1.

UK and England
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

The United Kingdom is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy comprising four
constituent countries:

• England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Major cities:

Ireland • Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester (England)
Queen Elizabeth II – head of state • Belfast, Londonderry (Northern Ireland)
London – capital city • Edinburgh, Glasgow (Scotland)
National Anthem - God Save the Queen • Swansea, Cardiff (Wales)

The UK – a sovereign state that includes England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Great Britain – an island situated off the north west coast of Europe.
British Isles – a collection of over 6,000 islands, of which Great Britain is the largest.
England – a country within the UK.

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. As part of the United Kingdom, the basic
political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system. Today England is
governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

The capital is London, the largest metropolitan area in Great Britain, and the largest urban zone in
the European Union

• Population - 53,012,456
• Currency - British Pound Sterling (£) • Language - Official: English, Cornish

The St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century.  A red cross was
a symbol for many Crusaders(крестоносцы)  in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated
with Saint George, who is patron saint (покровитель) of England.

There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including
the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of
England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.

The Royal Arms of England (королевский герб Англии) has three lions imagined on it, it was abopted
by Richard lionheart.

England has many large cities:

• Birmingham — the UK's second largest city (by population) in the industrial heartland.
• Liverpool — "The home of the Beatles", a booming cosmopolitan city famous for its nightlife, rich
cultural heritage, magnificent waterfront(набережная), superb architecture, and excellence in music and
sport.
• Manchester — third most visited city in the UK, a cultural, sporting, entertainment, shopping and
media hub.
• York — ancient capital of Yorkshire, with Roman, Viking and Medieval remains.
England has many outstanding landmarks and sites of interest:
• Hadrian's Wall — the Romans built this 87 mile wall to protect their lands from northern raiders.
• Isles of Scilly — magical archipelago of tiny islands off the south western coast of Cornwall.
• New Forest National Park — one of the few remnants (остатки) of the great oak and hornbeam
woodland that once covered southern England.
• Stonehenge — the iconic Neolithic and Bronze Age monument; as mysterious as it is famous.

Anthems: While there is no official national anthem of England, there are many songs which are
considered to fill such a role. In most of the national sporting games 'God Save the Queen', the British
national anthem, is used.
• The Barbary Lion is a national animal of England. Lion was the nickname of England's medieval warrior
rulers with a reputation for bravery, such as Richard I of England, known as Richard the Lionheart.

• The oak is the national tree of England, representing strength and endurance(выносливость).
• The rose is England's national flower. The flower has been adopted as England's emblem since the
time of the Wars of the Roses - civil wars between the royal house of Lancaster (whose emblem was a
red rose) and the royal house of York (whose emblem was a white rose).

2. UK and Scotland
The country is known for its ancient castles, beautiful lakes, soaring mountain peaks and historical
monuments.
• Capital – Edinburgh
• Largest city – Glasgow
• Scotland is the second largest country in the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
Though Scotland is a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, its legal system is still separate from
that of England, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
The main religions of Scotland are Church of Scotland, Scottish Episcopal Church and Roman
Catholicism.
• The main languages – English (official), Scottish Gaelic and Anglo – Scottish 
• Symbol – purple thistle (чертополох)
• Animal –The unicorn is the national animal of Scotland. The Royal Coat of Arms of Scotland, used until
1603 by the Kings of Scotland, was supported by two unicorns and the shield.
Big cities:
• Edinburgh - the capital of Scotland, home to the World's largest Arts Festival and the First European
City of Literature. It is often known as the "Festival City". Most of the city centre, with architecture of its
Old Town and New Town, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Glasgow - Scotland's largest city and most vibrant (живой) city, with the best shopping in Great Britain
outside London and with the most exciting nightlife. At one time, it was the centre of the largest
ship-building industry in the world.
• Aberdeen - Scotland's third largest city. Known for its impressive granite buildings, it is known
as the "Granite City", the oil capital of Europe, and home to a large harbour and two renowned
universities.
• Dundee - vibrant city with high population of students and one of the most distinct (perhaps
incomprehensible) accents you'll hear. It is known as the city of "jute, jam and journalism", and the
"City of Discovery" for its history of scientific activities.
Anthems
There is no official anthem, but there are some unofficial songs that considered to be anthem of
Scotland.
• Scotland the Brave • A Man's A Man for A' That.
• Highland Cathedral • Freedom Come-All-Ye.
• Scots Wha Hae
Cultural
• Burns' Night is an annual celebration of Scotland's national poet Robert Burns.
• Tartan Day, a recent innovation from Canada, is a celebration of all things Scottish on the anniversary
of the Declaration of Arbroath (Scotland Declaration of Independence)
• St Andrew's Day, the 30th of November, is the national day with the St. Andrew's Day Bank Holiday
(Scotland).
The union flag of Great Britain is sometimes referred to as the Union Jack and is made up of three
overlaid crosses. One of these crosses is the flag of the Patron Saint of Scotland, Saint Andrew.

3.UK and Wales

National anthem: Land of My Fathers

Capital City: Cardiff,
Other major towns/cities: Swansea, Newport, Wrexham 
Official languages: English, Welsh
Government: Welsh Government 
Patron saint: Saint David 
Currency: pounds sterling 

The native language of Wales is spoken by three-quarters of a million people – most in Wales, but
also in England, the USA, Canada and Argentina. There are few Welsh-only speakers and traditionally,
Welsh has been the language of rural Wales; but it is increasingly popular within urban populations.
Bilingual road signs and the Welsh language television channel are just a couple of examples of the
language in common use you’re sure to see on your visit here.

Wales has three national parks: Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons and Pembrokeshire Coast.

National symbols
The red dragon on a green and white background has been the official Wels flag since 1959. The
significance of the dragon in Welsh culture is believed to date back to Arthurian legend when Merlin had
a vision of a red dragon (representing native Britons) fighting a white dragon (the Saxon invaders). The
use of green and white refer to the colours of the House of Tudor.

The emblem of the Prince of Wales is Three white feathers (пера) are encircled with a coronet,
inscribed with the German words Ich Dien (‘I serve’). And these Three Feathers are proudly worn on
Welsh rugby shirts.

Leek (лук-порей) is cited as a symbol of Wales. Historical evidence also exists that the Tudor dynasty
issued leeks to be worn by their guards on St David’s Day in honour of the patron saint of Wales. There
is also plenty of entertaining folklore and guesswork why the Welsh are linked with the leek.

The Welsh lovespoon handcrafted gift made of a solid block of wood, the tradition of a male admirer
crafting a lovespoon for a young woman indicated to the woman’s family that he was skilled and capable
with his hands. The oldest existing lovespoon in Wales dates back to 17th century.
In 19 century daffodil gained in popularity as the national emblem of Wales. This is may be because the
same welsh word is used for daffodil and leek, that’s why they both adopted as emblems.
4. The UK and Northern Ireland (language and cultural variations, how it is different from
other countries of the UK, geography, capital and main cities, famous people, flora and
fauna)
Northern Ireland is Located in the northeast of the island of Ireland.

Flora and fauna:

 There are fewer land animal and plant species than Great Britain or mainland
Europe, because Ireland is isolated from mainland Europe. Aquatic wildlife, such as
species of sea turtle, shark, whale, and dolphin, are common for this place.

 Ireland is now one of the least forested countries in Europe. Only about 10% of
Ireland today is woodland. Much of the land is now covered with pasture (пастбища).

Capital and main cities:

Capital: Belfast – is the largest city

 Derry – is the second-largest city in Northern Ireland.

 Newry – it is one of Ireland's oldest towns.
 Armagh – It is the ecclesiastical (церковная) capital of Ireland.
Anthems:

As their anthem they usually use “God save the Queen”, but on different sport events
“Londonderry Air” is used unofficially.

Flag: For some time Northern Ireland used as their official flag “Ulster banner”, but
nowadays Union Jack is used as the flag of Northern Ireland.

Patron Saint of Northern Ireland is Saint Patrick, saint Patrick’s day is celebrated on 17 th
of March

Language and culture:

 You can’t mention Irish traditions without mentioning literature. Some famouse
authors from the Northern Ireland are W.B. Yeats, Oscar Wilde, Bernard Shaw, and
Samuel Beckett, to name but a few.

 Mythology plays a key role in Irish culture. Ireland is known as a mystic country full
of legends and tall tales of fairies and leprechauns, goddesses and heroes. Ancient
folklore remains today an important aspect of Irish traditions.

 Irish dancing is an age-old art form. However, it was popularised in contemporary

culture during the 1990s.

 The céilí, a traditional musical gathering, is an expression of Irish social life. Such
gatherings, as well as other festivals, usually feature locally produced ales (эль) and
whiskeys and traditional foods such as soda bread, corned beef, and colcannon (a stew of
potatoes and cabbage).

 Northern Ireland has no official language. English serves as the language of

government. Irish and Ulster Scots are officially recognized as minority languages.
The dialect of English spoken in Northern Ireland shows influence from the lowland Scots
language.

Famous people:

C S Lewis – was a prolific Irish writer and scientist. He is known throughout the world
as the author of The Chronicles of Narnia fantasy series.

James Galway - Musician. Flute player from Belfast, nicknamed "The Man with the
Golden Flute". He established an international career as a solo flute player. He received
the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music.

5.Early Britain:The Celts

Around 700 BC Celts began to arrive. Many of them were tall, and had fair or red hair and blue eyes.
Celts probably came from central Europe or further east, from southern Russia, and had moved slowly
westwards in earlier centuries. The Celts were technically advanced. They knew how to work with iron,
and could make better weapons than the people who used bronze.
It is possible that they drove many of the older inhabitants westwards into Wales, Scotland and Ireland.
The Celts began to control all the lowland areas of Britain (низменные раойны). They continued
to arrive in over the next seven hundred years. We do not even know for certain whether the Celts
invaded Britain or came peacefully as a result of the trade with Europe.

The Celts are important in British history because they are the ancestors of many of the people in
Highland Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and Cornwall today. Celtic languages, which have been continuously
used in some areas since that time, are still spoken.

The Celts were organised into different tribes, and tribal chiefs were chosen from each family or tribe.

The Celtic tribes continued the same kind of agriculture as the Bronze Age people before them. But their
use of iron technology and their introduction of more advanced methods made it possible for them to
farm heavier soils. Celts were highly successful farmers.

The hillfort (городище) remained the centre for local groups. The insides of these hill-forts were filled
with houses, and they became the simple economic capitals.

The Celts traded across tribal borders and trade was probably important for political and social contact
between the tribes. For money the Celts used iron bars, until they began to copy the Roman coins they
saw used in Gaul (France).

6. Early Britain: The Romans, the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings.

 ROMAN BRITAIN (43 Bc-409)

Britain was invaded by the Roman ruler of France (then known as Gaul) called Julius Caesar in 55 BC
(до н.э) , but trouble in Gaul[gɔːl] and in Rome forced Caesar to leave.

43 BC- the Roman emperor Claudius invaded Britain again. The Romans moved north through England
and Wales but stopped in what is now Scotland.

The Roman emperor Hadrian decided to establish a northern border for the Roman empire by building
a wall guarded by Roman soldiers: this is known as Hadrian's Wall. A large part of this wall can be
seen if you visit the area of north England called Northumberland [nɔːˈθʌmbələnd].

Christian

Christianity was first established in Britain during this time. Emperor Constantine made Christianity the
official religion of the Roman empire in 325;

Language

Latin (the language used by the Romans) has had a major influence on the English language. The
Christian church throughout Europe continued to use Latin, and it was the church which later established
the education system in Britain

the Britons were probably largely non-literate - they did not need writing for most purposes. As they
came to develop more centralised institutions at the end of the Iron Age, they introduced coins - they
were using writing for administration

Art, culture

They preferred to create different portable things such as jewelry, weapons and so on, but no static
artefacts like churches.

Everyday life

Most Roman Britons lived in the countryside, so people were farming, planting and ploughing (пахота),
butchering (разделка скота), basketmaking (клетение корзин).

Religion

The Romans brought their state gods to Britain (Jupiter, Mars, Mercury) and the imperial cult
(имперский дух) (worship of the genius, or guardian spirit (дух-хранитель), of the emperor).

The usual Roman practice, which made the local God understandable to the Romans, and the Roman to
the British. So it means that it was like a hybrid of several religions.

*****

The major reasons the Romans were interested in Britain were:

 its agricultural productivity

 the fairly complex (довольно сложные) forms of social organization of the southern tribes with
which they were in contact.
 Romans desire to turn them into successful provincial Roman societies.
Many of the major Roman towns still exist today. Some of the most famous ones include York, Lincoln,
Bath, London, Canterbury, Exeter, Carlisle and St Albans. There were camps for the Roman army at
place names in England which end in -chester or -cester ( Chester, Colchester, Silchester and
Winchester)

The Romans left Britain in 406. They had ruled the area for nearly 400 years: the people living there
are known as Romano-Britons.

The Anglo-Saxon period

410-1066 AD (н.э). Dark Ages, but most historians now prefer the terms 'early middle ages'

It was a time of war, of the breaking up of Roman Britannia into several separate kingdoms, of religious
conversion (религиозных преобразований) and, after the 790s, of continual battles against a new set
of invaders: the Vikings.

When the Roman legions left Britain, the Germanic-speaking Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians
began to arrive – at first in small invading parties, but soon in increasing numbers.

The various Anglo-Saxon groups settled in different areas of the country. They formed several
kingdoms, often changing, and constantly at war with one another. These kingdoms sometimes
acknowledged one of their rulers as a ‘High King'.

These areas were:

1. Kent, settled by the Jutes.

Ethelbert of Kent was the first Anglo-Saxon king to be converted to Christianity, by St Augustine.

2. Mercia, whose best-known ruler, Offa, built Offa's Dyke along the border between Wales and
England. This large kingdom stretched over the Midlands.

3. Northumbria, where the monk (монах) Bede ( 670-735) lived and wrote his Ecclesiastical History of
Britain.

4. East Anglia, made up of Angles: the North Folk (living in modern Norfolk) and the South Folk (living
in Suffolk).

5. Essex (East Saxons). Here the famous Battle of Maldon was fought against the Vikings in 991.

6. Sussex: the South Saxons settled here.

7. Wessex (West Saxons), later the kingdom of King Alfred, the only English king ever to have been
called ‘the Great', and his equally impressive grandson, Athelstan, the first who could truly call himself
‘King of the English'.

By 850 AD the seven kingdoms had been consolidated into three large Anglo-Saxon kingdoms:
Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxons had become a Christian people.

After 793, when the Vikings raided Lindisfarne Monastery, the history of the Anglo-Saxons becomes
entangled with that of the Vikings. In many ways they were similar: in language, religion and Northern
European origins, yet they are not the same. The very fact that they invaded Britain at different times
makes them two very distinct peoples in our history

The Viking Age

800 to 1150 AD 

The Vikings' homeland was Scandinavia: modern Norway, Sweden and Denmark. From here they
travelled great distances, mainly by sea and river

Their expansion took the form of warfare (военные действия), exploration, settlement and trade.

Vikings left Scandinavia to settle in other lands, mainly Newfoundland (Canada), Greenland, Iceland,
Ireland, England, Scotland, the islands around Britain, France (where they became the Normans), Russia
and Sicily. They traded extensively with the Muslim world

However, by the end of the 11th century the great days of Viking expansion were over.

Vikings in Britain

From around 860 AD, Vikings settled  in Britain.

Many of their other words have also become part of English, for example egg, law, die, bread, fog.

In 793 came the first recorded Viking raid, (The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). Vikings continued to make
regular raids around the coasts of England, looting treasure and other goods, and capturing people as
slaves. Gradually, the Viking raiders began to stay, first in winter camps, then settling in land, mainly in
the east and north of England, becoming farmers and fishermen, and sometimes going on summer
trading or raiding voyages. Today many Scots still bear Viking names.

In Ireland, the Vikings raided around the coasts and up the rivers. They founded the cities of Dublin,
Cork and Limerick as Viking strongholds.

Meanwhile, back in England, the Vikings took over Northumbria, East Anglia and parts of Mercia. In
866 they captured modern York and made it their capital.

The kings of Mercia and Wessex resisted as best they could, but with little success until the time of
Alfred of Wessex, the only king of England to be called ‘the Great'.

King Alfred, who ruled from 871-899, defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington in 878.

After the battle the Viking leader Guthrum converted to Christianity.

In 886 Alfred took London from the Vikings and fortified (укрепил) it. The same year he signed a treaty
(договор) with Guthrum.

The treaty partitioned England between Vikings and English. The Viking territory became known as the
Danelaw. Alfred became king of the rest.

Alfred's grandson, Athelstan, became the first true King of England. He led an English victory over
the Vikings at the Battle of Brunaburh in 937, and his kingdom for the first time included the
Danelaw.
In 954, Eirik Bloodaxe, the last Viking king of York, was killed and his kingdom was taken over by
English earls.

Later Viking raids and rulers

However, the Viking raiding (налеты) did not stop – different Viking bands made regular raiding voyages
around the coasts of Britain for over 300 years after 793.

The final Viking invasion of England came in 1066, when Harald Hardrada sailed up the River
Humber and marched (прошли) to Stamford Bridge. The English king, Harold Godwinson, defeated
him in a long and bloody battle.

However, immediately after the battle, King Harold heard that William of Normandy had landed in Kent
with yet another invading army. At the end of a long day's fighting the Normans had won, King Harold
was dead, and William was the new king of England.

7. The Norman Conquest and the Middle Ages.

The Norman conquest of 1066 ended Anglo-Saxon rule of England and installed a new king. Everything
was prepared for the invasion when King Edward the Confessor died. He did not have any
children so he had no heirs to take his place on the English throne.

Edward the Confessor

Edward was the son of Aethelred [ˈiːθələd] the Unready, the king of England, and Emma of
Normandy. Emma’s father was Richard I, the Duke of Normandy.
After Aethelred’s death, Emma married Cnut and became queen of England. She had a son with Cnut by
the name of Harthacnut. Harthacnut became king when his father died and in 1042, Edward became
the king of England when Harthacnut died.

Three Potential Kings

Edward died on January 5, 1066 and since he had no heirs, three potential kings battled for the throne.
The three men were Harold Godwinson, Harald Hardrada, and William of Normandy.

The Invasion
The day after the death of Edward the Confessor, Harold Godwinson was elected the new king.
On his deathbed (в предсметрные минуты), Edward had actually named Harold his heir, but both
Harald Hardrada and William of Normandy refused to recognize Harold as the new king.

Tostig, the brother that Harold had betrayed, reached out (обратился к) to Hardrada and offered his
support for Hardrada’s invasion. Hardrada and Tostig landed (высадили) more than 10,000 men in the
north of England.
The battle took place at Stamford Bridge. Hardrada’s forces held the bridge but eventually Harold’s
forces were able to overwhelm (подавить) Hardrada’s forces once they took the bridge. Both
Hardrada and Tostig were killed and Harold won the battle, but his army was tired, wounded
and a long way from where William of Normandy was about to attack.
William had built an invasion fleet (флот) quickly and later William’s fleet landed in England and his
troops (войска) quickly fortified (укрепили) their position and raided (совершили набег) the
countryside.
Battle of Hastings
Harold, upon hearing (услышав, что) of William’s landing, gathered his forces and began the long
march south.

Harold positioned his men at the top of a hill (which became known as Battle Hill) and formed a shield
wall (стену из щитов). His forces were much too tired and Harold needed to take a defensive
(оборонительную) position.
William’s forces attacked the hill trying to engage (вступить в бой) Harold’s forces but they were thrown
back.
There are 2 theories how the battle was won:
1) One theory is that the Normans tricked the Saxons into believing they were retreating
(отступают). When the inexperienced Saxons, believing the Normans had been routed
(разбиты), chased (погнались) after the Normans, William’s forces turned and attacked. The
Saxons had given up the advantage of the hilltop and William’s professional army quickly routed
the Saxons.
2) The other theory is that William had gained territory on the west side of the hill which allowed
him to attack on two fronts. William then used his army to break down the Saxon shield wall and
win the battle. During the battle, Harold was killed.

All of the other rivals (cоперники) for the English throne were dead and William started securing
(закреплению) the throne. He captured London and he continued to fight any forces that were against
him. Later the English nobles began to submit to William’s rule and then William was crowned the new
king of England.

*****

William brutally put down any remaining dissent to his rule in northern England. In an effort to subdue
one of the rebellions, William destroyed villages and crops (посевы) and sent his troops out in small
bands to loot (грабить). As a result a large number of people starved to death.

Нe replaced all the Anglo-Saxon leaders with Norman leaders which helped secure his rule. William no
longer faced any serious threat to his hold on the throne and he was even able to head back to France
to fight against a rebellion by his son in Normandy. William died in Normandy in 1087.

8. The House of Plantagenet 1154-1216

(как вступление к любому из билетов)

The House of Plantagenet originates from a branch of counts of Anjou (Geoffrey V The Fair) and
the heritage of King Henry I of England (his daughter Mathilda). The Plantagenet dynasty ruled
England for over three hundred years, from 1154 -1485 (14 kings).

The surname Plantagenet seems to have derived from a nickname adopted by Geoffrey, Count of
Anjou and refers to his habit of wearing a sprig of broom or planta genista in his helmet.

 Henry II King of England, He was born in France, son of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou & Matilda of
Normandy. After his father's death in 1135 he was firstly granted Normandy, then inherited Anjou
and then acquired more territories in France through his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152.
He wanted to establish the power and prestige of the Crown. However, this brought him into conflict
with the Church.

His most notably achievement was The Assize of Clarendon (1166) which established Central
Court: system of justice based on precedents, trial by jury (суд присяжных) and alternative to the
death penalty (смертная казнь).

He had 4 sons lived to adulthood: Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John. Henry the Youngest was
inherited by father but had not any Authority. Encouraged by King of France he raised against his father
with his brothers. During one battle he was injured and lately died in 1189.

 Richard I, later known as the 'Lion Heart', son of Henry II &Eleanor of Aquitaine. During his 10-
year reign he spent only six months in England.
In 1183 his brother Henry died, leaving Richard heir to the throne. His chief ambition was to join
the Third Crusade (крестовый поход), caused by Saladin's capture of Jerusalem in 1187.
Henry II met with Philip II of France to act together. Franch army came to the Holy Land first, Richard
arrived in 7 months later but was more succesful than Philip who soon left.

 King John, Lackland (before his reign) and Softsword (during his reign), son of Henry II
&Eleanor of Aquitaine. Richard died in 1199, and John became King of England.
By 1206, John had lost control of Normandy and most of the other English holdings in France, as well as
the support of the English nobles. For reconquering (завоевания) Normandy he increased taxes
and restricted the feudal rights of the nobles (ограничил феодальные права дворян).

In July 1205 John lost one of his best advisers, who was an Archbishop of Canterbury. As John refused
to accept the Pope Innocent III's choice of Archbishop and seized the property of the monks
(конфисковал имущество монахов) .
In 1212 he learned that the king of France was preparing an invasion. This situation led him to negotiate
with the Pope. The decision was accepting Pop's nominee as archbishop, but keeping all money John
had got.

John prepared a counterattack on King Philip but failed and couldn’t return Anjou and Normandy. That
caused barons' rebellion in 1215 that finished with negotiations and establishment of Magna Carta.
Many of its clauses (статей) were designed to control the arbitrary (произвольное)
behavior of the King and his officials (чиновников); many others concerned the
administration of justice.

That was symbol of liberty but it didn't work faultlessly. The civil war came in 1216. Barons
decided they would rather rule by the French. French king Louis arrived to fight with John. His sudden
death led to the peace between rebels; within a year Louis retired from England, John's young son King
Henry III was to become a new king.

9. The House of Plantagenet 1216-1399

 Henry III (b.1207- r. 1216-72), the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême [æŋ
ˈgəʊlmə].
His reign was greatly influenced by the Church: in 1231 he reaffirmed (подтвердил) the liberties
of the Church and agreed to pay the Pope for the chance to secure (закрепить) Sicily as a Plantagenet
land. That led to the discontent of the barons who did not want to pay large taxes in favour of the
church.

In addition barons were Dissatisfied by the fact that the court was filled with foreign
relatives of his wife (Eleanor of Provence) who tried to control the government. Those facts
led to the rise of English nationalism.

By 1239 Henry's behavior was such that even his brother-in-law Simon de Montfort joined the
opposition. With him barons came to Westminster and the meeting finished with creation of the
"Provisions of Oxford," that forced Henry III to accept a new form of government in which
power was placed in the hands of a council of twenty-four members, twelve selected by the
crown, twelve by the barons. That was creation of Parliament.

Henry's greatest achievement was the completion of Westminster Abbey in 1269.

 Edward the First of England also known as Edward Longshanks, son of Henry III &Eleanor
of Provence
Initially Edward supported the Provisions of Oxford. Edward spent his early years reforming the
law on regulating (закон регулирующий уголовное и..) criminal and property law. He
helped strengthen (укрепить) the government and parliament.

However, during this period there were frequent rebellions in Wales against English rule. After the
second rebellion, Edward took his army in order to conquer Wales. He was successful and
built a series of forts and castles to fix the English position in Wales.

 Edward II of England (b.1284 - r.1307-27), also known as Edward of Caernarfon, was a son
of Edward I of England and his first wife Eleanor of Castile. He was the first English prince to hold
the title prince of Wales.
Opposition to the king and his favourite Piers Gaveston began almost immediately, and in 1311 the
nobles issued the 'Ordinances', which attempted to limit royal control of finance and appointments.

In 1314, Edward invaded Scotland, only to be defeated by Robert the Bruce. Power was now in the
hands of the barons headed by Edward's cousin Thomas of Lancaster. By 1318, Edward and Lancaster
had been partly reconciled (частично примирены), but then He defeated Lancaster completely.

Edward was deposed by his wife and her lover and opponent in favour of his and Isabella's son, who
was crowned Edward III in January 1327. Edward II was imprisoned at Berkeley Castle and murdered
there.

 Edward III, son of Edward II &Isabella of France. He became king in 1327 after his father was
deposed (свергнут) by his mother and her lover, Roger Mortimer. Isabella and Roger ruled in
Edward's name until 1330, when he executed (казнил) Mortimer and banished (изгнал) his
mother.
Edward's primary focus was war with France. Territorial disputes (споры) were intensified
(обострились, усилились), when Edward announced his claim for French throne.

He started the Hundred Years War. The resulting Treaty of Bretigny (заключение
договора) marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years War and the high point
of English influence in France. Edward renounced (отказался) his claim to the French crown in
return for the whole of Aquitaine.
Later the French declared war again. Edward, by now an elderly man, left the fighting to his sons. They
enjoyed little success and the English lost much of the territory they had gained by Treaty of Bretigny.

Edward died on 21 June 1377, leaving his young grandson Richard as king.

 Richard II the son of Edward, the Black Prince and grandson of Edward III. Richard's father died
in 1376 and his grandfather the following year, making Richard king at the age of 10. The
country was ruled largely by his uncle, John of Gaunt.
The first crisis of Richard's reign was the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The young king rode out to meet the
rebels and the revolt crushed.

As Richard began to control the government himself, he built a group of favourites. His request for
money to fight in France made parliament to demand the dismissal (требование увольнения) of these
favourites. Richard's refusal provoked parliament into creating a commission to oversee (наблюдать)
the king's activities. Richard was made to submit to the demands of the five 'Lords Appellant'.

For years Richard worked with Gaunt and the Lords Appellant, gradually he banished all of them. When
Gaunt died in February 1399, Richard confiscated the vast Lancastrian estates.

Lancaster invaded England and got both noble and popular support. Returning to England Richard
surrendered without a fight. In September, he abdicated (открекся от престола) and Lancaster
ascended the throne (взошел на престо) as Henry IV. In October, Richard was imprisoned in Pontefract
Castle, where he died four months later.

11. The Hundred Years War.

The Hundred Years War was fought between England and France and lasted from 1337 to 1453. The
war was a series of battles with long periods of peace in between.

How did it start?

In 1337, King Edward III of England claimed that he was the rightful king of France. This began the long
battle between the two countries. Other disputes kept the fighting going for over one hundred years.
These included the control of the valuable wool trade, disputes over certain areas of land, and the
support for Scotland by the French.

Edward III
King Edward III believed that he was the rightful heir to the French crown through his mother Isabella.
He first laid claim to the throne when he was fifteen years old and King Charles IV of France died
without a male heir. Instead of Edward, the French chose Philip to be their king. When King Philip VI of
France took control of Aquitaine from the English in 1337, King Edward III decided to fight back. He
decided to invade France and reassert (подтвердить) his right to the French throne.

The Black Prince

In the 1350s, the army of King Edward III was led by his son, the valiant (доблестный) Edward the
"Black Prince". The Black Prince became a famous hero to the English and was known for his chivalry
(рыцарство). The Black Prince led the English to major victories over the French. At the battle of
Poitiers, the Black Prince captured King John II, the current King of France. King Edward agreed to
release King John II for a ransom of three million crowns and some additional land. When King Edward
died, the son of the Black Prince, Richard II became King. He was only 10 years old. There was a period
of relative peace between England and France.
Battle of Agincourt
When Henry IV died in 1413 he passed on to his son Henry V a kingdom that was peaceful and united.
Henry V was a brave and intelligent man, and like Richard I, he became one of England's favorite kings.
The war began again in 1415 when Henry renewed Edward Ill's claim to the throne of France. English
army was able to prove once more that it was far better in battle than the French army was. The same
year the English defeated a French army three times its own size. The English were more skillful, and
had better weapons.

Eventually, the French gave in and King Charles VI named Henry as the heir to the throne.

Joan of Arc
In 1428 the English began to invade southern France. They began a siege of the city of Orleans.
However, a young peasant girl by the name of Joan of Arc took leadership of the French army. She
claimed to have seen a vision from God. She led the French to a victory at Orleans in 1429. She led the
French to several more victories before she was captured by the English and burned at the stake.

End of the War

The French were inspired by Joan of Arc's leadership and sacrifice. They continued to fight back. They
pushed the English army out of France taking Bordeaux in 1453 signaling the end of the Hundred Years
War.

The war ended, but the peace Treaty was not signed and the results of the war were not officially fixed.
The contract will be signed only in the 70s of the 16th century. The result will be the loss of British
territories on the continent and non-interference in the internal politics of France. One of the most
significant results of the war: it caused the development of the weapons industry and the emergence of
a permanent professional army.

12. The war of the Roses.

The War of the Roses was a series of battles fought in medieval England from 1455 to 1485 between
the House of Lancaster and the House of York for the throne. Both houses were direct descendants of
King Edward III (the royal House of Plantagenet). The name War of the Roses is based on the badges
used by the two sides: the House of Lancaster was represented by a red rose and the House of York by
a white rose.

Henry VI had little interest in politics and was a weak ruler. In 1445, Henry VI married Margaret of
Anjou, a noble Frenchwoman whose ambition and political savvy (смекалка) overshadowed her
husband’s. Their marriage was arranged as part of an armistice (перемирие ) in the Hundred Years’ War
between France and England. Henry VI was mentally ill.

Henry’s lack of leadership led him to lose almost all his holdings in France( he was disputed King of
France). This caused frustrated property owners and peasants from Kent to revolt in 1450.

Led by Jack Cade, they marched on London and presented Henry with a list of demands known as the
“Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent.”

Henry never officially agreed to Cade’s demands, one of which was to recall Richard, Duke of York, from
Ireland back to England (Richard of York, great grandson of King Edward III, had competing claim on
the English throne). After a series of skirmishes( стычка), Henry squashed(подавил) Cade’s rebellion
and pardoned the rebels.
Henry believed Richard of York was behind Cade’s rebellion (though there’s scant evidence that the
Duke of York was involved). This rivalry (соперничество) led to the long-lasting war.

By 1452, Richard of York had returned to England and decided to rid Henry of his corrupt advisors,
particularly Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. He raised an army and marched on London declaring
fealty( верность) to Henry while also compelling him to remove Somerset from his post.

During Henry’s illness, Richard became Lord Protector of England and imprisoned Somerset in the
Tower of London. It was a bitter victory, however: Queen Margaret had given birth to Henry’s only son,
Edward of Lancaster, in 1453, which weakened Richard’s claim to the throne.

In February 1455, Henry recovered. Richard and his ministers were sent away and Somerset
reinstated.

St. Albans

On May 22, 1455, Richard of York, aligned with Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, marched against
Henry at St. Albans. 

The result of the battle: the Yorks took Henry prisoner and Richard became Lord Protector
again. Queen Margaret and her young son, fearful for their lives, went into exile.

The battle of Blore Heath

As Richard maintained a shaky hold on England, Margaret worked behind the scenes to restore Henry to
the throne, and uphold her son’s place as his rightful heir.

Salisbury’s army( the Richard’s army) met Margaret’s large and well-equipped army, commanded by
Lord Audley, at Blore Heath on September 23, 1459 in Staffordshire.

The result of the Battle: Yorks soundly defeated the Lancastrians.

The Battles of Ludford Bridge and Northampton

By autumn of 1459, Henry and his queen had once again mustered(собрали) aт army, which now
included many York deserters.

Richard of York, Salisbury, Warwick and their forces withdrew to Ludlow Bridge near Ludford, Shropshire
to stand against Henry and his men. On the night of October 12, many Yorks defected and their leaders
fled; Richard himself fled back to Ireland.

But Richard and his supporters weren’t finished harassing Henry and Margaret. In June of
1460, Richard’s ally Warwick entered London with thousands of men. As they advanced on Henry’s army
in Northampton, victory seemed unlikely.

But unbeknownst(без ведома) to Henry, one of his Lancastrian commanders was a

turncoat(перебежчик) and allowed Warwick’s men access to Henry’s camp. The Yorks easily won the
battle and captured King Henry as Margaret fled( сбежала) once again.

The Battle of Wakefield

With Henry under his control, Richard again proclaimed himself and his heirs Henry’s
successors( преемник). Henry agreed so long as he’d retain the crown until his death
Their agreement was passed by the English Parliament and called the Act of Accord. The
ambitious Queen Margaret, however, and raised another army to rise against the Yorks.

Richard set out with his forces to defeat Margaret’s army. The armies clashed at Wakefield Green near
Sandal Castle. Richard was killed.

Battle of Townton.

Richard’s son Edward, Earl of March, succeeded his father.

In the middle of winter 1461, his York forces defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Mortimer’s
Cross. Weeks later, they were crushed by the Lancastrians at the Second Battle of St. Albans. It was
here King Henry was rescued and reunited with his queen, but Edward wouldn’t give up.

In March of 1461, Edward confronted the Lancastrian army in a snowstorm in the middle of a
field near Towton, North Yorkshire. The Battle of Towton was the bloodiest one-day battle
in England’s history. The Yorks emerged victorious and Henry, Margaret and their son fled
to Scotland leaving Edward King of England.

Power changes hands again and again.

Edward IV may have gained the throne, but he’d underestimated the Queen Margaret. With the help of
her compatriots in France, she ousted( выгнала) Edward and restored ( восстановить) her husband to
the throne in October 1470.

Edward went into hiding but wasn’t idle. He mustered an army and won York victories at the Battle
of Barnett and the Battle of Tewksbury. At Tewskbury, Henry and Margaret’s only son was killed
and the royal couple were captured and held in the Tower of London; the throne of England reverted
back to Edward.

On May 21, 1471, deposed King Henry VI died, supposedly of sadness, although some historians believe
Edward had him murdered. Queen Margaret was eventually released and made her way back to Anjou in
France, where she died in 1482.

King Edward IV died in 1483 and was succeeded by his young son Edward V. Richard III, the
ambitious brother of Edward IV, became his nephew Edward’s Lord Protector—but he plotted to have
Edward V and his younger brother declared illegitimate.

The power-hungry Richard succeeded in his plot and was crowned in July 1483.

To eliminate any threats to his throne, Richard III had his young nephews held in the Tower of London,
supposedly for their protection. When both boys—now famous as the Princes in the Tower—vanished
and Richard was accused of ordering them murdered, the king quickly lost favor with his people.

As Richard’s right to the throne became tenuous, the Lancastrian Henry Tudor—with the help of
France and many nobles—staked his claim to the crown. He met Richard on the battlefield at Bosworth
on August 22, 1485.

After fighting valiantly, Richard III was killed. Henry was declared King Henry VII.

After his official coronation, Henry married Elizabeth of York to reconcile the long-feuding Lancaster and
York houses. This union ended the Wars of the Roses and gave rise to the Tudor Dynasty.
 House of Lancaster
Henry VI – The king at the start of the
war, Henry VI was mentally ill. He was
housed in the Tower of London for many
years until he died.
Margaret of Anjou – Wife of Henry VI, she
took control of the country and led the
fight against Henry's enemies.
Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick – He
began the war on the side of the Yorks.
He later changed sides when he didn't like
the way Edward IV was leading the
country.
House of York
Richard, Duke of York – Father of Edward
IV and Richard III, he began the war by
defeating the Lancastrians and putting
Henry VI in jail. He served as Lord
Protector.
Edward IV – The first York to become
king, Edward IV was king for much of the
war from 1461 to 1470 and 1471 to 1483.
Edward V - The son of Edward IV, he was
twelve when his father died. He was king
for only a few months before he was sent
to the Tower of London and disappeared.
Richard III - Brother of Edward IV, he took
the throne from his nephew Edward V. He
was king for just over two years before he
was killed in battle.

13.The Tudors
Origins of the Tudors

 The history of the Tudors can be traced back to the thirteenth century, but their rise to
prominence (fame) began in the fifteenth. Owen Tudor, a Welsh landowner, fought in the armies of
King Henry V of England. When Henry died, Owen married the widow, Catherine of Valois, and then
fought in the service of her son, Henry VI. At this time, England became divided by a struggle for the
English throne between two dynasties, Lancastrian and York, called The Wars of the Roses. Owen was
one of Henry VI’s Lancastrians; after the battle of Mortimer’s Cross, a Yorkist victory, Owen was
executed.

Taking the Throne

 Owen’s son, Edmund, was rewarded for his family’s service by being raised to the Earl of
Richmond by Henry VI. Edmund married Margaret Beaufort, great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt,
son of King Edward III.Edmund’s only child Henry Tudor led a rebellion against King Richard III and
defeated him at Bosworth Field, taking the throne himself as a descendant of Edward III. Henry, now
Henry VII, married the heir to the House of York, effectively ending the Wars of the Roses.

Henry VII (1485-1509)

 Having defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, gained parliamentary approval and
married a member of his rival family, Henry was crowned king. He took part in diplomatic
negotiations to secure his position, making agreements at both home and abroad, before instituting a
reform of government, increasing royal administrative control and improving the royal finances. He
began using the Star Chamber( an English Court)  in Westminster Palace to provide people with
access to justice. On his death, he left a stable kingdom and a wealthy monarchy. He had fought hard
politically to establish himself and his family and bring England together behind him. He has to go down
as a major success but one totally overshadowed by his son and grandchildren.
Henry VIII( 1509-1547)

 The most famous English monarch of all, Henry VIII is best known for his six wives (Catherine
of Aragon; Anne Boleyn; Jane Seymour; Anne of Cleves; Catherine Howard and Katherine
Parr), the result of a desperate drive to produce healthy male heirs to carry the Tudor dynasty forward.
 Another consequence of this need was the English Reformation, as Henry split( отделил) the
English Church away from the Pope and Catholicism in order to divorce.
 Henry’s reign also saw the emergence of the Royal Navy( флот) as a powerful force,
changes in government, which bound the monarch tighter to parliament, and perhaps the
apogee( апогей) of personal rule in England. His only surviving son, Edward VI, succeeded him\

Edward VI (1547-1553) Died at the age of 15, had poor health.

 The son which Henry VI much desired, Edward inherited the throne as a boy and died only six
years later, his reign having been dominated by two ruling councilors, Edward Seymour, and then
John Dudley. They carried on the Protestant Reformation, but Edward’s strong Protestant faith
has led to speculation he’d have carried things further if he had lived. He is the great unknown in English
history and could have changed the future of the nation in remarkable ways, such was the era.
 During his reign The book of Common Prayer was written to be used in the Church of
England.

Lady Jane Grey( о ней мало кто упоминает, но 9 дней это вам не шутка)

 Lady Jane Grey is the great tragic figure of the Tudor era. Thanks to the machinations of John
Dudley, Edward VI was initially succeeded by Lady Jane Grey, fifteen-year-old great-
granddaughter of Henry VII and devout Protestant. However, Mary, although Catholic, had far greater
support, and Lady Jane’s supporters swiftly changed their allegiances (быстро сменили свои
привязанности). She was executed in 1554, having done little personally beyond being used by
others as a figurehead. Reigned for 9 days.

Mary I (1553- 1558)

 Mary was the first queen to rule England in her own right. A pawn(пешка) of potential
marriage alliances in her youth, she was also declared illegitimate when her father, Henry VIII,
divorced her mother Catherine, and was only later brought back into the succession. On taking the
throne, Mary took part in an unpopular marriage to Philip II of Spain and returned England
to the Catholic faith. Her actions in bringing back the heresy( ересь) laws and executing 300
Protestants earned her the nickname Bloody Mary.
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
 Henry VIII’s youngest daughter, Elizabeth survived the plotting (заговор) which threatened
Mary, and which, in turn, cast doubt on the young princess, to become Queen of England when she
might have been executed.
 One of the nation’s most highly regarded monarchs, Elizabeth returned the country to the
Protestant faith, fought wars against Spain and Spanish-backed forces to protect England and other
Protestant nations, and cultivated a powerful image of herself as a virgin queen wedded to her nation.
She remains masked to historians, her true feelings and thoughts hidden away. Her reputation as a
great ruler is faulty, as she relied far more on dithering and her inbuilt difficulty in making decisions than
canny judgment. (Ее репутация великой правительницы ошибочна, поскольку она больше
полагалась на нерешительность и врожденную трудность в принятии решений, чем на здравый
смысл.) Died of melancholy and makeup.

End of the Tudor Dynasty

  None of Henry VIII’s children had any lasting offspring of their own, and when Elizabeth I died,
she was the last of the Tudor monarchs; she was followed by James Stuart from Scotland, the first of
the Stuart dynasty and a descendant of Henry VIII’s eldest sister, Margaret. The Tudors passed into
history. And yet they have enjoyed a considerable afterlife, and remain among the most famous
monarchs in the world

14. The Elizabethan period

The Elizabethan period began in 1558, when Elizabeth the First became queen and one of the most
popular monarchs in English history. This period is remembered for its richness of poetry and drama.
• Queen Elizabeth I
Queen Elizabeth I was a Protestant. She reestablished the Church of England as the official
church in England. Everyone had to attend their local church and there were laws about the type of
religious services and the prayers which could be said, but Elizabeth did not ask about people’s real
beliefs. She succeeded in finding a balance between the views of Catholics and the more extreme
Protestants. In this way, she avoided any serious religious conflict within England.
 Fashion
Elizabethan court fashion was heavily influenced by Spanish and French styles. Notable garments of this
period include the farthingale( some kind of skirt) for women, military styles like the mandilion for men,
and ruffs( оборки) for both sexes.

The Elizabethan era also saw a great flowering of domestic embroidery( вышивка) for both clothing and
furnishings. Predominant styles include canvas work generally done in tent stitch(палаточный шов) and
blackwork in silk on linen. Toward the end of the reign the fashion for blackwork gradually gave way to
polychrome work in silk that foreshadowed the crewelwork in wool that would dominate Jacobean
embroidery.

 Food
The food of this time period included lear (an oatmeal like dish with peas or beans), all types of animal
meat, and numerous types of fruits and vegetables. A banquet was used for a dessert or snack course.
 The Reformation in Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots
Scotland had also been strongly influenced by Protestant ideas. In 1560, the predominantly
Protestant Scottish Parliament abolished the authority of the Pope in Scotland and Roman

Catholic religious services became illegal. A Protestant Church of Scotland with an elected
leadership was established but this was not a state Church.

The queen of Scotland, Mary Stuart, (often now called ‘Mary, Queen of Scots’) was a Catholic. She was
only a week old when her father died and she became queen. Much of her childhood was spent in
France. When she returned to Scotland, she was the centre of a power struggle between different
groups. When her husband was murdered, Mary was suspected of involvement and fled to England. She
gave her throne to her Protestant son, James VI of Scotland. Mary was Elizabeth I’s cousin and hoped
that Elizabeth might help her, but Elizabeth suspected Mary of wanting to take over the English throne
and kept her a prisoner for 20 years. Mary was eventually executed, accused of plotting against
Elizabeth I.

 Exploration, poetry and drama

The Elizabethan period in England was a time of growing patriotism: a feeling of pride in being English.
English explorers sought new trade routes and tried to expand British trade into the Spanish colonies in
the Americas. Sir Francis Drake, one of the commanders in the defeat of the Spanish Armada, was
one of the founders of England’s naval tradition. His ship, the Golden Hind, was one of the first to sail
 right round (‘circumnavigate’) the world. In Elizabeth I’s time, English settlers first began to colonise the
eastern coast of America.
• The Spanish Armada
Elizabeth became one of the most popular monarchs in English history, particularly after 1588, when the
English defeated the Spanish Armada (a large fleet of ships), which had been sent by Spain to conquer
England and restore Catholicism.
 LITERATURE
The Elizabethan age saw the flowering of poetry (the sonnet, the Spenserian stanza, dramatic blank
verse), was a golden age of drama (especially for the plays of Shakespeare), and inspired a wide variety
of splendid prose (from historical chronicles, versions of the Holy Scriptures, pamphlets, and literary
criticism to the first English novels).
English literature from 1603 to 1625 is properly called Jacobean
 William Shakespeare
He was a playwright and actor and wrote many poems and plays. His most famous plays include A
Midsummer’s Night Dream, Hamlet, Macbeth and Romeo and Juliet.
He was one of the first to portray ordinary English men and women. Shakespeare had a great influence
on the English language and invented many words that are still common today. Lines from his plays and
poems which are often still quoted include:

- Once more unto the breach (Henry V)

- To be or not to be (Hamlet)

- A rose by any other name (Romeo and Juliet)

- All the world’s a stage (As You Like It)

- The darling buds of May (Sonnet 18 – Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer’s Day).
 Theatre
English Renaissance theatre began with the opening of "The Red Lion" theatre in 1567. Many more
permanent theatres opened in London over the next several years including the Curtain Theatre in
1577 and the famous Globe Theatre in 1599.

15. The Stuarts

What is House of Stuart in general?

House of Stuart - royal house of Scotland from 14th to 18th century. It was interrupted by the
establishment of the Commonwealth but was restored. It ended at the start of 18 th century, when the
British crown passed to the house of Hanover.

Robert II
The first monarch of the Stewart line was Robert II whose descendants were kings and queens of
Scotland from 14 cent. until the union with England in 18 cent.
The most outstanding rulers:
James I ( the son of Mary of Scots)
However, although James was a successful monarch in Scotland, the same was not true in England.
He was unable to deal with a hostile (враждебный) Parliament, while his mismanagement of
the kingdom's funds and extreme Protestant background led to many enemies; it was James who was
the target of Guy Fawkes and the Plot to blow up Parliament (заговор о взрыве парламента).
As King, he let cultural flourishing of Elizabethan England to continue, while science, literature
and art grew greatly during his reign.
 When he died, he had unwittingly sown the seeds for the English Civil War.
Charles I
King James’ son took his father’s struggle with Parliament to high level with his belief in the
Divine Right of Kings( божественное право королей), causing many in England to fear that he
was attempting to gain absolute power. He even collected taxes without Parliament’s permission, it
only intensified fears.
The last years of Charles' reign were marked by the start of the English Civil War.
During this war They killed a far greater proportion of the populations of England, Scotland and
(especially) Ireland than the First World War.
 After the war:
Parliament’s Army, commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell defeated King Charles. He was
imprisoned, but he secretly worked to provoke a Second Civil War. Parliament won again, and this time the
army accordingly insisted on his trial, condemnation and execution.

Charles II (1649-1685)

Charles II’s reign (1660–85) is remembered for the revival of theatres, and new developments in
art, daily life and architecture, exemplified by Sir Christopher Wren’s London churches. It also
saw notable scientific advances, fostered by the Royal Society.

The Great Plague (1665), the Great Fire of London (1666) and the humiliating Dutch raid on the
Medway (1667) happened during his reign.

James II (1685-1688)

The second surviving son of King Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France, James was the last Roman
Catholic monarch over Scotland, England and Ireland. But he was deposed after three years of reign
by a group of Protestant dissidents. He was replaced on the throne by William of Orange and his wife.

William III/Mary II (1689 – 1702/1694)

William made no effort to win English hearts and spent a lot of time abroad, leaving Mary to rule
England. Being English, Mary was more popular and ruled fairly successfully. The rule of England was
passed over to Mary’s sister Anne after William’s death.

They declared that no Catholic could become sovereign and that no monarch could keep a
standing army during peacetime except with the consent of Parliament.

Queen Anne (1702 – 1714)

Anne was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. As both Anne and her sister Mary have no heirs,
there was a succession crisis, in which the Roman Catholic, son of James II, attempted to claim the
crown.

The result of his rebellion led to the passing of the Act of Settlement, which united English and
Scottish parliament and fixed the rule that only Protestants could hold the throne.

Anne’s reign was also marked by England’s attempts to reinforce its influence in Europe.

When she died without an heir, she was succeeded by a distant cousin, George I, from the House of
Hanover.
16. The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution (1642–1651)

 King Charles I (1600–1649) vs. Parliament → for control of the English government
 The war began as a result of a conflict over the power of the monarchy and the rights of
Parliament.
 During the early phases of the war, the Parliamentarians expected to retain Charles as king, but
with expanded powers for Parliament. Though the Royalists won early victories, the
Parliamentarians ultimately triumphed.

Causes of the English Civil War

There were several civil wars in that time, but they all had common causes:

Ascending to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Charles I believed in the divine right of
kings. Later Charles elected to stop calling Parliaments and began funding his rule through taxes. This
approach angered the population and nobles.

He called and dissolved (распускал) parliament several times, as he wasn’t agree with their decisions
and that his power was limited by them. Unable to come to any resolution, the sides fought in battles.
The Royalists won early victories, but later the Parliamentarians won several important battles and
formed the professional Army. Though he attempted to rebuild his forces, Charles' situation became
worse and he was forced to flee (бежать) and later He surrendered to the Scots who later turned him
over to Parliament and he was executed.

Results of the English Civil War

Royalist forces were defeated, power passed to the republican government of England. After Cromwel's
death who ruled country as dictator, the government was in chaos, Charles II (son of the previous king)
was invited to return to the country and take power. With Parliament's agreement Charles II arrived
and was crowned the following year.

Glorious Revolution
also called Bloodless Revolution, in English history, the events that resulted in the deposition of James II
and the accession of his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, prince of Orange

After the accession of James II, his Roman Catholicism alienated the population. Нe issued a
Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the penal laws against Nonconformists. Population wasn't
satisfied his rule. Eminent Englishmen wrote to William of Orange, inviting him to come over with an
army to hepl nation.

Support fell away from James II and he fled to France.

William was now asked to call a Parliament. When this Convention Parliament met, it agreed that
James’s getaway is a refusal from crown and Parliament offered the crown with an Declaration of Rights,
to William and his wife Mary. The convention turned into a Parliament and large parts of the Declaration
turned into a Bill of Rights. This bill prohibited Roman Catholics from the throne, canceled the crown’s
power to suspend laws, condemned the power of dispensing with laws and declared a standing army
illegal in time of peace.
The revolution permanently established Parliament as the ruling power of England.

17. 17th century

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/civilwars_timeline_noflash.shtml - здесь
на всякий случай хорошая хронологическая лента событий

It was a time of great scientific advancement, epidemic disease and of bloody civil war.
It was most notable, because it is the only century in the last millennium during which there was a
period when England had no ruling monarchy and became a republic.

KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND: THE STUARTS

• The story of the Stuarts started with the James becoming the first monarch and he invented Union
Jack and was the first to use it.

• Next century, a confrontation between the crown and the puritans resulted in that Charles I losing his
head and later his son Charles II reclaiming the crown; plague and fire wreaking destoryed London
(чума и пожар разрушили Лондон);

Glorious REVOLUTION BY WILLIAM OF ORANGE

 Bill of Rights was signed by Mary II and William. The event changed how England was governed, giving
Parliament more power over the monarchy
 The dynasty was brought to a close with Queen Anne, a woman who had 17 pregnancies but was unable
to continue the bloodline before her death in 1714.

CENTURY OF THE TELESCOPE

• During the 17th century, science became a new way to power and Europeans started to explore the
world.
• Isaac Newton was working during the 17th century, undertaking experiments on nature to reveal God.

• Plus, the seeds of the Empire were firmly planted in foreign territories as colonies were established
along America's Atlantic coast.

THE BRITISH WARS

• English Civil War. Nation was divided by religion and politics.

• Hundreds of thousands of people died, countless families were parted and the nation was devided in
two.
• In addition, two unique events within British history happened: the public execution of the monarch,
Charles I, and the creation of a republic.
• After the execution of Charles I, when Cromwell governed like a dictator and after him Charles II
attempted to restore the monarchy.

18. The house of Hannover

This English royal dynasty lasted for almost 200 years. And they began to rule in the 18th
century, replacing the Stuart dynasty.
In general, the son of James II Stuart was to ascend the throne. However, he was a
true Catholic and did not want to accept the faith of the English Protestants.
That's why the Hanoverians claimed for the throne.
The first king from Hanover was George I. Initially, he wanted to give up the throne and
give the crown to some more suitable person. But he did not do this, his advisers
persuaded him. A huge disadvantage of George I was that he practically did not
know English. There was also no particular interest in government affairs. And
in general, George I disliked Great Britain.

His son George II became the heir. Like his father, he thought more about his
motherland than about the country in which he was king.

But the next king, George III, led a policy quite differently. On the contrary, he was
determined to improve the position of Great Britain. He even entered into a trade
union with France. The country developed through trade.

In the last years of George III's life, the country was ruled by his son, George IV.
The reign of George IV was short. He remained king for only 10 years, and then
died without heirs. Then his place was taken by the second son of George III -
Wilhelm IV. But he too was childless.
And after 7 years the crown was given to his niece - Alexandrina Victoria.
At that time The Victorian era begins. Victoria became the last representative of
the Hanoverian dynasty, but during her reign she managed to change the fate of
her country in many directions. Her policy helped the country to overcome several
revolutions, and later to accept or cancel some laws, which generally eased tensions in
the country.

Historians believe that it was during the reign of the Hanoverian dynasty that Great
Britain became more powerful than ever.

19. The Industrial Revolution.

BEFORE the 18th century:

– agriculture – the biggest source of employment in Britain
– many cottage industries -˃ people worked from home to produce goods such as cloth and lace

 The Industrial Revolution was the rapid (стремительно) development of industry in Britain in the
18th and 19th centuries. Britain was the first country to industrialise on a large scale.

 Manufacturing jobs – the main source of employment in Britain.

Industrialization → shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production

 The iron and textile industries + the development of the steam engine – played central roles in
the Industrial Revolution → improved systems of transportation, communication and banking

 Several influences came together at the same time to revolutionize Britain's industry:
 money
 labour
 a greater demand for goods
 new power
 and better transport

 Increased food production made it possible to feed large populations in the new towns. These
populations were made up of the people who had lost their land through enclosures and were
looking for work.

 By the early eighteenth century simple machines had already been invented for basic jobs:

 make large quantities of simple goods quickly and cheaply → "mass production" became
possible

 Each machine carried out one simple process → "division of labour" among workers

 Sir Henry Bessemer – English inventor who:

- invented a new way of producing steel in a “mass production way” → development of the
shipbuilding industry and the railways

 By the I740s the main problem holding back industrial growth was fuel.
 Wood could not produce the heat necessary to make iron and steel either in large quantities or of
high quality →
 SOLUTION: they used COAL to make iron → Britain is now the leading iron producer in Europe.
(In 1800 Britain was producing four times as much coal as it had done in 1700, and eight times
as much iron.)

Increased iron production made it possible to manufacture new machinery for other industries.

 John Wilkinson built:

- the largest ironworks in the country

- the world's first iron bridge, over the River Severn, in 1779
- an iron chapel for the new Methodist religious sect.

 James Watt made a greatly improved steam engine in 1769 → Wilkinson improved it:
HOW?
 by making parts of the engine more accurately with his special skills in ironworking

 BUT! in 1781 Watt produced an engine with a turning motion, made of iron and steel. It was a
vital development
 WHY?
 because people were now no longer dependent on natural power.

 One invention led to another and increased production in one area led to increased production in
others.

 Other basic materials of the industrial revolution were

- cotton
- woollen cloth, which were popular abroad.

 In 1764 a spinning machine was invented which could do the work of several hand spinners.

 In 1785 a power machine for weaving revolutionized cloth making.

WHY SO IMPORTANT?
- It allowed Britain to make cloth more cheaply than elsewhere and Lancashire cotton cloths
were sold in every continent.
 BUT! this machinery put many people out of work. It also changed what had been a "cottage
industry" done at home into a factory industry.

 In the Midlands, factories using locally found clay (глина) began to develop very quickly and
produced fine quality plates, cups and other china goods.
 These soon replaced the old metal plates and drinking cups that had been used. Soon large
quantities of china were being exported. The most famous factory was one started by Josiah
Wedgwood. His high quality bone china became very popular as it still is.

 The cost of such goods was made cheaper than ever by improved transport. Better transport links
were needed to transport raw materials and manufactured goods.
 Canals were built to link the factories to towns and cities and to the ports, particularly in the new
industrial areas in the middle and north of England.
George Stephenson:

 built a public railroad between Stockton and Darlington which was the first to carry passengers
and freight (груз) using a locomotive.
 In 1829 invented his steam engine, the "Rocket", and from then on railroads dominated the
country. By 1852 there were 7,000 miles of railway line.

 Working conditions during the Industrial Revolution were very poor. There were no laws to
protect employees, who were often forced to work long hours in dangerous situations. Children
also worked and were treated in the same way as adults. Sometimes they were treated even
more harshly.

 Workers tried to join together to protect themselves against powerful employers. They wanted
o fair wages
o reasonable conditions in which to work

 But the government quickly banned these "combinations", as the workers' societies were known
→ Riots occurred, led by the unemployed who had been replaced in factories by machines. In
 1799 some of these rioters, known as Luddites, started to break up the machinery which had put
them out of work. The government supported the factory owners, and made the breaking of
machinery punishable by death.

 This was also a time of increased colonisation overseas:

Captain James Cook mapped the coast of Australia and a few colonies were established
there
Britain gained control over Canada
the East India Company, originally set up to trade, gained control of large parts of India
Colonies began to be established in southern Africa

 Britain traded all over the world and began to import more goods:
- Sugar and tobacco came from North America and the West Indies
- textiles, tea and spices came from India and the area that is today called Indonesia

 Trading and settlements overseas sometimes brought Britain into conflict with other countries,
particularly France, which was expanding and trading in a similar way in many of the same areas
of the world.

20. The Victorian age.

The Victorian era is the period of the reign of Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland until her death. Governed for 63 years what is more than any other British monarch except
Elizabeth II.

The Victorian era is characterized by rapid changes in many areas of society: technological, demographic
shifts, changes in political and social perception. Such active and constant changes in the sphere of
economic and spiritual life were caused by the absence of wars, there was a rapid development of
scientific thought. At this time, the theory of evolution was discovered by Charles Darwin. New
technologies were introduced everywhere, such as the telegraph and the printing press.

The industrial revolution and the development of capitalism continued in the economy during this period.
Big cities began to develop: Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham. While Great Britain was ruled by queen
Victoria, the empire expanded greatly its borders. It owned Canada, Australia, India and parts of Africa
and islands in the Pacific Ocean.

Talking about the Queen and her life:

She inherited the throne at the age of 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without heirs.

Was raised under strong control by her mother and her comptroller (финансовый директор), who was
the main fear of her childhood.

Victoria married Prince Albert (They were deeply in love). Their 9 children married into noble families
across the continent, that’s why she is also known as "the grandmother of Europe".
At the first time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the *Whig prime minister Lord
Melbourne. The Prime Minister at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced
Queen, who relied on him for advice.

*The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of the UK. The Whigs'
origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy.

After her marriage, Prince Albert a little bit displaced Lord Melbourne from position of the main advisor.
But he didn’t want power, he just wanted to help his woman.

After Albert's death Victoria was depressed and avoided public appearances. The rest of her life she was
wearing only black dresses.

As a result of it, republicanism in the United Kingdom gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign,
her popularity recovered.

Later she supported the passage of the Reform Act of 1867, which doubled the electorate, extending the
right to vote to many urban workers, although she did not support women's votes.

21. The House of Windsor ˈwɪnzə

House of Windsor (formerly Saxe-Coburg-Gotha or Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) - the royal house of the
United Kingdom, which succeeded the house of Hanover on the death of its last monarch, Queen
Victoria, on January 22, 1901. То есть Виндзор сменил Хановер после того, как последняя
представительница Хановеров – Вика - умерла. Очень непривычно видеть succeed в значении
«наследовать».

The dynasty includes:

Edward VII (reigned 1901–10), - старший сын Виктории
George V (1910–36),
Edward VIII (1936),
George VI (1936–52),
Elizabeth II (1952– ).
The heir apparent is Charles, prince of Wales. His elder son, Prince William, duke of Cambridge, is
second in line to the British throne.

The House of Windsor came into being in 1917. !

King George V (from the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty, since 1917 from the Windsor dynasty) was born
on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House, London.
His father was Edward VII the eldest son of the British Queen Victoria;
mother - Alexandra Datskaya. She is the sister of Maria Fedorovna - the mother of the last Russian
Emperor Nicholas II. George V resembled Nicholas II.
The reason to change the surname was the events of the First World War.
Historians believe that one of the reasons for changing the name of the dynasty was the bombing of
London by the German plane Gotha G. IV. Gothic bombers ˈbɒməz destroyed a school in East London,
killing 18 children. The very name of the aircraft reminded of the surname worn by the king, and it was
humiliating. Then George V decided to change the royal name, declared it at a meeting of the Privy
Council on 17th July 1917The name "Windsor" refers to Windsor Castle - one of the main residences
of the British monarch. The king renounced(отказался) all personal and family Germanic titles.

The House of Windsor has produced four British sovereigns (верховный, монарх):
George V (1910-1936), his son Edward VIII (1936), who abdicated(отречься) the throne to marry
the twice divorced American Wallis Warfield Simpson in favour of his brother (в пользу своего брата)
George VI (1936-52) and the present Queen, Elizabeth II.

In 1960, the Queen and her husband Phillip Mountbatten the Duke of Edinburgh came to the joint
decision (совместное решение) that they would prefer their direct descendants to be distinguished
from the rest of the Royal Family (without changing the name of the Royal House). 'The Queen's
descendants, other than those with the style of Royal Highness and the title of Prince/Princess, would
bear the surname of ‘Mountbatten-Windsor’

***

During the twentieth century, kings and queens of the United Kingdom have fulfilled(исполнять) the
varied duties of constitutional monarchy. One of their most important roles has been acting as national
figureheads lifting public morale during the devastating wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45.

The period saw the modernisation of the monarchy in tandem with many social changes which have
taken place over the past 90 years. One such modernisation has been the use of mass communication
technologies to make the Royal Family accessible to a broader public all over the world.

George V adopted the new medium of radio to broadcast across the Empire at Christmas;
the Coronation ceremony was broadcast on television for the first time in 1953, at The Queen's
insistence; and the World Wide Web has been used for the past seven years to provide a global
audience with information about the Royal Family.

During this period, British monarchs have also played a vital part in promoting international relations.
The Queen retains close links with former colonies in her role as Head of the Commonwealth. Королева
поддерживает тесные связи с бывшими колониями в своей роли главы Содружества.
Interesting and funny facts about Elizabeth II:
Prince Phillip calls her Cabbage.
Elizabeth became the first member of the royal family to serve in the military. Princess Elizabeth, who at
that time was not even twenty years old, served as a truck driver.
She loves to drive cars.
She doesn't need documents.
She owns all the swans and all the dolphins of Great Britain.
Officially, the queen is the owner of all the swans in the country, as well as all the whales and dolphins
that live in the reservoirs that belong to the country.
Her purse is not just an accessory. The queen's bag plays a special role during the events. It serves not
only to store Her Majesty's personal belongings, but also as a signal to her employees. If the queen puts
her bag down on the table, it means she wants to leave the event within five minutes. If the bag is on
the floor, this is practically a sos signal: Elizabeth shows that she does not like the conversation and
would like to end it as soon as possible.

22. The UK in the First Part of the 20th Century

Queen Victoria died in January 1901, and Edward VII, the eldest son of Queen Victoria ascended the
throne.
edˈwɔːdɪən
Edwardian Britain was a powerful and rich country, much of its wealth coming from business abroad.
By that time, British money had been invested in many countries, and British banks and insurance
companies had customers and did business all over the world, and, as the result, much of the policy and
affairs concerning the Edwardian Britain at that time were the international ones.

In 1902, when Germany, supported by the Triple Alliance, became extremely powerful and the ambitions
of the Kaiser became evident, Britain entered the Anglo-Japanese alliance to avoid political
isolation. The war of 1904-1905 between Russia and Japan made the first one and Britain nearly
enemies, with the end of the war political situation changed. In 1907 the Triple Entente of Great Britain,
Russia and France was achieved as a countermeasure to the expansion of the Triple Alliance of
Germany, Austria and Italy in Balkans.

Still, while the reign of King Edward VII was taking place, many of the British were concerned with
domestic matters. Some important changes in the way that people lived and were governed happened.

In 1900 the Labour Representation Committee, which soon became the Labour Party, was formed. Its
aim was to see working people represented in Parliament, with the powerful support of trade unions.

The Education Act of 1902 met the demand for national system of secondary education. The
government began providing such kind of education, although only a small number of schoolchildren
could pay for the secondary school, and the rest had to be clever enough to pass the scholarship exams.

The general election of 1906 gave the Liberal Party an overwhelming majority in Parliament, with the
programme including old-age pensions, government employment offices, such as Employment
Exchanges, unemployment insurance, a contributory programme of national medical insurance for most
workers, and a board to fix minimum wages for miners and others; but women still were not given the
right to vote.

The years 1911 to 1914 were marked with strikes by miners, dock workers, and transport workers, as
wages scarcely kept up with rising prices; and while the Britain was in the midst of these domestic
problems and disputes, World War I broke out.

The first large operation in which the British expeditionary force took part was the battle of Marne in
1915, which also happened to become the turning point of the whole war in the West front; the peace
among Germany and Britain was signed in 1918.
World War I had both positive effect on the British industry and negative effect on the internal political
situation.
The civil war in Ireland began and lasted until the peace treaty of 1921. Most of the Ireland became the
Irish Free State, independent of British rule in all but name. One more result of the disturbances in
Ireland was the development of the new Irish Sinn Fein political party.

World War I created more opportunities for women to work outside domestic service. Women aged 30
and over were granted the vote by the Reform Act of 1918, and the same Act granted the vote to all
men over the age of 21. In 1928 women were given voting rights that were equal to those of men.

The immediate post-war years were marked by economic boom, rapid demobilization, and much labour
strife. Unemployment rose to more than 2 million in the 1930’s. In the course of several years, both the
levels of industrial activity and of prices dipped by a quarter, and industries such as shipbuilding
collapsed almost entirely.

Between 1933 and 1937, the economy recovered steadily, with the construction, automobile, and
electrical industries leading the way. Unemployment remained high, however, especially in Wales,
Scotland, and northern parts of England.

In 1936 King Edward VIII ascended the throne, and a remarkable occasion took place. Edward preferred
to be happy in private life rather than to dedicate himself to the royal duties and discharged his duty as
a king and emperor in favour of a love affair. Edward VIII was succeeded by his brother, George VI.

In 1939 World War II broke out. In 1940 one of the greatest aerial battles in history took place. The so-
called Battle of Britain was the British answer to the permanent attempts of Germany to ruin the
industry of United Kingdom and to suppress the spirit of the British people by heavy air
bombardments. bɒmˈbɑːdmənts
By the end of 1940 almost all aircraft factories in England were destroyed. The real help in struggle
against Germany was that in the beginning of 1941, the still-neutral United States gived lend-lease aid
to Britain. 

Luckily, the British Isles experienced no ground fighting throughout the whole war, and no British troops
were engaged in ground operations until the Allies landing in France in 1944. 

When World War II ended, the British government launched a number of important programmes to
improve the county’s economy. The National Insurance Act of 1946 was a consolidation of benefit laws
involving maternity, disability, old age, and death, as well as assistance if unemployed. 
In 1948 the National Health Service was set up. The general election of 1945 gave the Labour party the
majority in Parliament, and the party launched a programme of nationalization of private industries to
improve the economic situation. 

23. The UK after 1945

In the spring of 1945, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill summarized his country's situation with
the words: "Triumph and tragedy."
Great Britain shared the victory along with the USSR and the USA, but the economy was in decline after
the Second World War. Britain was bankrupt. It was necessary not only to rebuild the destroyed cities
and raise production to the pre-war level, but also to provide the population with conditions, comfort
and social security. Laborites came forward with approximately such a program, replacing the
Conservative government of Churchill. 

The new prime minister, Clement Attlee, promised to make Britain great again and to fulfill the concept
of "general welfare", which meant building a just, democratic and socialist society. 
Attlee argued that figures like Churchill are good only in wartime, and after that there should be those
who care more about the welfare of the common citizen. 

Loss of colonies 
The end of the Second World War was accompanied by the active disintegration of the world imperialist
colonial system. In the overseas possessions of Britain, a powerful upsurge of the national liberation
movement began, which made it necessary to give India independence, doing nasty goodbye - to divide
a single country on religious grounds into India itself and Muslim Pakistan. Ceylon and Burma also
gained independence in this region.
Due to the loss of colonies, British imperialism was greatly weakened, however, in many of its former
colonies, the kingdom retained significant political and economic influence. 

Having lost most of its colonies after the war, Great Britain received the status of permanent
representative in the UN Security Council. Совет безопасности ООН
Seven years later, in 1952, the country first tested nuclear weapons and entered the closed club of
nuclear powers.

In February 1952, King George VI died and was succeeded by his eldest daughter Elizabeth. Her
coronation on 2 June 1953 gave the British people a renewed sense of national pride and enthusiasm
which had been lowered by the war. 

In April 1955, Churchill finally retired, and Sir Anthony Eden succeeded him as Prime Minister. Eden was
a very popular figure, as a result of his long wartime service and also his famous good looks and charm.
On taking office he immediately called a general election, at which the Conservatives were returned with
an increased majority. He left domestic issues to his lieutenants such as Rab Butler, and concentrated
largely on foreign policy, forming a close alliance with US President Dwight Eisenhower. 

After the war, English became widespread throughout the world, which led to an increase in the
influence of British culture and literature in the world. As part of this process, English-speaking pop
culture began to spread massively in the 60s. 
In the 50s, there was a noticeable shortage of labor in the British Isles, which led to the stimulation of
emigration from the Commonwealth countries, as a result of which the British society became more and
more multi-ethnic.

24. Winston Churchill

Brief info:

 Winston Churchill was one of the best-known, and some say one of the greatest, statesmen of the 20th
century.
 Though he was born into a life of privilege, he dedicated himself to public service.
 He's one of the most famous Britons of the 20th Century and led the country during the Second World
War.
 He's a hero to many and his speeches are some of the most famous in history - there's even a statue of
him outside Parliament.
 He's credited as being one of the driving forces that inspired the UK to keep fighting against Nazi Germany.
 But he also suffered with mental health problems and was a complicated person who said and did things
that many people today don't like.
Why was Churchill so important?

 Winston Churchill was born in 1874. He became a Member of Parliament (MP) in 1900.
 He was British prime minister from 1940-1945 and again between 1951 and 1955.
 Churchill is best remembered for successfully leading Britain through World War Two.
 He was famous for his inspiring speeches, and for his refusal to give in, even when things were going
badly.
 Many people consider him the greatest Briton of all time and he's almost certainly the most famous
British prime minister.

Fighting the Nazis

 Before World War Two started in 1939, he had warned about the rise of Hitler and the Nazis in Germany.
 He became British prime minister in 1940 after then-leader Neville Chamberlain resigned.
 Churchill's refusal to surrender to Nazi Germany inspired the country. (…we shall defend our Island,
whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall
fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.) - Churchill gave
British people no choice but to play out their parts in the script he had written, or be shamed.
 Churchill lost power after World War Two ended in 1945.
 But he became prime minister again in 1951, before resigning four years later.

Mental Health

 For many people Winston Churchill was the greatest prime minister of all time, yet he was often deeply
troubled. He lived with bouts of depression throughout his life.
 Churchill called his depression 'the black dog'.
 His good friend Lord Beaverbrook said Churchill was always either 'at the top of the wheel of confidence or at
the bottom of an intense depression.'

Controversy

 Some of things that Churchill said seem controversial today and there are many debates about some of
the things he did.
 Some experts say he believed that some countries and races were naturally superior to others. In 1937
he said "I do not admit for instance, that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or
the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to these people by the fact that a
stronger race, a higher-grade race, a more worldly wise race to put it that way, has come in and taken
their place."
 Others say that it's unfair to judge him by attitudes and beliefs we hold today and that many of his views
were held by many other people at the time.
 He had very strong views about the British relationship with India and was opposed to self-rule. He also
considered Ghandi a threat to the British Empire.
 He is accused of not doing enough to prevent during a famine in the region of Bengal (предотвратить
голод), in south east Asia in which millions of people are thought to have died.
 This happened in 1943, during World War Two, and some experts say his focus was on fighting the war in
Europe and that when he became aware of the true seriousness what was happening, he ordered grain
to be sent there. (короче там голодали, но он не обратил на это внимания, а когда там уже начали
пачками умирать люди, он одумался и отправил туда зерно)
 He also has a negative reputation for the way he dealt with Unions and workers rights, mainly after
sending the army in to stop riots following strikes in Tonypandy in South Wales.

Funeral
Churchill died on 24 January 1965 and was given a state funeral, an honour saved only for kings and
queens, and sometimes other people of the highest national importance.

25. MARGARET THATCHER

Margaret Thatcher's political career has been one of the most remarkable of modern times. Born
in October 1925 at Grantham, a small market town in eastern England, she rose to become the
first (and for two decades the only) woman to lead a major Western democracy.
ПРИВЕТ,КРАСОТ

Margaret Thatcher (1925-2013) was Britain’s first female prime minister (1979-90). (ну тут
конечно же классика, «Железная Леди» с Мэрил Стрип)

GENERAL FACTS : She was known for her tough uncompromising, conservative political views,
and became dubbed(прозвали) as ‘The Iron Lady’. On the UK domestic front she instituted many
free market reforms, implemented the controversial poll tax(провела нашумевший подушный
налог) and reduced the power of trades unions. In international affairs, she cultivated a close
relationship with American President Ronald Reagan and also developed a working relationship
with Russian leader Mikhail Gorbachev as the Cold War drew to a close.
CHILDHOOD: Margaret Thatcher's home and early life in Grantham played a large part in
forming her political convictions. Her parents, Alfred (a grocer and local alderman  (and later
mayor of Grantham)) and Beatrice Roberts, were Methodists. The social life of the family was
lived largely within the close community of the local congregation(община), bounded by strong
traditions of self-help, charitable work(благотворительность), and personal truthfulness.That is
why Thatcher formed an early desire to be a politician. Her intellectual ability led her to
the University of Oxford, where she studied chemistry and was immediately active in politics,
becoming one of the first woman presidents of the Oxford University Conservative Association.

CANDIDATE FOR DARTFORD: In her mid-twenties she ran as the Conservative candidate
for the strong Labour seat of Dartford at the General Elections of 1950 and 1951, winning
national publicity as the youngest woman candidate in the country. Aspects of her mature political
style were formed in Dartford, a largely working class constituency(избирательный округ) which
suffered as much as any from post-war rationing and shortages, as well as the rising level of
taxation and state regulation. She had little difficulty getting a hearing from any audience and she
spoke easily, with force and confidence, on issues that mattered to the voters.
Thatcher led the Conservatives (партия консерваторов) to a decisive electoral victory in 1979. (в
общем эпоху тэтчер в партии были ещё больше проблемы с забастовками шахтёров и всё
херово было с социальными противоречиями. Но при этом они побеждали на выборах. Но
там у них между собой были какие-то непонятки и в итоге тэтчер ушла)

FIRST TERM AS A PRIME MINISTER: The main impact of her first term was economic.
Inheriting a weak economy, she reduced or eliminated some governmental regulations and
subsidies to businesses, thereby purging(очистив) the manufacturing industry of many inefficient
—but also some blameless—firms. The result was a dramatic increase in unemployment, from 1.3
million in 1979 to more than double that figure two years later. At the same time, inflation
doubled in just 14 months, to more than 20 percent, and manufacturing output fell sharply.
Although inflation decreased and output rose before the end of her first term, unemployment
continued to increase, reaching more than three million in 1986. Thatcher embarked on (начала)
an ambitious program of privatization of state-owned industries and public services, including
aerospace, television and radio, gas and electricity, water, the state airline, and British Steel. By
the end of the 1980s, the number of individual stockholders had tripled, and the government had
sold 1.5 million publicly owned housing units to their tenants.

In foreign policy, she got on well with American President Ronald Reagan. They often met and
talked of a ‘special relationship’ between the US and UK. Mrs Thatcher also expressed respect for
Russian President Mikhail Gorbachev. She famously said of Gorbachev, that ‘he was a man who
we could do business with’. (тоже интересно в этой теме: when Mikhail Gorbachev emerged as
a potential leader of the Soviet Union, she invited him to Britain and pronounced him a man she
could do business with.She did not soften her criticisms of the Soviet system, making use of new
opportunities to broadcast to television audiences in the east to put the case against Communism.
Nevertheless, she played a constructive part in the diplomacy that smoothed the break-up of the
Soviet Empire and of the Soviet Union itself in the years 1989-91.)

SECOND TERM: The second term opened with almost as many difficulties as the first. The
government found itself challenged by the miners' union (профсоюз шахтёров), which fought a
year-long strike(забастовка) in 1984-85 under militant leadership. The miners' strike was one of
the most violent and long lasting in British history. The outcome was uncertain, but after many
turns in the road, the union was defeated. This proved a crucial development, because it ensured
that the Thatcher reforms would endure (выстоит, выдержит). Her policy throughout was
implacably hostile (враждебна) to terrorism, republican or loyalist, although she matched that
stance by negotiating the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985 with the Republic of Ireland. The
economy continued to improve during the 1983-87 Parliament and the policy of economic
liberalisation was extended. The government began to pursue a policy of selling state assets,
which in total had amounted to more than 20 per cent of the economy when the Conservatives
came to power in 1979. The British privatisations of the 1980s were the first of their kind and
proved influential across the world.
Interesting fact: In October 1984, when the strike was still underway, the Irish Republican
Army (IRA) attempted to murder Margaret Thatcher and many of her cabinet by bombing her
hotel in Brighton during the Conservative Party annual conference. Although she survived unhurt,
some of her closest colleagues were among the injured and dead and the room next to hers was
severely damaged. No twentieth-century British Prime Minister ever came closer to assassination.
THIRD TERM: The economy boomed in 1987-88, but also began to overheat. Margaret Thatcher
played her part in the last phase of the Cold War, both in the strengthening of the Western
alliance against the Soviets in the early 1980s and in the successful unwinding of the conflict later
in the decade.
WHY IRON LADY: The Soviets had dubbed her the 'Iron Lady' — a tag she relished — for the
tough line she took against them in speeches shortly after becoming Conservative leader in 1975.
During the 1980s she offered strong support to the defence policies of the Reagan administration.

Because of her declining popularity, she was eventually forced out as leader of the party and PM
(prime minister) in 1990. Although she was bitter(сожалела) about her perceived betrayal, she
left an unprecedented(непревзойдённый) mark on the UK economic and political landscape. For
good or ill, she changed the British economic and political situation. In particular, Thatcher
marked a break with ‘One Nation Conservatism’ and the post-war consensus.

Margaret Thatcher remains an intensely controversial figure in Britain. Critics claim that her
economic policies were divisive socially, that she was harsh or 'uncaring' in her politics, and
hostile to the institutions of the British welfare state. Defenders point to a transformation in
Britain's economic performance over the course of the Thatcher Governments and those of her
successors as Prime Minister. Trade union reforms, privatisation, deregulation, a strong anti-
inflationary stance, and control of tax and spending have created better economic prospects for
Britain than seemed possible when she became Prime Minister in 1979.
Thatcher died on 8 April 2013 at the age of 87 after suffering a stroke. Reactions to the news of
Thatcher's death were mixed across the UK, ranging from tributes lauding her as Britain's
greatest-ever peacetime prime minister to public celebrations of her death and expressions of
hatred and personalised vitriol.

(Это лично от меня инфа из видео BBC): Margaret was a very kindhearted, responsive person
who was always ready to help people around her. People who worked with her knew that if
someone’s child is ill or something has happened this person should have thought if it’s necessary
to tell about this to Margaret. Cause when you did, you couldn’t stop her from offering her help
and asking questions about health and other things like that.

She also had a diary where were various quotes, texts and stuff like that. Thatcher always reread
it because she found some kind of inspiration in it.

Besides, people close to her claimed that she was very good at cooking and never had a chef at
home. And if she chose a new secretary, driver or any other subordinate, then everyone knew
that he/she is a good workman.

26. SPORTS IN THE UK

(по волковой)

There are several sports that are particularly popular in the UK. Many sporting events take place
at major stadiums such as Wembley Stadium in London and the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.
Local governments and private companies provide sports facilities such as swimming pools, tennis
courts, football pitches, dry ski slopes and gymnasiums. Many famous sports, including cricket,
football, lawn tennis, golf and rugby, began in Britain.

The UK has hosted the Olympic Games on three occasions: 1908, 1948 and 2012. The main
Olympic site for the 2012 Games was in Stratford, east London. The British team was very
successful, across a wide range of Olympic sports, finishing third in the medal table. The
Paralympic Games for 2012 were also hosted in London.

Notable British sportsmen and women

Sir Roger Bannister was the first man in the world to run a mile in under four minutes, in 1954.

Sir Jackie Stewart is a Scottish former racing driver who won Formula 1 world championship three
times.

Bobby Moore captained the English football team that won the World Cup in 1966.

Sir Ian Botham captained the English cricket team and holds a number of English cricket records,
both for batting and for bowling.

Dame Kelly Holmes won two gold medals for running in the 2004 Olympic Games. She has held a
number of British and European records.

Dame Ellen MacArthur is a yachtswoman and in 2004 became the fastest person to sail around
the world singlehanded.
Some of England's football teams are world famous, the most famous being Manchester
United, Arsenal, Chelsea and Liverpool.

Sport is one of the UK’s most popular leisure activities. The Government’s view is that sport is an
important component of regeneration, and can have a beneficial effect in helping the
development of run-down areas. It is difficult to identify the national sport of the UK or even that
of the constituent countries.

 CRICKET  
The game started in England in the 16th century. Cricket had become well-established among the
English upper class in the 18th century, and was a major factor in sports competition among the
public schools. Army units around the Empire had time on their hands, and encouraged the locals
to learn cricket so they could have some entertaining competition. Most of the Empire embraced
cricket, with the exception of Canada. It is a sport which is played between two teams of eleven
players. This is done by hitting the ball across the boundary, or by running between two sets of
three small, wooden posts called wickets. The England cricket team represents England  and
Wales in international cricket.

 FOOTBALL (SOCCER)

Soccer appeared in 1863, when England’s newly formed Football Association wrote down a set of
rules. At the time, it was the most widely played game of its kind in the country.

 RUGBY

Rugby football started about 1845 at Rugby School in Warwickshire, England. The two major
sports are rugby league and rugby union (the size of the playing field and the number of
players are different).  Rugby League, played mainly in the north of England, and Rugby Union,
played in the rest of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. For many years Rugby was only
played by the rich upper classes, but now it is popular all over the country.

 TENNIS

Wimbledon is the oldest of all the major tennis tournaments beginning in 1877. It begins on the
nearest Monday to June 22, at a time when England enjoys the finest weather.   The Centre Court
(on the picture) has a capacity for over 13,000 spectators. Millions of people watch the
Championships on TV live. It is traditional for visitors to eat strawberries and cream while they
watch the games.  During Wimbledon fortnight over 23 tons of strawberries and 285,000 cups of
tea are consumed!

 NETBALL

Netball is a team sport similar to basketball. Netball is the largest female team sport in England.
More than 60,000 adults play netball regularly in England alone and a further 1 million young
people play it in schools. The sport is played almost exclusively by women and girls, although
male participation has increased in recent years.

 GOLF
Scotland is traditionally regarded as the home of golf. Golf is an increasingly popular sport that
can be played for one's entire life. There are over 400 golf courses in Scotland alone.

 HORSE RACING

The Derby originated here, as did The Grand National which is the hardest horse race in the
world.  Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular spectator sports.  People can place bets
on the races at legal betting shops.  Some of the best-known horse races are held at Ascot,
Newmarket, Goodwood and Epsom. 

 POLO

Polo was brought to Britain from India in the 19th Century by army officers. It is the fastest ball
sport in the world.  Polo is played with four men on horses per team. 

 TABLE TENNIS

Table tennis was (also) invented in England in the 1880s. It began with Cambridge University
students using cigar boxes and champagne corks. Although the game originated in England,
British players don't have much luck in international championships.

 BADMINTON

Badminton takes its name from the Duke of Beaufort’s country home, Badminton House, where
the sport was first played in the 19th century. The game is organised by the Badminton
Association of England and the Scottish, Welsh and Irish (Ulster branch) Badminton Unions. 
Around 2 million people play badminton regularly.

 FISHING (ANGLING)

Angling is one of the most popular 'sports' in the UK, with an estimated 3.3 million people
participating in the sport on a regular basis. Fishermen can be see sitting beside rivers and lakes.

 DARTS

Darts is a very popular pub game. The game of darts, as it is today, was invented in the north of
England in a town called Grimsby.  However, the origins of the game date back to at least the
Middle Ages.

 BETTING

Betting on team sports has become an important service industry in the UK.  Millions of Britons
play the football pools every week.  Over 40% of adults in Great Britain participated in one or
more of the National Lottery games every week in 2002.

STRUCTURE:

England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have separate teams in most team sports, includi
ng separate teams at the Commonwealth Games, though a combined team represents the United 
Kingdom 
at the Olympics which is formally "Great Britain and Northern Ireland" but commonly referred to a
s 
"Great Britain". In rugby union, Ireland also competes as a single nation. Competition between th
e 
home nations was traditionally at the centre of British sporting life, but it has become less importa
nt in recent decades. In particular, football's British Home Championship no longer takes place.

The club competitions in most team sports are also organised on a national basis rather than on a 

United Kingdom wide basis. There are various anomalies however, such as the participation of the 

three largest Welsh football clubs in the English league system; an English club in the Scottish 
Football League; a Northern Ireland club in the Republic's league, the FAI League of Ireland; a clu
b 
in the Welsh Premier League playing their home matches in England; and the Magners League in 
rugby union, which includes clubs from Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales and the Republic of 
Ireland (note that rugby union in Ireland is organised on an all-Ireland basis).

27. FESTIVALS AND TRADITIONS, FOOD AND EVERYDAY LIFE IN UK

FESTIVALS: There are lots of traditional festivals, parades and celebrations that are held all over

CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS

Christmas Day, 25th December, celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. It is a public holiday. Many
Christians go to church on Christmas Eve (24th December) or on Christmas Day itself Christmas is
celebrated in a traditional way. People usually spend the day at home and eat a special meal,
which often includes roast turkey, Christmas pudding and mince pies. They give gifts, send cards
and decorate their houses. Christmas is a special time for children. Very young children believe
that Father Christmas (also known as Santa Claus) brings them presents during the night before
Christmas Day. Many people decorate a tree in their home.

Boxing Day is the day after Christmas Day and is a public holiday. Though it originated as a
holiday to give gifts to the poor, today Boxing Day is primarily known as a shopping
holiday. Boxing Day sales are common and shops often allow dramatic price reductions. For many
merchants, Boxing Day has become the day of the year with the greatest revenue. 

Easter takes place in March or April. It marks the death of Jesus Christ on Good Friday and his
rising from the dead on Easter Sunday. Both Good Friday and the following Monday, called Easter
Monday, are public holidays. The 40 days before Easter are known as Lent. It is a time when
Christians take time to reflect and prepare for Easter. Traditionally, people would fast during this
period and today many people will give something up, like a favourite food. The day before Lent
starts is called Shrove Tuesday, or Pancake Day. People eat pancakes, which were traditionally
made to use up foods such as eggs, fat and milk before fasting. Lent begins on Ash Wednesday.
There are church services where Christians are marked with an ash cross on their forehead as a
symbol of death and sorrow for sin. Easter is also celebrated by people who are not religious.
"Easter eggs" are chocolate eggs often given as presents at Easter as a symbol of new life.

OTHER RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS

Diwali normally falls in October or November and lasts for five days. It is often called the Festival
of Lights. It is celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs. It celebrates the victory of good over evil and the
gaining of knowledge. There is a famous celebration of Diwali in Leicester.

Hannukah is in November or December and is celebrated for eight days. It is to remember the
Jews' struggle for religious freedom. They thank Allah for giving them the strength to complete
the fast. The date when it takes place changes every year. Muslims attend special services and
meals. (One Hanukkah food tradition is eating dairy products, especially cheese.Fried potato
pancakes, called latkes  in Yiddish and levivot  in Hebrew, are the most popular Hanukkah
food.  Another fried-in-oil delicacy for Hanukkah is the deep-fried, jelly-filled donuts,
called sufganiot, which are traditionally enjoyed during Hanukkah in Israel and loved by children all
over the globe.)

Eid ul Adha remembers that the prophet Ibrahim was willing to sacrifice his son when God
ordered him to. It reminds Muslims of their own commitment to God. Many Muslims sacrifice an
animal to eat during this festival. In Britain this has to be done in a slaughterhouse. Vaisakhi (also
spelled Baisakhi) is a Sikh festival which celebrates the founding of the Sikh community known as
the Khalsa. It is celebrated on 14th April each year with parades, dancing and singing.

OTHER FESTIVALS AND TRADITIONS

(ну тут короче праздники всемирные, думаю 2-3 просто можно будет мелком упомянуть, тк
они не чисто британские). New Year, 1st January, is a public holiday. People usually celebrate
on the night of 31st December (called New Year's Eve). In Scotland, 31st December is called
Hogmanay and 2nd January is also a public holiday. For some Scottish people, Hogmanay is a
bigger holiday than Christmas. Valentine's Day, 14th February, is when lovers exchange cards and
gifts. Sometimes people send anonymous cards to someone they secretly admire.April Fool's Day,
1st April, is a day when people play jokes on other until midday. The television and newspapers
often have stories that are April Fool jokes. Mothering Sunday (or Mother's Day) is the Sunday
three weeks before Easter. Children send cards or buy gifts for their mothers. Father's Day is the
third Sunday in June. Children send cards or buy gifts for their fathers. Halloween, 31st October,
is an ancient festival and has roots in the pagan festival to mark the beginning of winter. Young
people will often dress up in frightening costumes to play 'trick or treat'. People give them treats
to stop them playing tricks on them. A lot of people carve lanterns out of pumpkins and put a
candle inside.

Bonfire Night, 5th November, is an occasion when people in Great Britain set off fireworks at
home or in special displays. The origin of this celebration was an event in 1605, when a group of
Catholics, led by Guy Fawkes failed in their plan to kill the Protestant king with a bomb in the
Houses of Parliament.
 Remembrance Day, 11th November, commemorates those who died fighting for the UK and its
allies. Originally it commemorated the dead of the First World War, which ended on 11th
November, 1918. People wear poppies (the red flower found on the battlefields of the First
World War). At 11.00 am there is a two-minute silence and wreaths are laid at the Cenotaph in
Whitehall, London.

FOOD:

Britain is a fantastic place for multicultural food. All sorts of cultures have had settlements in the
country over the years, and their influence is clear in Britain’s food to this day.

Baked goods are popular all over the UK. In the Lake District, Cartmel is famous for its sticky
toffee pudding. Meat pies (cold pork pies and hot steak and kidney pies) are a good lunchtime
choice, and fish and chips are essential eating near the seaside. Curry is now British through
and through, with restaurants such as Dishoom in London and Edinburgh serving particularly
good  Indian food. There’s also cheese, try Cheddar and Stilton.”   (из её статьи ВВС)

28. MUSIC IN THE UK.

*Long song about how beautiful and rich British music is* (ржу, оставлю ахахах). 

Music is an important part of British culture, with a rich and varied heritage. It ranges from
classical music to modern pop. Throughout its history, the United Kingdom has been a major
producer and source of musical creation, drawing its early artistic basis from church music and
the ancient and traditional folk music and instrumentation of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland,
and Wales. Each of the four countries of the United Kingdom has its own diverse and distinctive
folk music forms, which flourished until the era of industrialisation when it began to be replaced
by new forms of popular music, including music hall and brass bands. Many British musicians
have influenced modern music on a global scale, and the United Kingdom has one of the world's
largest music industries. 

VENUES AND MUSIC EVENTS (TAKE PLACE OFTEN IN SUMMER):

1. The Proms is an 8-week summer season of orchestral classical music that takes place in
various  venues (and also in Albert Hall in London). Organized by the BBC since 1927. The
Last Night of the Proms is the most well-known concert and is broadcast on television. 
2. Wembley Stadium.
3. The O2 in Greenwich.
4. Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC) in Glasgow.

There are many large venues that host music events throughout the years, such as: Wembley
Stadium; The O2 in Greenwich; and the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC) in
Glasgow. Festival season takes place in the UK every summer, with major events in various
locations. Famous festivals include Glastonbury, the Isle of Wight Festival and the V Festival.

The National Eisteddfod of Wales is an annual cultural festival which includes music, dance, art
and original performances largely in Welsh. It includes a number of important competitions for
Welsh poetry.
 The Mercury Music Prize is awarded each September for the best album in the UK and Ireland.
The Brit Awards is an annual event that gives awards in a range of categories, such as best British
group and best British solo artist.

CLASSICAL MUSIC:

Music in the British Isles, from the earliest recorded times until the Baroque and the rise of recognisably
modern classical music, was a diverse and rich culture, including sacred and secular music and ranging
from the popular to the elite. Each of the major nations
of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales retained unique forms of music and of instrumentation, but
British music was highly influenced by continental developments, while British composers made an
important contribution to many of the major movements in early music in Europe.

Church music and religious music were profoundly affected by the Protestant Reformation which
affected Britain from the 16th century, which curtailed events associated with British music and forced
the development of distinctive national music, worship and belief.

The Baroque era in music, between the early music of the Medieval and Renaissance periods and the
development of fully fledged and formalised orchestral classical music in the second half of the
eighteenth century, was characterised by more elaborate musical ornamentation, changes in musical
notation, new instrumental playing techniques and the rise of new genres such as opera.

However, arguably the most significant British composer of the era, GEORGE FRIDERIC HANDEL, was a
naturalised German, who helped integrate British and continental music and define the future of
the classical music of the United Kingdom that would be officially formed in 1801. He spent many years
in the UK and became a British citizen in 1727. He wrote: Water Music for King George I; Music for the
Royal Fireworks for George II; oratorio Messiah which is sung often at Eastern time. (ну и плюсом ещё
представители классики разных эпох)
1. Henry Purcell (1659-1695) was the organist at Westminster Abbey. He wrote church music,
operas and other pieces. Even if he wasn’t in the UK, he continued to be influential on British
composers.
2. Gustav Holst (1874-1914) wrote The Planets, a suite of pieces themes around the planets of
the Solar System. He adapted Jupiter as the tune of I vow to thee my country, a popular
churchs hymn.
3. Sir Edward Elgar (1857-1934) was born in Worcester. He’s known for the Pomp and
Circumstance Marches. March No 1 (Land of Home and GLory) is usually played at the Last
Night of Proms at the Royal Albert Hall.
4. Ralph Williams (1872-1958) - he influenced on traditional folk music.

Other types of popular music (such as jazz, op and rock) have flourished in the UK since 20th
century. Since the 60s, british pop-music has made one of the most important cultural
contributions to love in the UK. It was always innovated - the Punk movement of the late 70s,
boys/girlsbands in the 90s as well. 

MODERN MUSIC:

Britain has influenced popular music disproportionately to its size, due to its linguistic and cultural links
with many countries, particularly the United States and many of its former colonies like Australia, South
Africa, and Canada, and its capacity for invention, innovation and fusion, which has led to the
development of, or participation in, many of the major trends in popular music.

During the early 1960s, the British Invasion, led by The Beatles, helped to secure British performers a
major place in development of pop and rock music. According to the website of The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, the term "pop music" "originated in Britain in the mid-1950s as a
description for rock and roll and the new youth music styles that it influenced".

Britain's most significant contribution to popular music during the 20th century was towards the
expansion of rock music. Progressive rock was predicated on the "progressive" pop groups from the
1960s who combined rock and roll with various other music styles such as
Indian ragas, oriental melodies and Gregorian chants, like the Beatles.

 The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. The group, whose

best-known line-up comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo
Starr, are regarded as the most influential band of all time. They were integral to the
development of 1960s counterculture and popular music's recognition as an art form. Led
by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the Beatles built their reputation playing
clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over three years from 1960, initially with Stuart
Sutcliffe playing bass. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since
1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to
join them in 1962. The Beatles are the best-selling music act of all time, with estimated
sales of 600 million units worldwide.
The band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. The
Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and
lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries.

Former Rolling Stone associate editor Robert Greenfield compared the Beatles to Picasso, as "artists who

broke through the constraints of their time period to come up with something that was unique and
original ... [I]n the form of popular music, no one will ever be more revolutionary, more creative and
more distinctive ..."

(FUN FACT: есть короче фильм про битлов, называется “Yesterday”. Там про них как будто все
забыли, кроме одного парня и они воссоздаёт их песни по памяти. Там даже Ленон оживает…. В
общем, рекомендую к просмотру, если не смотрели)

 As a diverging act to the popular pop rock of the early 1960s, the Rolling

Stones pioneered the gritty, heavier-driven sound that came to define hard rock. The
Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London in 1962. The band's first
stable line-up consisted of bandleader Brian Jones (guitar, harmonica, keyboards), Mick
Jagger (lead vocals, harmonica), Keith Richards (guitar, vocals), Bill Wyman (bass
guitar), Charlie Watts (drums), and Ian Stewart (piano), the last of whom was removed
from the official line-up in 1963, but continued to work with the band as a contracted
musician until his death in 1985.
Rooted in blues and early rock and roll, the Rolling Stones started out playing covers and established
themselves at the forefront of the British Invasion of bands that became popular in the United States in
1964, also being identified with the youthful and rebellious counterculture of the 1960s. The band found
more success with their own material; songs such as "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" and "Paint It Black"
became international hits, and Aftermath (1966) – their first entirely original album – has been
considered the most important of the band's formative records.

 Heavy metal was created by British musicians, including acts like Black Sabbath and Deep

Purple. (я лично их не очень, но если вы вдруг фанат, то можете что-то добавить
сюда)
  Glam rock, which was developed in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s, was performed
by musicians who wore outrageous costumes, makeup, and hairstyles, particularly platform
shoes and glitter—this is widely associated with David Bowie. He was a leading figure in
the music industry and is regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th
century. He was acclaimed by critics and musicians, particularly for his innovative work
during the 1970s. His career was marked by reinvention and visual presentation, with his
music and stagecraft having a significant impact on popular music. During his lifetime, his
record sales, estimated at over 100 million records worldwide, made him one of the best-
selling music artists of all time. In the UK, he was awarded ten platinum album
certifications, eleven gold and eight silver, and released eleven number-one albums.
Personal life (моё любимое): Bowie declared himself gay in an interview with Michael Watts.
Bowie said, "It's true—I am a bisexual. But I can't deny that I've used that fact very well. I
suppose it's the best thing that ever happened to me." His first wife, Angie, supports his claim
of bisexuality and alleges that Bowie had a relationship with Mick Jagger. In a 1983 interview
with Rolling Stone, Bowie said his public declaration of bisexuality was "the biggest mistake I
ever made" and "I was always a closet heterosexual." Blender asked Bowie in 2002 whether
he still believed his public declaration was his biggest mistake. After a long pause, he said, "I
don't think it was a mistake in Europe, but it was a lot tougher in America. I had no problem
with people knowing I was bisexual. But I had no inclination to hold any banners nor be a
representative of any group of people." Bowie said he wanted to be a songwriter and
performer rather than a headline for his bisexuality, and in "puritanical" America

 The Queen. (чисто освежить память советую глянуть Богемскую Рапсодию, чисто
какие-то факты за уши приятнуть и ещё фильм «Фредди Меркьюри.Великий
притворщик» -это уже документалка)
Their earliest works were influenced by progressive rock, hard rock and heavy metal, but the
band gradually ventured into more conventional and radio-friendly works by incorporating further
styles, such as arena rock and pop rock.

Before forming Queen, May and Taylor had played together in the band Smile. Mercury was a fan
of Smile and encouraged them to experiment with more elaborate stage and recording
techniques. He joined in 1970 and suggested the name "Queen".

Queen drew artistic influence from British rock acts of the 1960s and early 1970s, such as the
Beatles,  Pink Floyd, the Who,  Deep Purple, David Bowie,  with Mercury also inspired by the rock
and roll singer Elvis Presley and the gospel singer Aretha Franklin.

Having studied graphic design in art college, Mercury also designed Queen's logo, called the
Queen crest, shortly before the release of the band's first album. (it combines all zodiac singns of
the members)

During the 21st century, blue-eyed soul came to be dominated by British singers, including Amy

Winehouse, Duffy and most notably Adele, who has broken several sales and chart records.
Adele has won more Grammy Awards than any other female who was born outside the US.
English singer Ed Sheeran was the foremost folk-orientated artist of the 2010s; the Official
Charts Company named him artist of the decade, with the most combined success in the UK
album and singles charts in the 2010s. Globally, Spotify named Sheeran the second most
streamed artist of the decade. London formed English-Irish pop boy band One Direction were
one of the biggest teen idols of the 2010s. (тут уже можете добавить того, кто вам больше
нравится 😊 )
30. British architecture
A BRIEF HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN

Classical Architecture 43AD - 450 AD (Roman Britain)

ROMANS: ARCHITECTURE
Classical Architecture
A term used for the architecture of Ancient Greece and Rome. The key feature is the orders, or types of
column (Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite). Classical buildings tend to be symmetrical,
both externally and on plan.
Example: the temple of the deified Claudius at Colchester and the temple of Sullis Minerva at Bath
Medieval (Romanesque and Gothic) Architecture 1066-1485 AD

MEDIEVAL: ARCHITECTURE
Norman (Romanesque)
The English version of the Romanesque style, which predominated (преобладает) in Western Europe in
the 11th and 12th centuries. It predominantly appeared in England after the Norman conquest
(завоевание) of 1066 and lasted until 1190 AD. It is associated with the building of large stone
churches, and is characterized by massive masonry (кирпичная кладка), round-headed arches and
vaulting (своды) inspired by ancient Rome, and by the use of stylized ornament.
Example: St. Augustine’s Abbey in Canterbury, Kent; Dover castle in Kent and Richmond castle in North
Yorkshire.
Gothic
The style of the Middle Ages from the later 12th century to the Renaissance. Characterized in its full
development by the pointed (заостренная) arch, window tracery, the rib-vault (ребристый свод) and
an often skeletal masonry structure for churches, combined with large glazed windows. The term was
originally associated with the concept of the barbarian Goths as assailants (напавших) of classical
civilization. Gothic can be split into three phases: Early English (1180 -1275 AD) Byland Abbey, North
Yorkshire, Perpendicular(1275 – 1380 AD)Tattershall Castle built for Lord Treasurer Ralph Cromwell and
Decorated (1380 – 1520 AD) Ely Cathedral.

Tudor and Elizabethan Architecture 1485-1603 AD

TUDORS: ARCHITECTURE
Tudor
Strictly, the architecture of the English Tudor dynasty (1485-1603), but used more often for late Gothic
secular buildings especially of the first half of the 16th century. These use a simplified version of
Perpendicular, characterised by straight-headed mullioned (раздельный) windows with arched lights,
and by rooflines with steep gables (крутой фронтон) and tall chimneys (дымоходы), often
asymmetrically placed. Example: Acton Court, Gloucestershire

Elisabethan
The English architecture of the later 16th century, marked by a decorative use of Renaissance ornament.
Example: Sir Thomas Tresham’s Rushton Triangular Lodge, Northamptonshire.

Jacobean and Stuart 1603-1714 AD

STUARTS: ARCHITECTURE
Jacobean (Stuart)
The style of early 17th-century England, called after James I (reigned 1603-25), but common into the
middle decades. Not always distinguishable from the preceding Elizabethan manner, with which it shares
a fondness (находка) for densely applied classical ornament and symmetrical gabled facades. Example:
‘Palace of Audley End’ in Essex.

Baroque
The term, originally derogatory (унизительный), for a style at its peak in 17th- and early 18th-century
Europe, which developed the classical architecture of the Renaissance towards greater extravagance and
drama. Its innovations included greater freedom from the conventions of the orders, much interplay
(взаимодействие) of concave (вогнутых) and convex (изогнутых) forms, and a preference for the
single visual sweep. Example:Banqueting House in Whitehall, London (1619–22).

Queen Anne
Queen Anne style in Britain refers to the English Baroque architectural style approximately of the reign
of Queen Anne (reigned 1702–1714). Example: the Duke of Marlborough’s stupendous Blenheim Palace,
Oxfordshire (1705–16)

Georgian and Regency 1714-1837

GEORGIANS: ARCHITECTURE
Georgian
The architecture of the British Isles in the reigns of George I, II, III and IV, i.e. 1714-1830, in which the
classical style and classical proportions became the mainstay (опора) norm for both major and minor
buildings. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture and its whimsical
(причудливый) alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie. From the mid 1760s a range of Neoclassical designs
were fashionable and during the later Georgian period Regencystyle appeared. Example: Marble Hill
House, Chiswick House.
Victorian 1837 -1901
VICTORIANS: ARCHITECTURE
Victorian
Most Victorian buildings were classical, although the style was used with greater flexibility and variety
than ever before. In the middle of the century, however, classical styles were being fiercely challenged
by the Gothic Revival. It was regarded as the national style, which is why it was chosen for the design of
the new Houses of Parliament after the old Palace of Westminster was destroyed by fire in 1834. It
symbolised the traditional identity of Christianity, and thus became the preferred style for Anglican
churches. It was also a style that encouraged architects to collaborate with artists and other designers to
create sculpture, wall-paintings and stained glass. A range of other revival styles appeared through the
Victorian period: Jacobethan, Renaissance Revival, Romanesque Revival, Queen Anne Revival, Arts and
Craft. Alongside inspiration was drawn from across the British Empire in the form of Indian and Islamic
architecture. Example: Witley Court, Worcestershire + it was chosen for the design of the new Houses of
Parliament after the old Palace of Westminster was destroyed by fire in 1834. It symbolised the
traditional identity of Christianity, and thus became the preferred style for Anglican churches.

Modern 20and 21Centuries

MODERN: ARCHITECTURE
The 20th century saw towns and suburbs grow rapidly, aided by new building types and techniques.
A VERY ENGLISH TRADITION
The Arts and Crafts Movement of the 1890s and 1900s was England’s foremost contribution to world
architecture. An enthusiasm for old Englishness was expressed in revivals of timber-framed and mock-
Tudor styles, some incorporating (включать, соединять) genuine (подлинный) old buildings. Classicism
still retained influence and while many countries sought a progressive national style, some British
architects turned to that of Christopher Wren. Edwin Lutyens wrote of classicism as ‘the Great Game’,
seeing the production of a correctly proportioned order in houses such as Heathcote, Ilkley (1905–7), as
the architect’s greatest challenge. Art Deco was a decorative idiom using rich materials and brilliant
colours developed in applied arts and interiors from the Austrian Jugendstil and French Art Nouveau. It
translated historicist styles into modern materials such as reinforced (укрепить) concrete (бетон) and
faience (фаянс) using bold colours and symmetries.
The 1920s and 1930s were years of austerity and depression, with public building only beginning to
recover after 1935. During the war, promises were made for better schools, housing and welfare
(благосостояние) services at its end. The creation of the National Health Service in 1948 is a lasting
legacy of this planned welfare state. This social context determined many post-war buildings, whose
quirky (причудливый) shapes and bright colours owed much to Scandinavian social programmes. To
address the post-war housing shortages, 156,623 prefabricated (сборный) bungalows or ‘prefabs’ were
built across the United Kingdom. A wave of new towns appeared, mostly around London.
Finest of the new architecture was the Royal Festival Hall, built for the Festival of Britain (1951). Schools
were bright and designed from a child’s perspective. Houses became increasingly open-plan thanks to
advances in central heating and the end of the servant tradition, while their larger panes of glass
encouraged closer interaction between indoor and outdoor spaces.
A tougher architecture emerged (появился) from the mid-1950s, inspired by Le Corbusier. In Britain this
more robust style was coined the New Brutalism, inspired by the French Art Brut movement. It
emphasised honesty of expression and natural materials, including timber (древесина) and brick.
Brutalism was adopted to describe the town centres of the 1960s, which combined shopping and
parking, housing and offices using chunky concrete, dramatic forms and massive scale.
The 1960s saw utopian functionalism press further, with urban motorways, multi-storey
(многоэтажный) car parks and bus stations. Architects harnessed (впрягать) advances in concrete
(бетон) and steel construction to create buildings as different as the crystalline Centre Point in London
and the slender Severn Bridge (Grade I).
Universities were a focus of experimentation. Less well known is concrete in churches.
To the ‘High Tech’ of Richard Rogers’s Lloyd’s Building in the City of London and Norman Foster’s
Sainsbury Centre at the University of East Anglia was added in the 1980s a revived classicism and Art
Deco. Modernism was tempered by traditional claddings (облицовка) such as granite, as at Broadgate in
London, a formally planned complex of offices and open space.
BRITISH ARCHITECTS
Christopher Wren

Most famous building: St Paul’s Cathedral

Among British history’s greatest architects, Sir Christopher Wren is most famous for St Paul’s Cathedral.
It took three and a half decades to complete this London landmark (ориентир), which Wren described
as his “greatest work”. Born in 1632, Wren wasn’t just an architect, he was a physicist, astronomer and
one of the founding members of the Royal Society. He became involved in the repairs of St Paul’s
following the Great Fire of London in 1666 and the project consumed much of his adult life. As the King’s
Surveyor of Works, Wren oversaw the construction and renovation (ремонт) of many other London
landmarks, including the Royal Naval College in Greenwich, Hampton Court Palace and Kensington
Palace, plus 51 churches nationwide.
Renzo Piano

Most famous building: the Shard

While Genoese architect Renzo Piano has only designed one building for the capital, he’s certainly made
his mark on its skyline with the Shard: London’s tallest tower at 309.6 metres (1,016 feet). Its tapering
(сужающаяся), elegant silhouette (силуэт) is a testament (завещание) to the talents of a man who
doesn’t actually like skyscrapers – he previously described them as “aggressive phallic (фаллический,
чел ну ты мог по-другом сказать…) fortresses (крепости)” – but was able to create a contemporary
landmark that has presence without being overbearing (властный). Piano has developed an
international reputation for his considered and accessible designs, including the Centre Pompidou in
Paris, the Whitney Museum in New York and the Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre in Nouméa, the
capital of the French territory of New Caledonia. The Shard’s impressive 69th-floor viewing platform has
proved immensely popular with visitors since the building was inaugurated in 2012.

Charles Barry

Most famous building: Houses of Parliament

The history of the Houses of Parliament in Westminster can be traced back to the Middle Ages but, in
1834, the majority of the buildings on the site were destroyed by a fire. Two years later, Sir Charles
Barry and his partner Augustus Pugin won a competition to rebuild the Palace of Westminster, where the
two houses of the UK parliament meet, in Gothic splendor (великолепие). Despite a number of setbacks
(задержок), it was completed in 1870 and is still standing in much the same state today. The Houses of
Parliament weren’t Barry’s only triumph. He went on to build the Reform Club – one of his finest
Italianate buildings – and the Grade II*-listed Royal College of Surgeons.

Norman Foster

Most famous building: the Gherkin

Otherwise known as Baron Foster of Thames Bank, Foster is one of Britain’s most prolific architects and
the person responsible for many of London’s most recognisable contemporary buildings, including  the
Gherkin. A local of Stockport in Greater Manchester, he took a keen interest in engineering and design
from a young age and, in his early 30s, founded his own company, Foster + Partners, which quickly
gained a reputation for high-tech industrial design. Foster was also the brains behind the Gherkin’s
smaller, lopsided relation, London City Hall, as well as Wembley Stadium, the Millennium Bridge and the
vast glass ceiling of the Great Court at the British Museum.

Denys Lasdun

Most famous building: National Theatre

A major proponent of Modern architecture in Britain, Denys Lasdun is best known for
his Brutalist creations, most notably the National Theatre. Lasdun’s designs were often controversial and
the National Theatre was no exception: its imposing (внушительный) blockish (блочный) form and
concrete exterior polarised public opinion. Prince Charles went so far as to describe it as “a clever way of
building a nuclear power station in the middle of London without anyone objecting”. Lasdun cemented
his signature Brutalist style during the 1960s and 1970s with the Grade I-listed Royal College of
Physicians and his ‘cluster blocks’ in Bethnal Green.

John Nash

Most famous building: Regent Street

Prominent Georgian architect John Nash was responsible for designing modern London and iconic
buildings such as Buckingham Palace. Born in London in 1752, he remained here for most of his life,
except for a brief stint (скупость) in Wales, and was at the forefront (фронт, центр деятельности) of
the Picturesque movement. Over a 50-year career, Nash worked almost exclusively for the Prince
Regent, transforming the streets of Central London, including Piccadilly Circus, St James’s Park and the
signature curve of Regent Street. He also designed Marble Arch, which was intended to be the gateway
to Buckingham Palace but instead became the entrance to Hyde Park and the Great Exhibition of 1851.

31. British Literature

Geoffrey Chaucer (Чосер) (c. 1340 – 1400)

Plantagenet’s epoch

Bio
•At the age of 17 Chaucer became a public servant to Countess Elizabeth of Ulster.
•At 19, he fought in the Hundred Years’ War in France.
•After that, he travelled to France, Italy, and Spain as a diplomat, where he was influenced by different
authors, one of them was Dante Alighieri (The Divine Comedy).

Interesting fact:

• During the Hundred Years’ War, Chaucer was taken prisoner. Luckily, due to his royal connections,
Edward III paid for him and he was released.

Famous works:
• The Canterbury Tales (c. 1390s) – a collection of 24 stories written in Middle English.
•The Parliament of Fowls (c. 1380)
•Troilus and Criseyde (c. mid 1380s)

William Shakespeare (1564 -1616)

The Elizabethan period

Bio:

• Shakespeare was likely born in Stratford-upon-Avon, his exact date of birth is unknown.
• It is known that he was married and had three children.
• Throughout his life he became very wealthy and recognized for his work – a recognition
that spread the globe and marked him as one of the most famous authors in history.
• Shakespeare’s theatre group built their own theatre called The Globe and were under
protection of the crown, he performed before the Queen.
• When he died he was buried in the Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon.
Famous books:

• Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night’s Dream

• Hamlet (written between 1599-1602)
• Love's Labour's Lost - was the first work that was published with Shakespeare’s name on it,
showing that by then his name had become a trademark.
• He published 154 sonnets, in which he explored themes of love, sex, beauty, and death.
Daniel Defoe (1660 – 1731)
The Stuart’s Age

Bio:

• His original name was “Foe”, but he later added the “De” to sound more gentlemanly.
• Defoe began his working life as a seller and was intent on becoming a successful
businessman. Unfortunately, this never happened as he struggled with debt.
• He began writing novels when he was pretty old – the famous Robinson Crusoe was his
first novel, published when Defoe was 59 years old. It was so popular that tales about people on
deserted islands are commonly referred to as “Robinsonades”.
Famous books:

• Robinson Crusoe (1719)

• Moll Flanders (1722)
• Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724)

Jane Austen (1775 – 1817)

The age of the Hannovers

Bio:

 Jane Austen – one of seven children – was born in a little village named Steventon, in Hampshire.
 She started writing when she was a teenager, with her brother Henry helping to negotiate with
the publisher to get her first novel published.
 She died in 1817 and was buried in the North Aisle of Winchester Cathedral.
Interesting fact:

 All six of Jane Austen’s novels were published anonymously.

 Although Austen’s books focus predominantly on love and marriage, she herself never married.

Famous books:

 her first novel was Sense and Sensibility (1811)

 Pride and Prejudice (1813) (история про любовь между Элизабет Беннет и мистером Дарси),
which has seen countless book adaptations, as well as several TV series and films.
 Emma (1815)
 Persuasion (1818) and Northanger Abbey (1818) were published posthumously.

Charles (John Huffam) Dickens (1812-1870)

The Victorian Age
Bio:

 Charles Dickens was born into a poor family in Portsmouth.

 During his teenage years he had to leave school to support his family, but later returned to his
studies.
 He began his career in writing as a journalist – a job which provided him with valuable
publishing contacts, through which he published his first pieces of work.
 His work was praised early on and he went on to write plays, travel books, and the novels he is
most known for today.
 He performed in front of Queen Victoria in 1851, and when he died was buried in the Poets’
Corner in Westminster Abbey.
Interesting fact:

 When Charles Dickens was 12 years old, his father was imprisoned for debt, and young Charles
was sent to work in a factory to help support his family – an experience that is mirrored in many
of his publications. Later in his life, Dickens travelled extensively, visiting the USA several times to
hold lectures against slavery.
Famous books:

 Over the course of his life, Dickens wrote 15 major novels, as well as countless short stories and
articles.
 Oliver Twist (serialised monthly 1837-39)
 David Copperfield (serialised monthly 1849-50)
 Great Expectations (serialised weekly 1860-61)

Arthur Conan Doyle (1859 – 1930)

The Winzdor’s Age (19-20th century)

Bio:

•Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh, Scotland

•He is most famous for his short stories and novels about the enigmatic (загагдочный) detective
Sherlock Holmes.

•Conan Doyle started writing while he was studying medicine, and his short stories were quickly picked
up by high quality newspapers and magazines.

•In 1902, Arthur Conan Doyle was knighted (earning the prefix ‘Sir’).

Interesting fact:

• Sherlock Holmes are still an inspiration for many other authors. It is hard to say exactly the number of
television and film adaptations.

Famous books:

•The character Sherlock Holmes appears in four novels and 56 short-stories.

•Sherlock Holmes appears for the very first time in A study in Scarlet (1887).
•Three more Sherlock Holmes novels followed this one, including the famous The Hound of the
Baskervilles (1902) and The Valley of Fear (1915).

George Orwell (1903 –1950) (was his pen name)

20th Century

Bio:

• Orwell was born in Bengal, India, and moved a few years later with his mother and sister
to England.
• He is most famous as a novelist, but was also a prolific essayist, journalist, and critic.
• He firmly believed in democratic socialism and was against any form of totalitarianism – it
is evident in his work.
Interesting facts:

• Orwell studied at Eton College, and during this time there, his French Professor was the
famous novelist and author of Brave New World, Aldous Huxley.
Famous books:

• His most well-known novels are Animal Farm and 1984. These works are anti-utoias about
life in a totalitarian regime. Both the novels Animal Farm and 1984 became film adaptations.
• He also published numerous collections of short stories, essays, screenplays, and dramas.

John R. R.Tolkien (1892 – 1973)

20th century

Bio:

•Tolkien was born in South Africa, but moved to England when he was just three years old.
•From an early age, he invented several languages, that surrounds and enriches his tales.
•On 28 March 1972, Tolkien was appointed as ‘Commander of the Order of the British Empire’ by Queen
Elizabeth II.

Interesting facts:

•Tolkien has been acknowledged as “The Father” of the genre, high fantasy. The Times awarded Tolkien
sixth place in “The 50 best English writers since 1945”.
•In 1999, Amazon.com’s customers voted The Lord of the Rings as the most popular book of the
millennium.
•The film adaptation of the first part of the trilogy The Lord of the Rings was released. The trilogy was
followed by The Hobbit trilogy.

Books:

•The Lord of the Rings

•The Hobbit
•Silmarillion

J. K. Rowling
Modern
Bio:

• J.K. Rowling was born in Yate, in the south of England.

• She became famous after the release of the first Harry Potter novel in 1997.
• She began to develop the idea for Harry Potter whilst stuck on a delayed train, but only
several years later the fully formed novel was published.
• Rowling went through a stressful period while she was working on the novels, involving a
divorce, the death of her mother, and a move to Scotland.
Interesting fact:

• More than 450 million copies of the Harry Potter books have been sold around the world,
and they have been translated into 74 different languages.
• Harry Potter had a huge cultural impact on both fiction, film and contemporary culture – for
example, the word “Muggles” now finds a place in the Oxford English Dictionary.
Famous books:

• the first Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (1997)
• Six sequels were then released between 1998 and 2007.
• Robert Galbraith is a pseudonym of J.K. Rowling. After Harry Potter, the author chose
crime fiction for her next books:
The Cuckoo’s Calling (2013), The Silkworm (2014), Career of Evil (2015) and Lethal White (2018)

32. Leisure Time in the UK

The weekends are a time for families in Britain.

Saturdays are a busy time for shops with many families going shopping.

Sundays used to be a very special day of the week in Britain. It was the one day of the
week for 'worship and rest'. The shops were closed and most people were at home, doing different
household chores, or at church.

Until a few years ago shops were not permitted to open on a Sunday. Sundays today are becoming
like any other day other week with shops open, but the shopping hours on a Sunday are less than
on any other day of the week.

Britain is becoming a far less Christian country with fewer people regularly attending Church. Many
Christian's believe that Sunday should be kept special, as a time given to worshiping God. Others
believe that it is important that families have time to be together.

How do people spend their free time? People enjoy various indoor and outdoor activities in Britain.
The most common leisure activity in the UK is watching television, they watch it half of their free
time. Almost all households have at least one television set. Many television programs are about
wildlife, animals, holidays, cooking and gardening. All these things are much cherished by British
people.
 Also People in Britain spend their free time socializing, on sport and hobbies and on other
activities. Other popular leisure activities are listening to the radio, listening to music, reading, DIY,
gardening, eating out and going to the cinema.

British people also watch such television programmes as:

 Drama and sitcoms

 Soaps - a series of television or radio programmes about the lives and problems of a
particular group of characters. They run over a long period.
The most popular are "Eastenders", an often shocking drama about life in East London.
 Reality programmes - The most famous of these is Big Brother.
 They watch a lot of American programs including Friends, Sabrina the Teenage Witch,
The Simpsons and so on.
Entertaining The second most popular activity in Britain is visiting or entertaining friends or
relations.
Cinema (Movie house) Britons made 123 million visits to the cinema in 1998 making it the most
popular cultural activity in the UK. 
Eating out Eating out has grown in popularity, with British people spending in 1999 an average of
£6 per person per week on food (excluding alcohol) outside the home, nowadays even more.

Homes and Gardens

The British are known as a nation of gardeners. Most people have a garden on their property.
Many people in Britain are proud of their houses and gardens. They want their houses and gardens
to look nice. Every town in Britain has one or more DIY centres and garden centres. These are like
supermarkets for the home and garden. These places are very popular with British home-owners at
the weekends.

Activities outside the home

Saturday is traditionally the day for shopping and watching sports.
Sports and physical recreation have always been popular. Local governments provide cheap sport
and leisure facilities such as swimming pools, tennis courts, parks and golf courses. People go to
watch other people play sports like football or take part in sports themselves.

Pubs (Public Houses)

Going to the pub is the most popular leisure activity outside the home. There are over 60,000 pubs
in the UK. Pubs are an important part of British life. People talk, eat, drink, meet their friends and
relax there. Pubs often have two bars, one usually quieter than the other, many have a garden
where people can sit in the summer. Children can go in pub gardens with their parents.

Groups of friends normally buy 'rounds' of drinks, where the person whose turn it is will buy drinks
for all the members of the group.
The most popular kind of British beer is bitter dark and which served at room temperature.

33. Places of Interest in the UK

THE TOWER OF LONDON is one of the most popular attractions in London, the historic castle was built
after the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower was built by William the Conqueror in
11th century. The Tower of London has had many uses over the centuries, it has been a Royal Palace,
a prison and so on.

The Tower of London has been the centre of many important events in English history especially in the
16th and 17th centuries when it was used as a prison for many high ranking figures. The Tower’s
reputation as a place of execution was mostly due to the demise (кончина) of three queens of England:
Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII, Catherine Howard, Henry VIII’s fifth wife and Lady Jane
Grey.

One of the main attractions of the Tower is the Crown Jewels a collection of royal regalia which
are still used by The Queen in important national ceremoniesю

HOUSE OF PARLIAMENT, also called Palace of Westminster, it's the seat of the bicameral
(двухпалатный) Parliament, including the House of Commons and the House of Lords. It is located on
the left bank of the River Thames in London. Along with Westminster Abbey and St. Margaret’s Church,
the Houses of Parliament were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987.

WESTMINSTERABBEY is a large, mainly The Abbey has been the coronation church since 1066 and is
the final resting place of 17 monarchs.

The present church, begun by Henry III, is one of the most important Gothic buildings in the country.

Seventeen royal weddings have taken place at Westminster Abbey over the centuries. The current
reigning Queen Elizabeth II was crowned on King Edward’s Chair, along with every monarch since 1308.

Over 3,300 people have been buried in Westminster Abbey over the centuries. Other notable people
buried at Westminster Abbey include Isaac Newton, Edward the Confessor, Charles Dickens, Geoffrey
Chaucer, Dr. Samuel Johnson and Charles Darwin.

Westminster contains impressive statues and monuments from the Virgin Mary holding a baby Jesus to
the grave of the unknown warrior. Westminster Abbey is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

TATE GALLERIES, art museums in the United Kingdom that house the national collection of British art
from the 16th century and the national collection of modern art.

The Tate Britain, located on the Millbank in the district of Westminster, resulted from the benefaction
(благотворительность) of sugar tycoon (сахарного магната) Sir Henry Tate, who gave both the
building and his art collection to the nation. Originally called the Tate Gallery, the museum changed its
name to Tate Britain, when it began displaying only British art. The collection includes Elizabethan and
Jacobean examples.

BELFAST CASTLE is situated in Belfast, the capital city of Northern Ireland. Located four hundred feet
above sea level, it provides a magnificent view of the city and Belfast Lough. The sandstone building
was constructed in the style of a German-Scottish Baronial castle. Belfast Castle falls into the High
Victorian Era architechture.

STONEHENGE is a prehistoric, mysterious circle of upright stones in southern England. Construction on

the great monument began 5,000 years ago. No doubt Stonehenge was built as a place of worship.

Although the faith of the Stonehenge builders predates (предшествует) any known religion, the site has
become a place of worship for Neopagans (Неоязычники) who identify themselves with the Druids.
EDINBURGH CASTLE was once the residence of Scottish monarchs and now serves mostly as a museum.
It stands 443 feet (135 metres) above sea level and overlooks the city of Edinburgh from a crag called
Castle Rock.
Edinburgh Castle is the traditional storage of the country’s crown jewels. A more ancient relic of Scottish
royalty is the the Stone of Destiny. The stone is a block of sandstone upon which Scottish monarchs
were traditionally crowned.

34. Healthcare and Education in the UK

1) HEALTHCARE

Legal residents of the UK are entitled to receive free healthcare from the National Health Service (NHS).
Treatment provided by the NHS can cover most health requirements. To get right to receive free
healthcare must be a resident of the UK – they need not be a British citizen.

The first point of contact will usually be a local General Practitioner (GP) who will provide medical
services, and will also be able to refer a patient to a specialist consultant if needed.

Most people have to pay a prescription charge for the majority of medications that are prescribed by an
NHS doctor. However, some people are entitled to free prescriptions.

Private Healthcare: Many of the healthcare services provided by the NHS are also available to fee-
paying patients. Most NHS hospitals can provide healthcare for private patients and some hospitals only
provide private healthcare.

A wide range of health insurance policies are available to people in the UK. At one end of the scale an
insurance policy may cover almost any type of treatment; at the other end of the scale the insurance
may only cover emergency treatments. Some employees may receive private health insurance as one of
the benefits of their employment.

Children’s Health: Children in the UK will usually receive a course of immunizations (прививки) to
protect them, and the wider community, from a range of diseases. A child born in the UK will be
monitored by health officials.

2) EDUCATION

The Education system in the UK is distributed over four main categories: primary education, secondary
education, further education, higher education.

Students in the UK need to attend home school or other schools till the age of 16.

In the United Kingdom, each of the countries has different education systems under different
governments.

Types of schools:

State Schools. In the UK, children aged 5 to 16 are allowed to attend state schools at free-of-charge.
State schools are maintained and financed either by the government or by a local education authority.

Independent Schools. These are private or public schools and mostly funded privately from fees
charged to students parents.
Boarding Schools. A boarding school is a residential school where students live and study during the
school year. Boarding schools offer a wide range of internationally-recognised qualifications in a variety
of subjects. There are two types of boarding schools in the UK: Independent boarding schools and
State boarding schools.

Primary Education in the UK lasts for six year and starts at age 5 and continues until age 11.
Primary education emphasizes on group and creative activities.

Secondary Education lasts From age 11 to 16.

From the age of 11-14, students will study a wide range of subjects such as Music, Maths, Sciences,
English, and so on. When they reach 14, they enter the first year of the GCSE, which longs 2 years.

After the students have finished their GCSE's, then they have the option either to move into further
education or to find a job. GCSE's are a series of tests that estimate the knowledge levels of the
students in the basic subjects.

Further Education

The further education in the United Kingdom is realized through Further Education (FE) Colleges and
Community Colleges (CC). The certificates awarded through an FE or CC or recognized worldwide.

Higher Education in the UK

Students aged 17 and above can choose Higher Education. They should have already attained further
education qualifications to sit for Higher Education.

UK higher education qualifications include diploma, bachelors, foundation and post-graduate degrees.
Most higher education courses have modular structure, i.e. you can make a personalized course by
choosing subjects from different areas.

35. Britain in the 31st century

Main feature: The 21st century has just begun, and it is already filled with important events not only for
Britain, but for the whole world. British society is now highly divided and unstable.

Экономика и вытекающие из социальные вопросы

Хорошее видео про Brexit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DAo43LWRWPU

Реакция Шотландии на Брексит (возьмите факты из видео) https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=dwkunxGMsi4

Вопрос национализма в Шотландии из-за Брексит https://youtu.be/5V1NIA7X4rs

Проблема терроризма и миграции в Британии (одна из главных причин Брексит)

https://youtu.be/SMZ3cnRIW-E

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ombKqCT6I9g

https://youtu.be/lJaiJ_maUEY

Культура
Britain is actively developing in the field of film production and culture

Serials:

1. Good omens, 2019

2. Sex education, 2019
3. Peaky Blinders, 2013
4. Sherlock, 2010-2017
Films:

1. The imitation game, 2013 with Benedict Cumberbatch – historical and social topics
2. Me before you, 2016 with Emilia Clarke – love affair and life choice
3. The other Boleyn girl, 2008 with Scarlett Johansson [ˈskɑːrlɪt ʤəˈhænsən], Natalie Portman –
historical topic
4. Were hands touch, 2018 + The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas, 2018 – the second world war
5. Dorian Gray, 2009 – the British literature
Actors:

1. https://youtu.be/yHY1g2QZL5c
2. https://youtu.be/eZf_2o6X6UY - не только 21 век

Writers:

Must-have: Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett

https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/stephen-fry-2895.php

Отсюда вы можете выбрать парочку, которых знаете и хотите взять. Там достаточно
структурированной информации.

А это структурированный билет, но я крайне рекомендую ознакомиться с видео.

 2000
 UK forces intervene in the civil war in Sierra Leone.
 Parliament passes the Freedom of Information Act, granting public right of access to information
held by public authorities, with certain limitations.

 2001
 Foot and mouth crisis hits farmers.
 The Eden Project opens in Cornwall.
 Libyan intelligence agent, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi is found guilty of the 1988 bombing of Pan Am
Flight 103.
 9/11. On 11th September, Islamic al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four aircraft and flew them at
targets in the USA. Two are flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York, a
third into the Pentagon and a fourth crashes after passengers tackle the hijackers. Almost 3,000
people are killed (67 of them British) and thousands more injured.
 Prime Minister Tony Blair offers US President Bush British support for a campaign against
international terrorism. The RAF joins in strikes against targets in Afghanistan. British troops are
deployed as part of a NATO force.

 2002
 Queen Elizabeth II celebrates her Golden Jubilee.
 The last coal mine in Scotland closes.

 2003
 The UK joins a US-led military invasion of Iraq, ostensibly to end the country’s support for
terrorism and because it is alleged to have ‘weapons of mass destruction’.
 England wins the Rugby World Cup, narrowly defeating Australia 20-17 in the final.

 2004
 The Hutton Report, the result of an investigation into the suicide of government scientist David
Kelly, clears the government of any wrongdoing.
 Ten new states join the European Union - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia.
 Facebook is launched in the USA.
 The Indian Ocean tsunami kills in excess of 200,000 people.

 2005
 London bombings of 7/7 - 52 people are killed and about 700 injured in four Islamist suicide
bomb attacks on London's transport network.

 2006
 Russian defector Alexander Litvinenko is murdered in London having ingested radioactive
polonium. Suspicion later falls on ex-KGB agent Andrei Lugovoi, sparking a diplomatic row with
Russia.
 Daniel Craig stars as the latest James Bond in Casino Royale.

 2007
 Gordon Brown replaces Tony Blair as Prime Minister and leader of the Labour Party.
 Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union.
 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the 7th and final book in the series, is published.
 The surviving members of Led Zeppelin perform their first full-length concert in 27 years at
London’s O2 Arena.
 Meanwhile – Apple launch the iPhone.

 2008
 Global financial crisis plunges the UK into recession.
 Meanwhile - Barack Obama becomes the first black, and the 44th, President of the United States.

 2009
 Britain withdraws most of its troops from southern Iraq.

 2010
 The general election in May leaves the Conservative Party as winners but without an overall
majority in the House of Commons. Conservative leader David Cameron forms the first coalition
since the Second World War, with the Liberal Democrats led by Nick Clegg.
 The coalition government announces large-scale public spending cuts aimed at reducing UK's
budget deficit.

 2011
 In a wider context – the Arab Spring - revolutions and protests in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and
several other Arab countries. The Syrian civil war begins.
 Britain plays a prominent part in the international intervention in the conflict in Libya.
 Prince William marries Kate Middleton.
 The government announces a public inquiry, the Leveson Inquiry, into phone hacking and police
bribery by now defunct the News of the World newspaper, and the culture and ethics of the
British newspaper industry in general.
 The killing of 29-year old Mark Duggan by police is a catalyst for widespread rioting and looting in
many poorer areas of London, and in several other English cities.
 In a wider context - Osama bin Laden is killed during a US raid.

 2012
 HM the Queen’s Diamond Jubilee.
 Britain hosts the hugely successful Summer Olympics and Paralympics.

 2013
 British Army Drummer Lee Rigby is hacked to death in south London by two Islamic extremists.
 The Duchess of Cambridge gives birth to a son George – heir to the throne after his grandfather,
Charles, and father, William.
 The House of Commons votes against UK military involvement in Syria.

 2014
 Support surges for the UK Independence Party (UKIP) in local and European elections.
 Thousands of yellow bikes appear in Yorkshire to celebrate the start of the 101st Tour de France.
 In September, a referendum in Scotland rejects independence (cessation from the UK), with 55%
opting to remain within the United Kingdom and 45% favouring departure.
 Same-sex marriage becomes legal in England, Wales and Scotland.
 The UK ends combat operations in Afghanistan.

 2015
 At the general election in May, the Conservative Party win a majority – against the predictions of
pollsters. Its coalition partners, the Liberal Democrats, lose all except 8 seats. UKIP wins nearly
4 million votes, but just 1 seat; and the Scottish National Party wins all but 3 seats in Scotland,
becoming third largest party in parliament.
 Queen Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning UK monarch ever.

 2016
 Outsiders Leicester City Football Club win the Premier League.
 In a national referendum in June, the UK narrowly voted to leave the European Union. Prime
Minister David Cameron resigns, and is succeeded by former home secretary, Theresa May.

 2017
 Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her Sapphire Jubilee – 65 years.
 On 29 March, the Prime Minister invoked Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union, beginning
the UK’s withdrawal (nicknamed ‘Brexit’), from the European Union (EU).
 Islamist Khalid Masood kills five people, including a police officer, and injured 45, driving a car
along the pavement on Westminster Bridge and attempting to break into Parliament.
 In May, a homemade bomb packed with shrapnel killed 23 people and injured more than 500 at
Manchester Arena after a concert by the American singer Ariana Grande.
 In June, three Islamic terrorists drove a van at people on London Bridge and subsequently
rampaged through the area with knives. 8 were killed and 48 injured. The terrorists were shot
dead by police.
 A disastrous fire at Grenfell Tower, a block of flats in North Kensington, London, in which 71
people died, highlights inadequate safety measures in tower blocks.
 The June general election called by Prime Minister Theresa May, in the hope of increasing her
majority, resulted in a narrow Conservative victory and a minority government supported by the
Northern Irish Democratic Unionists.

 2018
 In January, US President Trump abandons a visit to the UK, claiming he was upset about the sale
of the former US embassy in Grosvenor Square and the cost of the new one in Vauxhall.
 The UK’s second-largest construction company, Carillion, collapses with enormous debts and
unfinished public sector contracts.
 In February, the UK is battered by some of the worst weather in decades, nicknamed ‘the Beast
from the East’. 17 people died.
 Ex-Russian spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter Yulia are poisoned with a nerve agent, novichok,
in the historic city of Salisbury. Britain blames Russia for the attack, sparking a diplomatic crisis.
153 Russian diplomats are expelled from 29 countries.
 Political consulting firm Cambridge Analytica is exposed in March for gathering data from more
than 50 million Facebook profiles without people's consent.
 In April, Home Secretary Amber Rudd resigns in the wake of the Windrush scandal, in which
people, mostly of Caribbean heritage, were illegally denied rights, or even deported from the UK.
 On 19 May, Prince Henry Charles Albert David of Wales married US actress Rachel Meghan Markle
in St George’s Chapel, Windsor. They take the titles the Duke and Duchess of Sussex.
 Two Amesbury residents, Charlie Rowley and Dawn Sturgess, fell ill having been contaminated
with the same nerve agent as the Skripals in March, from a discarded fake perfume bottle. Dawn
Sturgess died on 8 July.
 England somehow reached the semi-finals of the World Football Cup in Russia, but was defeated
2-1 by Croatia. France beat Croatia 4-2 in the final.
 During the ongoing heat-wave, the Meteorological Office urges people to stay out of the sun.
 A Trump baby blimp flies over London during the US President’s visit to Britain.
 The 96-year old Duke of Edinburgh undertook his last solo public engagement, meeting Royal
Marines, before retiring from royal duties.
 Several cabinet ministers resign in protest at the Prime Minister’s Brexit negotiations. Further
resignations follow in November.
 In December, Primer Minister Theresa May survived a vote of no confidence in her leadership, but
her Brexit plan had still not been agreed by Parliament.

 2019
 2019 in the UK was dominated by the issue of BREXIT, the UK’s departure from the European
Union, following the referendum in 2016. The country was divided and politics became very ugly.

 BREXIT 1
 With the UK due to leave the EU on 29 March, Prime Minister Theresa May’s negotiated EU
withdrawal bill was rejected twice by the House of Commons, the first time in January by 432
votes to 202, a huge margin of 230. The second time was just days before the March deadline.
One of the key issues was ‘the Irish backstop’, the arrangements for the future status of the
border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, which all parties wanted to keep
open. Meanwhile, food retailers and suppliers, motor manufacturers, the TUC, CBI and others all
 warned of the dire consequences of Brexit or, worse, leaving the EU without a negotiated deal.
Thousands of protestors marched in favour of a second referendum and millions signed a petition
demanding that the government revoke Article 50, the legal mechanism for a member state of
the European Union to leave. MPs rejected leaving the EU without a deal and voted in favour of
an extension to the withdrawal date. The EU and UK agreed to an extension until 31 October.
Belatedly, in the Spring, Theresa May embarked on cross-party talks, but these ended in failure.

 January
 High street bakery chain Greggs launched a meat free sausage roll.
 97-year-old Prince Phillip, the Duke of Edinburgh, was involved in a car crash while driving near
the Queen's Sandringham estate.
 The Piper Malibu aircraft carrying Argentinean footballer Emiliano Sala went missing en route
from Nantes to Cardiff, where the player had been due to begin a new playing career. The
wreckage of the aeroplane was found in the English Channel in February and Sala’s body
recovered. The pilot David Ibbotson’s body was not found.
 Elsewhere – China became the first nation to land a spacecraft on the dark side of the moon.

 February
 Schools in Wales and the south of England closed due to snow and icy conditions.
 The Office for National Statistics reported that knife crime in England and Wales was at its highest
level since records began in 1946.
 A group of opposition Labour MPS, dissatisfied with their party’s leadership under Jeremy Corbyn
and the failure to tackle alleged anti-Semitism, resigned and formed the Independent Group.
They were joined by Conservative MPs dissatisfied with the government and Brexit. The group
later became a new party, ‘Change UK’. The party did poorly in the European elections, several of
its MPs joined the Liberal Democrats, all those remaining lost their seats in the December General
Election and it was subsequently decided to wind the party up.
 The Bank of England held interest rates at 0.75%.
 The regional airline Flybmi filed for administration.

 ENVIRONMENT
 The environment and climate change were further frequent news items in 2019. In February and
March, inspired by the teenage Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg, thousands of
school pupils across the UK went on strike as part of a global campaign for action on climate
change. Subsequently, demonstrations by a climate change activist group, ‘Extinction Rebellion’,
caused inconvenience and costly disruption in London and elsewhere, by blocking roads.
Hundreds were arrested. The government announced a target to reach net zero greenhouse gas
emissions by 2050, which was deemed by many environmentalists as too late. Exceptional
weather events are seen as evidence of global climate change and warming.
 On 25 July, a temperature of 38.7 °C (101.7 °F) was achieved in Cambridge, the hottest day on
record in the UK.
 In August, there was flooding in Derbyshire and the Toddbrook Reservoir was damaged during
the heavy rain, resulting in the evacuation of 1500 residents of Whaley Bridge and nearby
communities.
 In November, flood warnings were issued across the Midlands and North of England. Some
places received a month's worth of rainfall in 24 hours. Former High Sheriff of Derbyshire, Annie
Hall, drowned near Matlock.
 Further afield, world leaders, including Boris Johnson, expressed concern over major fires in and
the destruction of the Amazon rainforest. In the autumn, the first of many terrifying and
destructive wildfires broke out in Australia. Whilst these were relatively common in previous
 years, and some were probably started deliberately, it is believed many of the extreme fires
experienced in Australia from 2019-20 were a consequence of climate change. And in November,
the Italian government declared a state of emergency in Venice with 80% of the city under water.

 March
 The Boeing 737 Max 8 airliner was grounded amidst worldwide safety concerns following the fatal
crashes of an Ethiopian Airline aircraft this month and an Indonesian Lion Air aircraft in October
2018, which together claimed the lives of 346 people.

 April
 Nigel Farage, former leader of UKIP (the UK Independence Party), launched a new Brexit Party.
 London's Ultra-Low Emission Zone came into effect.
 The department store chain Debenhams went into administration.
 On 18 April, 29-year-old journalist Lyra McKee was shot dead in Londonderry; republican
terrorists were blamed for the murder.
 A row broke out over security concerns if the Chinese telecommunications firm Huawei was
allowed to help build the UK’s 5G network.
 In Paris, a disasterous fire wrecked the medieval cathedral of Notre-Dame.

 May
 In the early May local elections, the Liberal Democrats and Green Party did well, whilst
Conservative and Labour parties didn't.
 On 6 May, the Duchess of Sussex gave birth to a son, Archie Mountbatten-Windsor.
 In the May European elections, the Brexit and Liberal Democratic parties did well, again at the
expense of the Conservatives and Labour.
 On 24 May, Prime Minister Theresa May announced her resignation as Conservative Party leader,
wef 7 June.

 June
 The Ford Motor Co announced the closure of its Bridgend plant in September 2020, with the loss
of 1,700 jobs.
 The BBC announced that free TV licences will no longer be available to over-75s who do not
receive pension credit.
 Elsewhere – protests broke out in Hong Kong, initially against proposed legislation to allow the
extradition of individuals to stand trial in mainland China. And US President Donald Trump
crossed into the Korean demilitarised zone and shook hands with the North Korean leader, Kim
Jong Un.

 July
 On 2 July, 11.7 million UK TV viewers watched England lose 1-2 to the USA in the FIFA Women's
World Cup. It was the most-watched British television broadcast of the year.
 Eight members of a modern slavery network in the West Midlands were jailed.
 Emails from Sir Kim Darroch, UK Ambassador to the USA, calling the administration of US
President Trump "inept", "insecure" and "incompetent" were leaked. Sir Kim subsequently
resigned.
 14 July may be Bastille Day, but in 2019 in the UK it was deemed sport's ‘Super Sunday’. England
narrowly defeated New Zealand in a nail-biting Cricket World Cup final at Lord's; Lewis Hamilton
won a record sixth Formula 1 British Grand Prix at Silverstone; and in the Wimbledon men’s
tennis final, Serbian Novak Djokovic beat Swiss Roger Federer in the longest ever final at four
hours 57 minutes.
 Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guards seized the British tanker Stena Impero in the Persian Gulf,
and the British-operated Liberian-flagged tanker Mesdar.

 BREXIT 2
 On 23 July, Boris Johnson was elected leader of the Conservative Party by party members, with
almost twice as many votes as his rival, Jeremy Hunt. The following day, Theresa May formally
tendered her resignation as Prime Minister to Her Majesty the Queen, who subsequently invited
Boris Johnson to form a government. The new Prime Minister confirmed his commitment to the
UK leaving the EU by 31 October and remained up-beat about the prospect, despite widespread,
vociferous, opposition from those who feared a no-deal Brexit or who were in favour of the UK
remaining in the EU. Loud voices were also raised across Britain in general opposition to Johnson
and ‘the Tories’. In August, the Queen approved Johnson’s request to suspend Parliament from
early September until 14 October. The Prime Minister was accused of being undemocratic;
protests took place across the UK and the measure was ultimately ruled unlawful by both Scottish
and English courts. In September, the government lost its majority in the House of Commons.
Nevertheless, having previously declared his opposition to a general election, Johnson removed
the whip from 21 traditional ‘one-nation’ Conservative MPs, including several former ministers,
who opposed his policy over Brexit. Other Conservative MPs resigned, including the Prime
Minister’s brother, Joe. The Benn Act, referred to the Prime Minister as “the surrender bill”, which
forced the government to seek a further extension to EU membership if Parliament had not
approved a deal by 19 October, became law. In October, despite having previously insisted that
the deal negotiated with Theresa May was non-negotiable, the EU agreed a new Brexit
withdrawal agreement with the UK, which followed talks between Boris Johnson and his Irish
counterpart, Taoiseach Leo Varadkar. However, Parliament did not approve the short timetable
for discussing the new deal and Johnson was forced to request a further delay to Brexit. With
progress of any sort on any matter impossible in the House of Commons, MPs finally consented to
holding a general election on 12 December.

 August
 The Belfast shipyard of Harland and Wolff, which built the RMS Titanic and HMS Belfast, ceased
trading. It was subsequently purchased for £6m.

 September
 Travel company Thomas Cook, originally founded in 1841, collapsed. Bringing home the 150,000
stranded holiday makers was the largest ever peacetime repatriation and a major achievement for
the Civil Aviation Authority.

 October
 A potential diplomatic incident arose when it emerged that a US citizen, Anne Sacoolas, who had
been involved in a fatal road accident in August in which 19-year old motorcyclist Harry Dunn had
died, had left the country. Mrs Sacoolas was married to a US government employee and claimed
diplomatic immunity. It also emerged that she had been driving on the wrong side of the road.
In December, the Crown Prosecution Service announced that Sacoolas was to be charged with
causing death by dangerous driving.
 The supermarket chain Sainsbury's announced it would no longer sell fireworks.
 39 Vietnamese illegal immigrants were found suffocated to death in a refrigerated lorry container
in Essex.

 November
 The government ordered that all fracking in the UK should cease "with immediate effect.
  In the House of Commons, Sir Lindsay Hoyle replaced John Bercow as Speaker of the House.
 Several female Members of Parliament declared that they would not seek re-election in
December, due to threats and abuse, much of it online.
 The infant and young mother chain Mothercare went into administration.
 Prince Andrew, the Duke of York, announced he was stepping down from public duties for the
foreseeable future. This followed his association with convicted American sex offender Jeffrey
Epstein, unproven accusations of sex with a 17-year old teenager and a clumsy, widely criticised,
TV interview.
 Former South Yorkshire police chief, David Duckenfield, was found not guilty of manslaughter in
the Hillsborough disaster trial.
 On 29 November, a convicted terrorist, Usman Khan, stabbed five people on London Bridge. Two
of his victims died. Khan was wearing a fake explosive suicide vest and was shot dead by police
at the scene.

 December
 In the general election on 12 December, the Conservative Party achieved a majority of 80 in the
House of Commons, with 365 seats, while the Labour Party, led by Jeremy Corbyn, was reduced
to 203 seats - their lowest proportion of seats since 1935. The Scottish Nationalists won 48 of
the 59 seats in Scotland, increasing the likelihood of another referendum on Scottish secession
from the United Kingdom. The Liberal Democrats, who campaigned to scrap Brexit entirely, won
11 seats. Jo Swinson, who only in July had become the first woman and at 39 the youngest ever
leader of the Liberal Democrat Party, lost her seat and resigned. Jeremy Corbyn declared his
intention to stand down too.
 On 20 December, MPs voted in favour of the Brexit withdrawal agreement by 358 to 234, paving
the way for the UK's exit from the EU on 31 January 2020.
 On 25 December, Gavin and Stacy’s Christmas Day TV special was watched by 11.6 million
people, the biggest festive ratings success in more than a decade.

36. Accents

SCOTTISH ENGLISH GLASGOW / GLASWEGIAN Accent

Features:
o A longer and louder sound is used / r / (артикуляция как в русском, раскатистая и
жесткая как в испанском);
o no diphthongs / eə /, / əʊ /, and others;
Examples: (go) [gɒ], (home [hɒm]), (show) [ʃɒ], know [nɒ]
 / ai / sounds like [eɪ]
Example: (kind) k[ai]nd – k[ei]nd, (fight) f[ai]ght – f[ei]ght
 [au] sounds like [oʊ]
Example: (how) [hau] – [hou], (out) [aut] – [out]
o The vowel in the words trap and palm can be pronounced the same - like / æ / or /
ɑː /;
o in words with the ending -ed, a  sound: carried - / karɪt /
o [ɪ] is pronounced as [e]
Example: (sin) s[ɪ]n – s[e]n, (big) b[ɪ]g-b[e]g
 Combination of wh is aspirated and sounds like russian [хв]
Example: (what) [w]at – [хв]at, (why) [w]y – [хв]y
IRISH ENGLISH
Irish accents greatly differ depending the region. We will present only the most
common features of the accent:
o sound / r / is firmly pronounced;
Examples: (water) [ˈwɔːtə] - [ˈwɔːtər], (mother) [ˈmʌðə] - [ˈmʌðər]
o the sound / th / is replaced by / t /
Example: (think) / θɪŋk /- / tɪŋk /
o the sound / t / is pronounced after the letter u as / tʃ /
Example: (butter) / ˈbʌtə / - / ˈbʌtʃə /
o the diphthong / aɪ /, / au / changes to / ɔɪ /: the word Irish - / ˈɔɪrɪʃ / instead of / ˈaɪrɪʃ /,
(how) [haʊ] - [hoi], (now) [naʊ] – [noi].
 - ing is pronounced as [in] not [ɪŋ]
Examples: (wating) [ˈweɪtɪŋ] - [ˈweɪtin], (talking) [ˈtɔːkɪŋ] - [ˈtɔːkɪn]
 [t] isn’t pronounced at the end of a word, but you should articulate it without a sound
Example: (cat) [kæt] - [kæ], (that) [ðæt] - [ðæ]

WELSH
Combines many lexical and phonological features of the Welsh language with Standard English.

This accent differs its melodiousness, the Welsh pronounces sentences as if we sing it.
There are also two other characteristics:
The sound is omitted / j /: the word juice - / uːz / instead of / juːz /, the word news - /
nuːz / instead of / njuːz /;
The sound / r / stands out clearly.

COCKNEY
Cockney, dialect of the English language traditionally spoken by working-class Londoners. Cockney
is also often used to refer to anyone from London—in particular, from its East End.

Cockney can be identified by two characteristics: rhyming phases and features of

pronunciation.
Rhyming:

1. Adam and Eve – believe

2. apples and pears – stairs

Accent phonetic features 

o [h] at the beginning of a word is omitted
Example: (house) [haʊs] - [aʊs], (her) [hɜː] - [ɜː], (half) - / ɑːf /;
o Absence sound / t / between vowels: letter - / leə /;
o Sound changes / l / to / w /: silk - / sɪwk /;
o Transformation of the sounds / θ / and / ð / into / f / or / v /or even omits:
Example: weather - / ˈwevə /, (thanks) [θæŋks] - [fæŋks], (with me) [wɪð] me - [wɪ] me
o Diphthong pronunciation / eɪ / as / aɪ /: / raɪn / instead of / reɪn /.

SCOUSE (Liverpool EA) [СКОС]

Liverpool became known around the world due to the unlimited popularity of The
Beatles in the 60s of the last century. Liverpool accent was considered something
features of the underclass. But due to the popularity of a famous group, public opinion
has changed slightly towards Scouse.
Liverpool is characterized by speed and rising and falling tonality. The influence of the
Scouse is one of the most distinctive regional accents in England, with unique sound variations and
a melody all of its own.
Scouse intonation is clearly different from both GB and other Northern accents. As with many
regions, it has more rising tones.

Features of the Liverpool accent or Scouse

o The /k/ phoneme is often pronounced [x] (будто харкнуть хотите, не стесняйтесь),
especially at the end of a word, so that back [bax] sounds like German Bach
Examples: back – ba[x], fake bake – fa[x], ba[x]
o the apical-alveolar (язык к передней части верхнего неба) and plosive /t/ sounds as
fricative (щелевой, язык к зубам прижать) [s] and [ts]. Звучит как русская «ц», если
честно.
Example: Right - rice or righ[ts]; don’t – don’[ts]; water – wa[ц]er, later - la[ц]er
 [ʌ] sounds like [ɒ]
Examples: (come) c[ʌ]me - c[ɒ]me, (up) [ʌ]p - [ɒ]p, (shut) sh[ʌ]t - sh[ɒ][ts]
 In some words, for example but and what, the final /t/ may be replaced by [h] or a flap [ɾ],
which may be heard as an /r/.
Example: A lot of laughs – lorra laughs (by Cilla Blacks – the British singer and actress of the
20th century)
 The th sounds /θ, ð/ may be pronounced as dental [t, d]
Examples: [ð]ough – [d]ough, [ð]ey – [d]ey

MANCUNIAN (MANCHESTER)
People from Manchester – mancunians or mans (kind of slang)

Main characteristic - A lot of Nasality in a vocal placement

There are a lot of different variations, but I’ll tell some general features:

 [ʌ] sounds like [ɒ]

Examples: (up) [ʌ]p - [ɒ]p, (shut) sh[ʌ]t - sh[ɒ]t, (lovely) l[ʌ]vel[i]- l[ɒ]vel[e]
 [t] is not plosive at the end of a word
 [ɑː] sounds like short [ʌ]
Examples: (last one) l[ɑː]st [wʌn] - l[ʌ]st [wɒn], (past) p[ɑː]st - p[ʌ]st
 The th sounds /θ, ð/ may be pronounced as [f]
Examples: (think) [θ]ink – [f]ink, (with) wi[θ] – wi[f]
 [t] at the middle of a word in glotalised (omitted)
Example: (water) [ˈwɔːtə] - [ˈwɔːə], (letter) [ˈletə] - [ˈleə], (better) [ˈbetə] - [ˈbeə]
 [h] at the beginning of a word is omitted
Example: (house) [haʊs] - [aʊs], (her) [hɜː] - [ɜː], (home) [həʊm] – [ɒm]
 - ing sound like [in] not [ɪŋ]
Examples: (wating) [ˈweɪtɪŋ] - [ˈweɪn]