socio-cultural context in which occurs social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with others. We develop,
particularly how we learn and think is primarily a function of the
socio-cultural environment in which we are reared. Socio-cultural
theorists see cognitive development and a different light, i.e.,
cognitive development is inseparable from culture. This means that
while socio-cultural factors do not explain everything about learning,
nevertheless, they interact with cognitive factors influence learning.

To
better

understand the socio-cultural dimensions of learning, it would be

good to define and understand first the related key terms which
you may come across later in the chapter.
a. Context. The surrounding circumstances, or conditions or the
environment upon which learning occurs in them.
b. Community of practice. A group of people who share common
interests or goals, and regularly interact and coordinate their
efforts, in pursuit of their interests and goals. Communities of
practice tend to adhere to certain standards of actions and
interactions (Ormond, 2015). (The school an example of a community
of practice.
c. Authenticity. Closeness or resemblance to real-life situations
and real-world tasks and problems; close resemblance of an activity
or a task to what one will most likely encounter in the outside
world.
d. Scaffolding. It is the help and support provided by an expert to
a person or student while in the process of learning.
e. Culture. Refers to characteristics of the individual or
society or of some sub grown within a society. It includes the
values, beliefs, notions about acceptable and unacceptable
behavior and other socially constructed ideas that members of the
 ground are taught as “true”.
f. Social Constructivism. Refers to the emphasis on the social
contexts of learning and the idea that knowledge is mutually
built and constructed. The involvement when others creates
opportunities for students to evaluate and refine their
understanding, they are exposed to the thinking of others and as
they participate in creating understanding. Social contexts,
provide an important mechanism for development of students’
thinking (Santrock,2011).

LEARNING POINT: THE

SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW
OF LEARNING

Lev Vygotsky, a developmental psychologist has laid

some of the groundwork for contextual theories by
espousing that society and culture provide many
concepts and strategies that children can use in
thinking about and solving everyday problems. Other
psychologists also believe that learning and
development are inextricably dependent on and bound to
various physical, social and cultural contexts. The
different theories developed along this thinking,
however, differ in the contexts which they focus on,
but they canal be considered as contextual theories in
learning. Vygotsky’s theory later came to be known as
socio-cultural theory of learning.

Following are the key ideas concepts in Vygotsky’s theory

(Ormrod, 2015)
1. Some cognitive processes are seen in a variety of species, but
some are unique to human beings. Lower species exhibit lower
mental functions like knowing what to eat, and how best to get
food from various locations. But humans use their higher mental
functions: deliberate, focused cognitive processes that enhance
learning memory and logical reasoning.
2. Through both informal conversations and informal schooling,
adults convey to children the ways in which the culture
interprets and responds to the world. Through these kinds of
interactions, children learn from adults the kind of behavior
they are expected to exhibit within their own culture.
3. Every
culture
not only
teaches
its
members
 how to interpret their experiences, but also passes along the
physical and cognitive tools that make daily living more
effective and efficient. Physical tools like sewing machines,
drills, simple machines make work easier and more efficient, but
cognitive tools like use of symbols, or strategies for doing
things like reviewing for an exam, or reading maps, which are
symbolic and mental in nature greatly enhance children’s
thinking skills.
4. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent the
first few years of life. For adults, thought and language are
closely interconnected. For infants and young toddlers, thought
and language are two different functions.
5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social activities; as
children develop, they gradually internalize the processes they
use in social contexts and begin to use them independently. It is
advanced that higher mental functions have their foundations in
social activities, as children learn new things and develop
higher cognitive skills as a result of their verbal exchanges
with other children or other people.
6. Children appropriate their culture’s tools in their own
idiosyncratic manner. Children do not necessarily internalize what
they see or hear in social context, but transform these ideas,
strategies and other cognitive tools to suit their own needs and
purposes. This point of view has a constructivist basis.
7. Children can accomplish more difficult tasks if they are
assisted by people more advanced and competent than they
are.
8. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. The zone of
proximal development (ZPD) identifies the range of tasks that
children cannot yet perform independently but can perform to the
maximum if there is help, support and guidance of others. The
process of helping and supporting learners perform to the maximum
is called “scaffolding”.
9. Play allows children to cognitively “stretch themselves”. Play
serves as the children’s training ground for adulthood. This is
where they learn rules and standards in acting out their adult
roles. Playing house for example, is where children try their hand
at exercising their future roles as father or mother through play
activities like cooking, taking care of their children and the
like.
Analyzing Vygotsky’s theory, focus is
more on the processes through which children
develop their social and cognitive skills
for learning, as opposed to what
developmental theorists claim (one of whom
is Jean Piaget) that children develop the
characteristics that they are most likely to
exhibit at the appropriate developmental
stages. To digress a bit, developmental
theories advance the view that humans go
through developmental stages, characterized
by the appearance of certain
characteristics.
Comparatively though, Vygotsky’s concept of learning
from a developmental point of view, is often unclear and
speculative, making it more difficult to test, verify or
prove, than that of Piaget’s theory (Gauvain, 2001, as
cited in Ormrod, 2015). But even while there is this
limitation in Vygotsky’s perspective, it has general
implications for educational practice on the following:
 social reconstruction of meaning, scaffolding,
participation in adult activities, apprenticeships,
acquisition of teaching skills and dynamic assessment.
Think of a classroom situation. In some instances,
students prefer to work alone, but sometimes they are
asked to work together to solve a problem, a situation
from which they can learn from each other, and
subsequently create new knowledge. This is social
constructivism.
Interaction with adults will help the child make sense of
the world through discussion of a phenomenon or event which
both of them are experiencing. This encourages the child to
think about the particular phenomenon, attach labels to it,
or even recall the principles underlying it. This type of
learning is mediated learning experience. For example, a
teacher and his class visit the museum, and they discuss the
implements used by farmers 500 years ago. In addition to the
question-and-answer between teacher and students, they
(students) also discuss among themselves what could be
inferred about these farm implements. The discussion between
 teacher and students may help the latter make inferences
about the kind of vegetables and cereals grown and raised by
the farmers at that time. This example illustrates the
social construction of meaning.
Scaffolding is a supportive technique, carried out by
experts or competent people which helps students of any age
to perform and accomplish challenging tasks even if at that
time, they cannot yet perform these tasks independently – in
Vygotsky’s terms, even if such tasks are within their zone
of proximal development.
Following are some forms of scaffolding
(Ormrod,2015)

a.Modeling the correct way if performing a task.

b.Dividing a big or complex task into smaller and simpler
activities
c.Setting guidelines for accomplishing a task
d.Providing technology aids to make the task
easier
e.Keeping students’ attention focused on critical aspects
of the task
f.Asking questions that get the students is progressing
Participation and gradual entry into adult activities increase the
probability that children will engage in behaviors and thinking
skills within their zone of proximal development. In such a
situation, the children’s involvement should be mediated.
Apprenticeship is actually a guided participation where a novice
works with an expert mentor for a certain period to learn how to
perform complex tasks in a particular domain. The mentor provides
structure and guidance throughout the whole process, gradually
weaning off the learner from the help and support (scaffolding),
and giving him more responsibility as his competence increases.
Apprenticeship can show novices how experts typically think about a
task for activity. This is known as cognitive apprenticeship.
Cognitive apprenticeship are important in the classroom.
Researchers found that students’ learning benefits from teachers
 who think of their relationship with a student as cognitive
apprenticeship using scaffolding guided participation or tutoring
to help the student learn. All kinds of apprenticeships have the
following features: (Collins, 2006 & 1989; in Ormrod, 2015)
a. Modeling. The mentor performs the task at the same time thinking
aloud or talking about the process while the learner listens.
b. Coaching. The mentor frequently gives suggestions hints and feedback
as learner performs the task.
c. Scaffolding. The mentor provides different forms of support for the
learner, like simplifying the task, breaking a task into smaller and
more manageable units, or providing less complicated equipment.
d. Articulation. The learner explains what he is doing and why,
allowing the mentor to examine or analyze the learner’s knowledge,
reasoning and problem-solving strategies.
e. Reflection. The mentor asks the learner to compare his performance
with that of experts, or with a model of how the task should be
done.
f. Increasing Complexity and Diversity of Tasks. With increasing
learner’s proficiency, the mentor presents more complex, challenging
and varied tasks to accomplish.
g. Exploration. The mentor encourages the learner to frame questions
and problems on his own and in doing so refine and expand his
acquired skills.
Acquisition of teaching skills is also one benefit
gained from the use of socio-constructivist approach
to learning. As children acquire and gain new first
hand information and skills from experienced members
of the community, they can, in turn, teach their new
knowledge to others.
Dynamic assessment often reveal more objective
evaluation of children’s cognitive capabilities, than
general assessments do. Dynamic assessment requires
first the identification of tasks that children cannot
do independently, then provide in-depth instruction,
and practice in developing cognitive behaviors along
these tasks; and finally determine the extent to which
the learner benefited from intervention.
There are certain teaching methodologies, approaches, and
 techniques that the teacher can use- methods that are in
keeping Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist view of learning.

a.Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as tutors

and tutees. Time should be spent on training tutors.
b.Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for students
to work in small groups and help each other learn. Groups may
vary in size, as in a dyad or groups of four.
c.Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned to a
group, and the group can develop its own structure on how to go
about solving the problem.
LEARNING POINT: THE SITUATED LEARNING THEORY

The situated learning theory is one theory which exemplifies the

view learning is a product of the cultural context where one lives
or exists. Situated cognition or situated learning is a theory that
suggests learning is “naturally tied to authentic activity, context
and culture” (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). It means that most
learning occurs naturally through social activities, contexts, and
the culture which learners are exposed to.
This theory suggests that it is more difficult to learn from
unnatural activities. For example, in a science class, changes in
the earth’s surface could be learned and understood better if
students are allowed to go out of the classroom, say, go to the
mountain, and make lengthy observations, rather than by reading
books.
A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorist Jean
Lave, is one of the notable proponents of situated
learning theory. Following are the highlights or the
main ideas of the situated learning theory that she
advanced (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol 89, pp.
32-42).
a.Knowledge is socially-constructed. Knowledge is
acquired and developed thru social experiences. It
means that the learner constructs and develops
knowledge on the basis of his experiences as a member
 of a social group.
b.Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of
individuals participating in and negotiating their
way through new situations. New knowledge is built as
the learner experiences and deals with new
situations.
c. Knowing, learning and cognition are socially
constructed, that are seen or expressed in actions of
people and people interacting.
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts
and purposes.
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable
from the practice it is supposed to develop. Learning
is viewed as dependent on and inseparable from its
context.
f. Learning is situated within authentic activity,
context, and culture. To create authenticity, what is
being taught needs to be aligned with the learners’
community of practice.
g. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of
learning that takes place in and through common
practices among a group of people with similar goals and
interests.
h. Learning is in part about increased participation and
that it is legitimate to participate in different ways.
i.Cultural models are not held by individuals but live
in the practices of a community, and how people engage
with each other, as well as any tools they use, and the
specific cultural context.
J. Designing learning experiences from situated
learning perspectives start with some assumptions
that learning is grounded in the actions of
everyday situations:
• Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers
 only to similar situations.
• Social processes influence the way people think,
perceive, solve problems, perform procedures,
build declarative knowledge and interact.
• Learning is enmeshed in participation in complex
social environments where there are people,
situations and activities.
k. Knowledge undergoes construction and transformation
through continuous use. Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989)
further rationalize the importance of authenticity in
situated learning. These are:
1.Knowledge is a product of making and creating
meanings, and cannot be separated from its
context.
2.Learning is a continuous, life-long process from
acting within and reacting to situations.
3.The tools of learning and their usage reflect the
particular accumulated insights of communities of
practice.
4. Learning is a process of enculturation. Given the
chance to observe and practice actual behaviors of
members of a culture-group, people pick up relevant
jargon, imitate behaviors and start to act in
accordance with norms and expectations of that
culture.

These concepts highlight the role and importance of

socio-cultural factors in creating learning and
deriving meaning using materials, meaningful and
real-life experiences and even culturally desired
behaviors and expectations. Concepts related to
situated learning and are worth remembering and
applying in classroom activities and situations are
authenticity, constructing meaning community of
practice, social context.
It should be borne in mind that the school or the
classroom is a community of practice, where there are
rules and standards to be followed and where certain
desired behaviors are expected to be exhibited by
learners. On the other hand, teachers may apply in
their teaching methodologies and content or subject
matter, the important concepts related to situated
learning theory. These are exposure of learners to
real-life learning materials and experiences, the use
of techniques where students as a group can construct
their own knowledge as a result of learning and
interacting with each other; and emphasis to culture as
an important tool and source of learning.