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Ну и уже по традиции – все права защищены 1 группой лингвистов, 2 курс, 2019 год.

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ:
1. The UK and England.......................................................................................................................................3
2. The UK and Scotland......................................................................................................................................5
3. The UK and Wales..........................................................................................................................................6
4. The UK and Northern Ireland......................................................................................................................10
5. Early Britain: the Celts.................................................................................................................................13
6. Early Britain: The Romans, the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings.....................................................................16
7. The Norman Conquest and the Middle Ages...............................................................................................23
8. The House of Plantagenet 1154-1216........................................................................................................26
9. The House of Plantagenet 1216-1399.........................................................................................................28
10. The House of Plantagenet 1399-1485.......................................................................................................31
11. The Hundred Years War............................................................................................................................34
12. The War of the Roses................................................................................................................................35
13. The Tudors.................................................................................................................................................37
14. The Elizabethan period..............................................................................................................................39
15. William Shakespeare (1564-1616).............................................................................................................40
16. The British Renaissance.............................................................................................................................44
17. The Stuarts................................................................................................................................................46
18. The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution....................................................................................48
19. The house of Hannover.............................................................................................................................51
20. The Industrial Revolution..........................................................................................................................55
21. The Victorian age.......................................................................................................................................58
22. The House of Windsor...............................................................................................................................59
23. The UK in the First Part of the 20 th Century...............................................................................................62
24. The UK after 1945......................................................................................................................................64
25. Margaret Thatcher....................................................................................................................................65
26. Great British Inventions.............................................................................................................................66
27. Great Britons.............................................................................................................................................67
28. Language and Cultural Variations in the UK. Accents................................................................................68
29. Festivals and traditions in UK....................................................................................................................74
30. Music in the UK.........................................................................................................................................77
31. British ART.................................................................................................................................................78
32. Architecture in the UK...............................................................................................................................79
33. Theatre in the UK.......................................................................................................................................80
34. British Literature (up to Victorian Age)......................................................................................................82
35.British Literature (Early Twentieth century and Modernism.The Contemporary Age)...............................86
36. Leisure time and sports in the UK..............................................................................................................89
37. British cinema............................................................................................................................................92
38. The Political and Legal System of the UK. The Royal Family......................................................................93
39. Places of interest in Great Britain..............................................................................................................95

1. The UK and England

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the
United Kingdom or Britain,is a sovereign country located off the northwestern coast of the
European mainland. The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the northeastern part
of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the United
Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state, the Republic of Ireland. Apart
from this land border, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea
to the east, the English Channel to the south and the Celtic Sea to the south-west, giving it the
12th-longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea separates Great Britain and Ireland.

The United Kingdom is a unitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The
current monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 1952, making her the world's longest-
serving current head of state. The United Kingdom's capital and largest city is London, a global city
and financial centre with an urban area population of 10.3 million. Other major cities include
Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, Leeds and Liverpool.

The United Kingdom consists of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern
Ireland. Their capitals are London, Edinburgh, Cardiff, and Belfast, respectively. Apart from
England, the countries have their own devolved governments, each with varying powers, but such
power is delegated by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which may enact laws unilaterally
altering or abolishing devolution.
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to the
west and Scotland to the north. The Irish Sea lies west of England and the Celtic Sea to the
southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the
English Channel to the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain, which
lies in the North Atlantic, and includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isles of Scilly and the
Isle of Wight.

The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic
period, but takes its name from the Angles, a Germanic tribe deriving its name from the Anglia
peninsula, who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the
10th century, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a
significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church,
and English law – the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the
world – developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been
widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England,
transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation.

England's terrain is chiefly low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England.
However, there is upland and mountainous terrain in the north (for example, the Lake District and
Pennines) and in the west (for example, Dartmoor and the Shropshire Hills). The capital is London,
which has the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union.
England's population of over 55 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom,
largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the Midlands, the North
West, the North East, and Yorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the
19th century.

The Kingdom of England – which after 1535 included Wales – ceased being a separate sovereign
state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of
Union the previous year, resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the
Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland (through
another Act of Union) to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish
Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

2. The UK and Scotland

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the
United Kingdom or Britain,is a sovereign country located off the northwestern coast of the
European mainland. The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the northeastern part
of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the United
Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state, the Republic of Ireland. Apart
from this land border, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea
to the east, the English Channel to the south and the Celtic Sea to the south-west, giving it the
12th-longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea separates Great Britain and Ireland.

The United Kingdom is a unitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The
current monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 1952, making her the world's longest-
serving current head of state. The United Kingdom's capital and largest city is London, a global city
and financial centre with an urban area population of 10.3 million. Other major cities include
Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, Leeds and Liverpool.

The United Kingdom consists of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern
Ireland. Their capitals are London, Edinburgh, Cardiff, and Belfast, respectively. Apart from
England, the countries have their own devolved governments, each with varying powers, but such
power is delegated by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which may enact laws unilaterally
altering or abolishing devolution.

Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It covers the northern third of the island
of Great Britain, with a border with England to the southeast, and is surrounded by the Atlantic
Ocean to the north and west, the North Sea to the northeast, the Irish Sea to the south, and more
than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.

The Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the European Early Middle
Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became
King of England and King of Ireland, thus forming a personal union of the three kingdoms. Scotland
subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create
the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which
succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. In 1801, Great Britain
itself entered into a political union with the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland.

The legal system within Scotland has remained separate from those of England and Wales and
Northern Ireland; Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. The
continued existence of legal, educational, religious and other institutions distinct from those in the
remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national
identity since the 1707 union with England.
In 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature
comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. The head of the
Scottish Government is the First Minister of Scotland. Scotland is divided into 32 administrative
subdivisions or local authorities, known as council areas. Glasgow City is the largest council area in
terms of population, with Highland being the largest in terms of area. Limited self-governing
power, covering matters such as education, social services and roads and transportation, is
devolved from the Scottish Government to each subdivision.

3. The UK and Wales

Wales is a constituted country of the United Kingdom. It is united with England in terms of
purposes related to lawmaking and law enforcement. In particular, England and Wales are
traditionally considered to be single jurisdictions in English Conflict of Laws, an analogue of private
international law. ‘England and Wales’ jurisdiction forms the constitutional successor to the
former Kingdom of England and follows a single legal system, known as English law. Although
beyond these limits Wales has numerous particular, special features which definitely worth
mentioning.
Она просила сравнивать, так что пока рассказываем – делаем вкрапления из того что нравится:
England:
Flag – Red Cross of St. George
Anthem – various. The national anthem of England is usually taken to be the same as that of the United
Kingdom as a whole—"God Save the Queen", but in 2016 some Members of the Parliament felt that
England should have its own distinct anthem with the result that there have been discussions on the
subject in the UK Parliament. There are a number of songs which may fulfil this role. Several candidate
songs have been discussed, including "Jerusalem", and "Land of Hope and Glory", “Rose of England”
(referring to the Tudor Rose), "I Vow To Thee, My Country", "There'll Always Be an England" and so on.
Alternatives to "God Save the Queen" have been used for England teams at sporting events.
Clothes: The flat cap, Irish walking hat, deerstalker and trilby hat are some traditional forms of headwear
used in the country. The flat cap is often made of tweed or cotton, whilst a trilby hat is traditionally made
from felt material. For a trilby hat, a feather attached pin on the side is a traditional accessory for both
men and women which can also optionally be attached a jacket lapel. Some of the most common forms
of footwear are natural rubber wellington boots and leather country boots which protect the wearer
from mud and water on the ground. When wearing a tweed suit, leather brogues are usually a choice of
footwear; however, this also depends on the activity or event. English country jackets usually
include waxed and quilted jackets. The material tweed has long been associated with the British
countryside; when Prince Albert purchased the Balmoral estate he designed the Balmoral tweed long
before he laid the first bricks of Balmoral Castle. Tweed uses natural colours to blend into the natural
environment; Prince Albert designed the Balmoral Tweed to resemble the granite mountains of
Aberdeenshire for stalking. Original country styles include a Norfolk jacket and tweed breeks.
Symbol: The Royal Arms of England (Arms of Plantagenet). Blazon:  Gules, three lions passant
guardant in pale or armed and langued azure, signifying three identical gold lions (also known as
leopards) with blue tongues and claws, walking past but facing the observer, arranged in a column on a
red background.
The Rose is the national flower of England, a usage dating back to the English civil wars of the 15th
century.
Saint George, patron saint of England by the 14th century. The tradition tells that a fierce dragon
was causing panic at the city of Silene, Libya, at the time Saint George arrived there. In order to
prevent the dragon from devastating people from the city, they gave two sheep each day to the
dragon, but when the sheep were not enough they were forced to sacrifice humans instead of the
two sheep. The human to be sacrificed was elected by the city's own people and that time the
king's daughter was chosen to be sacrificed but no one was willing to take her place. Saint George
saved the girl by slaying the dragon with a lance. The king was so grateful that he offered him
treasures as a reward for saving his daughter's life, but Saint George refused it and instead he gave
these to the poor. The people of the city were so amazed at what they had witnessed that they
became Christians and were all baptized. By this he is known as an honorable man and a great
Christian warrior, and it may be the reason why he was chosen by English royal family as a patron
of the England.

Scotland
Anthem: various, preferably “Flower of Scotland” and "Scotland the Brave".
Flag: St Andrew's Cross or The Saltire. consists of a white saltire defacing a blue field.
Patron: St. Andrew. The tradition of Saint Andrew being the patron saint of Scotland develops in
the 13th to 14th centuries. According legendary accounts given in 16th-century
historiography, Óengus II in AD 832 led an army of Picts and Scots into battle against the Angles,
led by Æthelstan, near modern-day Athelstaneford, East Lothian. The legend states that he was
heavily outnumbered and hence whilst engaged in prayer on the eve of battle, Óengus vowed that
if granted victory he would appoint Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland. On the morning
of battle white clouds forming an X shape in the sky were said to have appeared. Óengus and his
combined force, emboldened by this apparent divine intervention, took to the field and despite
being inferior in numbers were victorious. Having interpreted the cloud phenomenon as
representing the crux decussata upon which Saint Andrew was crucified, Óengus honoured his pre-
battle pledge and duly appointed Saint Andrew as the Patron Saint of Scotland.
Royal Banner of Scotland: Lion Rampant of Scotland, Royal Standard of Scotland, Banner of the
King of Scots. Red (Gules) lion rampant with blue (Azure) claws and tongue, within a red double
border having a motif of alternating heraldic lilies, on a yellow (Or) field.

4. The UK and Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland is variously described as a country, province or region which is part of the United
Kingdom. Located in the northeast of the island of Ireland, Northern Ireland shares a border to the
south and west with the Republic of Ireland.

Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and
Southern Ireland by the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Unlike Southern Ireland, which would
become the Irish Free State in 1922, the majority of Northern Ireland's population were unionists,
who wanted to remain within the United Kingdom. Most of these were the Protestant descendants
of colonists from Great Britain. However, a significant minority, mostly Catholics, were nationalists
who wanted a united Ireland independent of British rule. Today, the former generally see
themselves as British and the latter generally see themselves as Irish, while a distinct Northern Irish
or Ulster identity is claimed both by a large minority of Catholics and Protestants and by many of
those who are non-aligned.

Capital: Belfast

Flag: The only official flag in Northern Ireland is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom. The Ulster
Banner was used by the Northern Ireland government from 1953 until the government and
parliament were abolished in 1973. Since then, it has had no official status. However, it is still used
as the flag of Northern Ireland by loyalists and unionists, and to represent Northern Ireland
internationally in some sporting competitions. The former Northern Ireland flag, also known as the
"Ulster Banner" or "Red Hand Flag", is a banner derived from the coat of arms of the Government
of Northern Ireland. UK flags policy states that in Northern Ireland, "The Ulster flag and the Cross
of St Patrick have no official status and, under the Flags Regulations, are not permitted to be flown
from Government Buildings." Northern Ireland comprises a patchwork of communities whose
national loyalties are represented in some areas by flags flown from flagpoles or lamp posts. The
Union Jack and the former Northern Ireland flag are flown in many loyalist areas, and the Tricolour,
adopted by republicans as the flag of Ireland in 1916, is flown in some republican areas. Even
kerbstones in some areas are painted red-white-blue or green-white-orange, depending on
whether local people express unionist/loyalist or nationalist/republican sympathies.

Anthem: There is no official national anthem which represents only Northern Ireland. Two pieces
of music are used to represent Northern Ireland:

 Londonderry Air is played as the anthem of Northern Ireland at the some events such as the
Commonwealth Games. "Danny Boy" is a popular set of lyrics to the tune.
  God Save the Queen, the national and royal anthem of the United Kingdom, is played as the
anthem of Northern Ireland at the some events such as association football.
 Ireland's Call, the national anthem of all the island of Ireland, is used by the Ireland rugby
union team and others.
 Amhrán na bhFiann, the national anthem of the Republic of Ireland, is used by some
organisations almost exclusively operated by Irish nationalists in the whole island of Ireland
such as the Gaelic Athletic Association.
Language: Northern Ireland has no official language. English serves as the de facto language of
government and diplomacy and has been established through precedent. Irish and Ulster Scots are
officially recognised by Her Majesty's Government as minority languages. The dialect of English
spoken in Northern Ireland shows influence from the lowland Scots language. There are
supposedly some minute differences in pronunciation between Protestants and Catholics, for
instance; the name of the letter h, which Protestants tend to pronounce as "aitch", as in British
English, and Catholics tend to pronounce as "haitch", as in Hiberno-English. However, geography is
a much more important determinant of dialect than religious background.

Religion: For most of the 20th century, when it came into existence, Northern Ireland was marked
by discrimination and hostility between these two sides in what First Minister of Northern Ireland,
David Trimble, called a "cold house" for Catholics. In the late 1960s, conflict between state forces
and chiefly Protestant unionists on the one hand, and chiefly Catholic nationalists on the other,
erupted into three decades of violence known as the Troubles, which claimed over 3,500 lives and
injured over 50,000 others. The 1998 Good Friday Agreement was a major step in the peace
process, including the decommissioning of weapons and security normalization, although
sectarianism and religious segregation still remain major social problems, and sporadic violence
has continued.
Nowadays: protestant – 41.6% of people, catholic – 40.8%, no religion/not stated – 16.9%, non-
Christian religion – 0.8% (in 2011)

Patron saint: St. Patrick. Known as the "Apostle of Ireland", he is the primary patron saint of
Ireland, the other patron saints being Brigit of Kildare and Columba. According to the
autobiographical Confessio of Patrick, when he was about 16, he was captured by Irish pirates from
his home in Britain and taken as a slave to Ireland, looking after animals; he lived there for six years
before escaping and returning to his family. After becoming a cleric, he returned to northern and
western Ireland. In later life, he served as a bishop, but little is known about the places where he
worked. By the seventh century, he had already come to be revered as the patron saint of
Ireland.The dates of Patrick's life are uncertain; there are conflicting traditions regarding the year
of his death. His own writings provide no evidence for any dating more precise than the 5th
century generally. The Irish annals – first chronicles of - for the fifth century date Patrick's arrival in
Ireland at 432, but they were compiled in the mid-6th century at the earliest. His work was
instrumental in establishing Christianity on the island and therefore he is highly esteemed
in Northern Ireland by both Catholics and Protestants.
National flower: Flax flower/shamrock. Flax is the emblem of Northern Ireland and displayed by
the Northern Ireland Assembly. In a coronet, it appeared on the reverse of the British one-pound
coin to represent Northern Ireland on coins minted in 1986, 1991, and 2014. Flax also represents
Northern Ireland on the badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and on various logos
associated with it.
The shamrock is used in the emblems of many state organizations, both in the Republic of Ireland
and Northern Ireland (such as Police Service of Northern Ireland). Traditionally, shamrock is said to
have been used by Saint Patrick to illustrate the Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity when
Christianising Ireland in the 5th century. The first evidence of a link between St Patrick and the
shamrock appears in 1675 on the St Patrick's Coppers or Halpennies. These appear to show a figure
of St Patrick preaching to a crowd while holding a shamrock, presumably to explain the doctrine of
the Holy Trinity. However, Jack Santino speculates that "The shamrock was probably associated
with the earth and assumed by the druids to be symbolic of the regenerative powers of nature ...
Nevertheless, the shamrock, whatever its history as a folk symbol, today has its meaning in a
Christian context. Pictures of Saint Patrick depict him driving the snakes out of Ireland with a cross
in one hand and a sprig of shamrocks in the other.

National animal: None

Coat of arms: None. Former - Coat of Arms of Northern Ireland. The coat of arms of the
Government of Northern Ireland were granted to the Executive Committee of the Privy Council of
Northern Ireland in 1924. Blazon: Argent a cross gules, overall on a six pointed star of the field
ensigned by an Imperial crown proper a dexter hand couped at the wrist of the second. The
supporters were granted in 1925: a red lion rampant, as on the Royal Banner of Scotland, to
represent the Ulster Scots and an Irish Elk to represent the "native element". The lion bears a flag
with the Irish harp and the Irish elk bears a flag with the arms of the De Burgh - Dexter a lion gules
armed langued and collared or, supporting a flagstaff proper, therefrom flowing to the sinister a
banner azure, charged with a harp or, stringed argent, surmounted by an imperial crown proper;
Sinister an Irish elk proper, collared or, supporting a like staff, therefrom flowing to the dexter a
banner or charged with a cross gules. In 1971, the College of Arms in London added the
compartment on which the supporters stand: On a grassy mount two flax plants each with three
flowers on stems proper.
The grant has not been rescinded, but the arms are considered historical, as the body to which the
arms were granted no longer exists, and so they cannot be used unless regranted to another
armiger. The current Northern Ireland Executive does not use a coat of arms.

Motto: Quis separabit? (Latin) = "Who will separate us?". De facto. The motto is associated with
Ulster unionism, Ulster loyalism and the British Army in Ireland. It was the motto of the former
Government of Northern Ireland and appeared on the province's defunct coat of arms. It is also the
motto of the Ulster Defence Association, a loyalist paramilitary group in Northern Ireland.
Special clothes: None, mostly refers to the Irish traditions. Kilt - Although most scholars pin the
development of the "man's skirt" on Scotland, Irish men also wore them regularly, especially in the
early 20th century. As with so many aspects of Irish culture, many wore kilts as a sign of solidarity
with other people who wanted independence from England. Rebellion-minded people often chose
saffron yellow, and for that reason English officials banned that hue from English dress, so as to
tamp down any public displays of support for the Irish.
Weather also plays a significant role in traditional Irish dress. Ireland's ocean climate is generally
mild, but sudden rainfall is common, as are strong breezes. Many natives dress in layers that they
can shed or add depending on abrupt shifts from hot to cool, wet, and windy. To that end, the
famous Aran sweater poses a sensible solution. Made from water-repelling wool, these sweaters
are very breathable but also insulate the wearer nicely when cooler weather sets in.

5. Early Britain: the Celts.

The Iron Age -the age of the Celts in Britain.

(600 BC - 50 AD)

1. Celts came to Britain between about 500 and 100 B.C.

It wasnt an organized concerned invasion as they were fighting among themselves

They were warriors, living for the glories of battle and. They were also the people who brought
iron working to the British Isles.

 About 450 BC Hallstatt in central Europe (Austria) sometimes called the "Celtic homeland".
Then Celtic culture was supposed to have expanded by migration to the British Isles ,France,
Bohemia, Poland and much of Central Europe
The existence of the Celts was first documented in 17-18 B.C. The  Roman Empire, which
ruled much of southern Europe at that time, referred to the Celts as “Galli -
meaning barbarians.

During the early Roman Era the Romans named the island Britanni or Britt anni,
following their conquest in 43 AD

Celti c groups

Northwest Europe was dominated by three main Celti c groups:  the Gauls (in
France), the Britons (in England) and the Gaels (in Ireland).
So, the Britons (in England) refer to the diff erent Celti c tribes that lived throughout
country.

 Gaels (Irish, Scottish and Manx)
  Celtic Britons (Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons)

2. The advent of iron

it changed the trade and give independence.

Trade was essential during the Bronze Age, as not every area was naturally rich to make bronze.
Iron, on the other hand, was relatively cheap and available almost everywhere.

Hill forts

In these time we see huge growth in the number of hill forts throughout the region.

Some are so small that cant been used for more than an individual family. Though many larger
forts were built.

The curious thing is that we don't know if the hill forts were built by the native Britons to defend
themselves from the encroaching Celts, or by the Celts as they moved their way into hostile
territory.

Usually these forts contained no source of water, so their use as constant place for life is doubtful

Many of the hill forts were built on top of earlier camps.

Celtic family life

The basic unit of Celtic life was the clan

Clans united into tribes, each of which had its own social structure and customs, and possibly its
own local gods.

Housing

The Celts lived in huts with walls of wicker . The huts were gathered in hamlets(деревушки)
Farming

The Celts were farmers when they weren't fighting. One of the interesting innovations that they
brought to Britain was the iron plough.

The lot of women was better than in most societies of that time. They were technically equal to
men, owned property, and could choose their own husbands. They could also be war leaders, as
Boudicca (Boadicea) later proved.

Language

There was a written Celtic language, but much of Celtic history they relied on oral transmission of
of bards and poets.

Celtic traditions comes to us today through the old tales and poems that were handed down for
generations before eventually being written down.

Druids

a high class of priests, political advisors, teachers, healers,

They had their own universities, where traditional knowledge was passed through generations

They had the right to speak ahead of the king

Religion

held many of their religious ceremonies in woodland groves and near sacred water. The Romans
speak of human sacrifice as being a part of Celtic religion. One thing we do know, the Celts revered
human heads.Celtic warriors cut off the heads of their enemies in battle and display them as
trophies.

After Celtic lands became Christianised, there were attempts by Christian writers to euhemerize or

even demonize most of the pre-Christian deities, while a few others became Saints in the church.
The main problem with the Celts was that they couldn't stop fighting among themselves long
enough to put up a unified front. Each tribe was out for itself, and in the long run this cost them
control of Britain.

6. Early Britain: The Romans, the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings.

ROMAN BRITAIN (43 Bc-409)

Britain was invaded by the Roman ruler of France (then known as Gaul) called Julius Caesar in 55
BC, but trouble in Gaul and in Rome forced Caesar to leave.

43bc- the Roman emperor Claudius invaded Britain again. The Romans moved north through
England and Wales but stopped in what is now Scotland.

The Roman emperor Hadrian decided to establish a northern border for the Roman empire by
building a wall guarded by Roman soldiers: this is known as Hadrian's Wall. A large part of this wall
can be seen if you visit the area of north England called Northumberland

Christian

Christianity was first established in Britain during this time. The town St Albans has been named
after a person called Alban who was killed for looking after a Christian who was trying to escape
being attacked. Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire in
325;

Many of the major Roman towns still exist today. Some of the most famous ones include York,
Lincoln, Bath, London, Canterbury, Exeter, Carlisle and St Albans.

There were camps for the Roman army at place names in England which end in -chester or -cester (
Chester, Colchester, Silchester and Winchester

The Romans left Britain in 406. They had ruled the area for nearly 400 years: the people living
there are known as Romano-Britons.

Language

Latin (the language used by the Romans) has had a major influence on the English language. The
Christian church throughout Europe continued to use Latin, and it was the church which later
established the education system in Britain
 the Britons were probably largely non-literate - they did not need o writing for most purposes
( like the Gallic Druids, may have banned it from use for religious matters).

As they came to develop more centralised institutions at the end of the Iron Age, they introduced
coins- they were using writing for administration

Art, culture

Rome expended artistic effort on portable artefacts (jewellery, weapons, wheeled vehicles), not
static ones like temples.

Why?

the major reasons the Romans were interested in Britain were

 its agricultural productivity

 the fairly complex forms of social organization of the southern tribes with which they were
in contact.
 Romans desire to turn them into successful provincial Roman societies.

Boudicca and resistance to Roman rule

Dilects

 Many tribes- many dialects

 even in the most Romanized areas it still looked fairly “Celtic”, as language and much
of the old tribal structure survived, the

Everyday life

Most Roman Britons lived in the countryside, so the normal daily round for most people was
farming, planting and ploughing, butchering,basketmaking,

We know less than we would like even of life in towns, since no Roman town in Britain is
preserved like Pompeii; everything is far more fragmentary
Religion

The Romans brought their state gods to Britain (Jupiter, Mars, Mercury) and the imperial
cult (worship of the genius, or guardian spirit, of the emperor).

This state religion was also political, a way of expressing loyalty to the state, and the British,
like other provincial bodies, had to submit. the usual Roman practice, which made the local
God understandable to the Romans, and the Roman to the British.

hybrid “Romano-Celtic” cults.

The Anglo-Saxon period

410-1066AD.

Dark Ages - written sources for the early years of Saxon invasion are scarce. However, most
historians now prefer the terms 'early middle ages'

It was a time of war, of the breaking up of Roman Britannia into several separate kingdoms, of
religious conversion and, after the 790s, of continual battles against a new set of invaders: the
Vikings.

 Anglo-Saxon mercenaries had for many years fought in the Roman army in Britain, so they
were not total strangers to the island. Their invasions were slow and piece, and began even
before the Roman legions departed. 

When the Roman legions left Britain, the Germanic-speaking Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians
began to arrive – at first in small invading parties, but soon in increasing numbers.

Initially they met little resistance from inhabitants of Britannia. Around 500 AD, however, the
invaders were resisted fiercely by the Romano-British, who might have been led by King Arthur

The various Anglo-Saxon groups settled in different areas of the country. They formed several
kingdoms, often changing, and constantly at war with one another.
These kingdoms sometimes acknowledged one of their rulers as a ‘High King', the Bretwalda.

1. Kent, settled by the Jutes.

Ethelbert of Kent was the first Anglo-Saxon king to be converted to Christianity, by St Augustine
around 595 AD.

2. Mercia, whose best-known ruler, Offa, built Offa's Dyke along the border between Wales and
England. This large kingdom stretched over the Midlands.

3. Northumbria, where the monk Bede ( 670-735) lived and wrote his Ecclesiastical History of
Britain.

4. East Anglia, made up of Angles: the North Folk (living in modern Norfolk) and the South Folk
(living in Suffolk).

5. Essex (East Saxons). Here the famous Battle of Maldon was fought against the Vikings in 991.

6. Sussex: the South Saxons settled here.

7. Wessex (West Saxons), later the kingdom of King Alfred, the only English king ever to have been
called ‘the Great', and his equally impressive grandson, Athelstan, the first who could truly call
himself ‘King of the English'.
By 850 AD the seven kingdoms had been consolidated into three large Anglo-Saxon kingdoms:
Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxons had become a Christian people.

Poetry 
Three poems give excellent insights into the Anglo-Saxons:

 The Ruin, an anonymous poem written about the ruin and decay of a Roman town
 Beowulf, about the great hero who fought and killed the monster Grendel and his mother,
became a great king
 The Battle of Maldon, about the Saxons' heroic defence against a force of raiding Vikings in
Essex.

Sutton Hoo ship burial

This burial of an East Anglian king provides a rich case study from which we can draw inferences
about kingship, religion, warfare, trade, craftsmanship.
Alfred the Great
King Alfred, called ‘the Great' because he:

 defeated the Vikings in the Battle of Edington in 878, then converted their leader Guthrum
to Christianity;
 recaptured London from the Vikings and established a boundary between the Saxons and
the Vikings - the area ruled by the Vikings was known as the Danelaw;
 strengthened his kingdom's defences by creating a series of fortresses (burhs) and a decent
army;
 built ships against Viking sea attacks, so beginning the English navy;
 had books translated into English and promoted learning;
 founded monasteries;
 commissioned the writing of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical record of the Anglo-
Saxons in Britain.

After 793, when the Vikings raided Lindisfarne Monastery, the history of the Anglo-Saxons
becomes entangled with that of the Vikings. In many ways they were similar: in language,
religion and Northern European origins, yet they are not the same. The very fact that they invaded
Britain at different times makes them two very distinct peoples in our history

The Viking Age

800 to 1150 AD 
The Vikings' homeland was Scandinavia: modern Norway, Sweden and Denmark. From here they
travelled great distances, mainly by sea and river

They left very little written evidence themselves.

the Viking Age 800 to 1150 AD  –

Their expansion took the form of warfare, exploration, settlement and trade.

Vikings left Scandinavia to settle in other lands, mainly Newfoundland (Canada), Greenland,
Iceland, Ireland, England, Scotland, the islands around Britain, France (where they became the
Normans), Russia and Sicily. They traded extensively with the Muslim world

However, by the end of the 11th century the great days of Viking expansion were over.

Vikings in Britain

From around 860 AD , Vikings settled  in Britain,

Many of their other words have also become part of English, for example egg, law, die, bread, fog.

In 793 came the first recorded Viking raid, (The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

pirates continued to make regular raids around the coasts of England, looting treasure and other
goods, and capturing people as slaves. Monasteries were often targeted

Gradually, the Viking raiders began to stay, first in winter camps, then settling in land ,mainly in the
east and north of England.

becoming farmers and fishermen, and sometimes going on summer trading or raiding voyages.
Today many Scots still bear Viking names.

To the west of Britain, the Isle of Man became a Viking kingdom. The island still has its Tynwald, a
reminder of Viking rule –

In Ireland, the Vikings raided around the coasts and up the rivers. They founded the cities of
Dublin, Cork and Limerick as Viking strongholds.

Meanwhile, back in England, the Vikings took over Northumbria, East Anglia and parts of Mercia.
In 866 they captured modern York and made it their capital. They continued to press south and
west.

The kings of Mercia and Wessex resisted as best they could, but with little success until the time of
Alfred of Wessex, the only king of England to be called ‘the Great'.

King Alfred

ruled from 871-899

defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington in 878.

After the battle the Viking leader Guthrum converted to Christianity.

In 886 Alfred took London from the Vikings and fortified it. The same year he signed a treaty with
Guthrum.

The treaty partitioned England between Vikings and English. The Viking territory became known as
the Danelaw - the north-west, the north-east and east of England. Alfred became king of the rest.

Alfred's grandson, Athelstan, became the first true King of England. He led an English victory over
the Vikings at the Battle of Brunaburh in 937, and his kingdom for the first time included the
Danelaw.

In 954, Eirik Bloodaxe, the last Viking king of York, was killed and his kingdom was taken over by
English earls.

Later Viking raids and rulers

However, the Viking raiding did not stop – different Viking bands made regular raiding voyages
around the coasts of Britain for over 300 years after 793.

The final Viking invasion of England came in 1066, when Harald Hardrada sailed up the River
Humber and marched to Stamford Bridge. The English king, Harold Godwinson, defeated him in a
long and bloody battle. The English had repelled the last invasion from Scandinavia.

However, immediately after the battle, King Harold heard that William of Normandy had landed in
Kent with yet another invading army. At the end of a long day's fighting the Normans had won,
King Harold was dead, and William was the new king of England.

7. The Norman Conquest and the Middle Ages.

The Norman conquest of 1066 ended Anglo-Saxon rule of England and installed a new king.
The stage was set for the invasion when King Edward the Confessor died on January 5, 1066.
He did not have any children so he had no heirs to take his place on the English throne.

Edward the Confessor

Edward was the son of Aethelred the Unready, the king of England, and Emma of Normandy.
Emma’s father was Richard I, the Duke of Normandy.
In 1013, the Vikings invaded England and took control of the English throne. Aethelred and
his family fled to Normandy but returned a year later, after the death of the Norse king
Sweyn. Sweyn’s men swore allegiance to Sweyn’s son Cnut but English nobles made a deal to
support Aethelred in his bid to become king again. The fight between Cnut and Aethelred
continued until Aethelred died in 1016. Once Aethelred died, the Danes once again gained
the throne.
Edward and his family once again left and spent the next thirty years in Normandy protected
by Richard II, Duke of Normandy, who was Emma’s brother. After Aethelred’s death, Emma
married Cnut and became queen of England. She had a son with Cnut by the name of
Harthacnut. Harthacnut became king when his father died and in 1042, Edward became the
king of England when Harthacnut died.

Three Potential Kings

Edward died on January 5, 1066 and since he had no heirs, three potential kings battled for
the throne. The three men were Harold Godwinson, Harald Hardrada, and William of
Normandy.

William of Normandy
William was the illegitimate son of Robert, Duke Richard II of Normandy’s son. Richard II
was the person who protected Edward while he was hiding in Normandy. William came to
power in Normandy after his father, Robert, died. Through a number of battles, William
came to be the dominant force in Normandy.
In 1051, William travelled to England and visited Edward. Although there is a fair amount of
doubt about the claim, William claimed that during this visit, Edward had made William his
heir. William had to return to Normandy shortly after this visit to deal with some rivals who
had teamed up to fight against William’s increasingly powerful position. William was able to
hold off this group and was even able to make his position stronger.

Harold Godwinson
Harold Godwinson came from a rich and powerful family. He had a brother named Tostig
whom Harold had helped to become the earl of Northumbria. Harold went to Normandy in
1064 (no one really knows why he decided to do this) and while there, he was captured by
Count Guy of Ponthieu and handed over to William of Normandy. While in William’s
custody, Harold swore an oath of fealty to William although there is a lot of confusion
around this oath. People are not sure where the oath took place, when it took place or even
why it took place.
Harold still hoped to gain the English crown and in 1065, he betrayed his brother Tostig in
order to gain support for this goal. Tostig ruled Northumbria and as a result of his harsh rule,
the people rebelled. Tostig asked his brother and Edward for help but none came. In fact,
Harold reached out to Leofric, who had been the Earl of Mercer until his grandson took over
the title. Leofric’s family was just as powerful as Harold’s family. Leofric had two grandsons:
Edwin and Morcar. Edwin was the grandson who had taken over the title Earl of Mercia from
his grandfather but the second grandson, Morcar, did not have any titles. Harold agreed to
support Morcar against his brother in Northumbria in return for Leofric’s support for Harold
becoming king when Edward eventually died.

Harald Hardrada
Harald Hardrada was the king of Norway. Hardrada was a co-ruler of Norway and he shared
power with his nephew Mangus until Mangus died in 1047. Hardrada claimed the English
throne on the basis of an agreement that was made between Mangus and the then English
king, Harthacnut. Neither Mangus nor Harthacnut had an heir so they agreed that when one
of them died, that person’s kingdom would go to the other person. When Harthacnut died,
Mangus was too busy fighting over Denmark to assert his claim to the English throne.
Hardrada claimed that since he was Mangus’s heir, he was the rightful king of England.

The Invasion
The day after the death of Edward the Confessor, Harold Godwinson was elected the new
king. On his deathbed, Edward had actually named Harold his heir, but both Harald
Hardrada and William of Normandy refused to recognize Harold as the new king.
Tostig, the brother that Harold had betrayed, reached out to Hardrada and offered his
support for Hardrada’s invasion. Hardrada and Tostig landed more than 10,000 men in the
north of England on September 20, 1066.
Upon hearing of the invasion, Harold gathered what forces he could and began marching
towards Tostig and Hardrada. Harold continued to gather men as he marched and within
four days, his forces travelled almost three hundred kilometers.
Harold tried to get Tostig to abandon Hardrada by offering the return of the earldom that
Harold had helped Tostig lose in the first place. Tostig refused the offer. The battle took
place at Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Hardrada’s forces held the bridge but
eventually Harold’s forces were able to overwhelm Hardrada’s forces once they took the
bridge. Both Hardrada and Tostig were killed and Harold won the battle, but his army was
tired, wounded and a long way from where William of Normandy was about to attack.
William had built an invasion fleet quickly but had to wait for favourable winds before he
could sail to England. On September 27, 1066, the winds allowed William to sail across the
channel. William’s fleet landed in England on September 28 and his troops quickly fortified
their position and raided the countryside.
Battle of Hastings
Harold, upon hearing of William’s landing, gathered his forces and began the long march
south. It took Harold two weeks for his forces to reach the area around Hastings and by this
time they were exhausted.
On October 14, 1066, Harold positioned his men at the top of a hill (which became known as
Battle Hill) and formed a shield wall. His forces were much too tired and Harold needed to
take a defensive position.
In the morning of the 14th, William’s forces charged up the hill attempting to engage
Harold’s forces but they were repeatedly thrown back. After two hours of fighting, a rumor
circulated that William had been killed. Some of the Norman soldiers began to flee until
William removed his helmet and shouted that he was alive.
How the actual battle was won is still open for debate. One theory is that the Normans
tricked the Saxons into believing they were retreating. When the inexperienced Saxons,
believing the Normans had been routed, chased after the Normans, William’s forces turned
and attacked. The Saxons had given up the advantage of the hilltop and William’s
professional (and well-rested) army quickly routed the Saxons.
The other theory is that William had gained territory on the west side of the hill which
allowed him to attack on two fronts. William then used his archers and cavalry to break
down the Saxon shield wall and win the battle.
During the battle, Harold was killed. Although no one is completely sure how he was killed,
there is evidence from the Bayeux tapestry that he may have been shot with an arrow
through the eye.
Now that all of the other rivals for the English throne were dead, William set about securing
the throne. He captured London in November of 1066 and he continued to fight any forces
that were against him. By December, the English nobles began to submit to William’s rule
and on December 25, 1066, William was crowned the new king of England.

The Harrying of the North

Between the years 1069 to 1070, William brutally put down any remaining dissent to his rule
in northern England. The biggest rebellion was led by Edgar the Atheling, who was related to
Edward the Confessor. In an effort to subdue the rebellion, William destroyed villages and
crops and sent his troops out in small bands to loot and pillage. As a result a large number of
people starved to death and there were even reports of people resorting to cannibalism
(eating people).
Once William had subdued the population, he replaced all the Anglo-Saxon leaders with
Norman leaders which helped secure his rule. William no longer faced any serious threat to
his hold on the throne and he was even able to head back to France to fight against a
rebellion by his son in Normandy. William died in Normandy in 1087.
8. The House of Plantagenet 1154-1216

The House of Plantagenet originates from a branch of counts of Anjou (Geoffrey V The Fair) and
the heritage of King Henry I of England (his daughter Mathilda). The Plantagenet dynasty ruled
England for over three hundred years, from 1154 -1485 (14 kings).

The surname Plantagenet seems to have derived from a nickname adopted by Geoffrey, Count of
Anjou, the father of Henry II and refers to his habit of wearing a sprig of broom or planta genista in
his helmet.

(как вступление к любому из билетов)

Аттеншен на обозначения! В скобочках даны даты рождения и даты начала правления и

смерти:

(b. (год) - r. (год) – (год))

Henry II, called Curtmantle (b. 1133 – r.1154-89). King of England (1154–1189) He was born in
France, son of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou & Matilda of Normandy. After his father's death in 1135 he
was firstly granted Normandy, then inherited Anjou and then acquired more territories in France
through his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152. After that he travelled to England where he
pursued King Stephen to become heir for the English throne and finish completely the civil war.
King Stephen agreed to this and King Henry II was crowned two years later in 1154 after Stephen's
death.

He wanted to establish the power and prestige of the Crown. However, this brought him into
conflict with the Church. He had hoped that Thomas A Beckett would be a loyal Archbishop of
Canterbury. But, Beckett frequently stood up for the rights of the Church before the crown.

His most notably achievement was The Assize of Clarendon (1166) which established Central Court:
system of justice based on precedents, trial by jury and alternative to the death penalty. In addition
it enriched the treasury and extended royal control.

He had 4 sons lived to adulthood: Henry, Richard, Geoffrey and John. Henry the Youngest was
inherited by father but had not any Authority. Encouraged by King of France he raised against his
father with his brothers. During one battle he was injured and lately died in 1189.

Richard I, later known as the 'Lion Heart' (b. 1157 - r. 1189-99) son of Henry II &Eleanor of
Aquitaine. During his 10-year reign he spent only six months in England.

In 1183 his brother Henry died, leaving Richard heir to the throne. His chief ambition was to join
the Third Crusade, caused by Saladin's capture of Jerusalem in 1187. Henry II met with Philip II of
France to act together. Franch army came to the Holy Land first, Richard arrived in 7 months later
but was more succesful than Philip who soon left.

After 18 months during the way home Richard was imprisoned by Duke Leopold of Austria but was
released thanks to his mother's money. He returned at once to England and was crowned for a
second time. A month later he went to Normandy to fight against Philip II who had betraied him in
aliance with his younger brother John. While one of the battles he was fatally wounded and died
on 6 April 1199.

King John, Lackland (before his reign) and Softsword (during his reign), (b. 1167 – r. 1199-1216) son
of Henry II &Eleanor of Aquitaine. Richard died in 1199, and John became King of England.

He insulted The French King, Philip Augustus by marrying the young French heiress Isabella of
Angouleme who was previously betrothed to a French noble. War immediately came. John won
some early victories but soon began to lose his lands.

Richard the Lionheart had never had any children, but his brother Geoffrey, who was older than
John, had left a son named Arthur, who intended to become the King. With the help of King Philip
he made a revolt against John but failed. It is rumored that John killed him.

By 1206, John had lost control of Normandy and most of the other English holdings in France, as
well as the support of the English nobles. For reconquering Normandy he increased taxes and
restricted the feudal rights of the nobles.

In July 1205 John lost one of his best advisers, Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury. He
refused to accept the Pope Innocent III's choice of Archbishop and seized the property of the
monks. The Pope laid an interdict on England, John was declared excommunicate. In 1212 he
learned that the king of France was preparing an invasion. This situation led him to negotiate with
the Pope. The decision was accepting Pop's nominee as archbishop, but keeping all money John
had got.

John prepared a counterattack on King Philip but failed and couldn’t return Anjou and Normandy.
That caused barons' rebellion in 1215 that finished with negotiations and establishment of Magna
Carta. Many of its clauses were designed to control the arbitrary behavior of the King and his
officials; many others concerned the administration of justice.

That was symbol of liberty but it didn't work faultlessly. The civil war came in 1216. Barons decided
they would rather rule by the French. French king Louis arrived to fight with John. His sudden
death on Oct. led to the peace between rebels; within a year Louis retired from England, John's
young son King Henry III was to become a new king.
9. The House of Plantagenet 1216-1399

Henry III (b.1207- r. 1216-72), the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême.

He ascended the throne on Oct. 19, 1216. William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke, was appointed
regent. After his death in 1219 Hubert de Burgh became the most powerful man in government.

In January 1227 Henry declared himself of full age and attempted to regain French possessions that
had been lost in the preceding years. By 1230 he recovered Gascony.

His reign was greatly influenced by the Church: in 1231 he reaffirmed the liberties of the Church
and agreed to pay the Pope for the chance to secure Sicily as a Plantagenet land. That led to the
discontent of the barons who did not want to pay large taxes in favour of the church.

In addition they were discount by the fact that the court was filled with foreign relatives of his wife
(Eleanor of Provence) who tried to control the government.

Those facts led to the rise of English nationalism. By 1239 Henry's behavior was such that even his
brother-in-law Simon de Montfort joined the opposition. With him barons came to Westminster in
1258 and the meeting finished with creation of the "Provisions of Oxford," that forced Henry III to
accept a new form of government in which power was placed in the hands of a council of twenty-
four members, twelve selected by the crown, twelve by the barons. That was creation of
Parliament.

Later Henry appealed to the Pope to extricate himself from the "Provisions." It caused new fights in
1264, on May 14, 1264, Montfort defeated the King and forced a calling of Parliament. Montfort's
position was too powerful, some of the barons deserted to the side of the King, whose forces led
by Prince Edward defeated and killed Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265.

Henry's greatest achievement was the completion of Westminster Abbey in 1269. On Nov. 16,
1272, Henry died.

Edward the First of England also known as Edward Longshanks (b.1239 – r. 1272-1307), son of
Henry III &Eleanor of Provence

In 1259, the Barons rebelled against the King. Initially Edward supported the Provisions of Oxford.
But he reconciled with his father and in 1265, Edward was part of the forces that defeated Simon
de Montfort at the battle of Evesham. After the end of the baron rebellion, Edward went on a
crusade to the Holy Land. By the time he returned to England in 1274, his father had died, leaving
him to be crowned as King.

Edward spent his early years reforming the law on regulating criminal and property law. He helped
strengthen the government and parliament.
However, during this period there were frequent rebellions in Wales against English rule. After the
second rebellion of 1282-83, Edward took his army in order to conquer Wales. He was successful
and built a series of forts and castles to fix the English position in Wales.

Later Edward put his attention to Scotland. He claimed the right to have ultimate power in
Scotland. But Edward wasn't able to overcome Scottish resistance, led by William Wallace and
Robert Bruce. The Scottish wars continued after his death during one of the battles.

Edward II of England (b.1284 - r.1307-27), also known as Edward of Caernarfon, was a son of
Edward I of England and his first wife Eleanor of Castile. Edward was the fourth son of Edward I of
England. He was the first English prince to hold the title prince of Wales, which was bestowed on
him by his father in 1301. Edward I died in July 1307 and, (his three elder brothers died earlier),
Edward became king.

Opposition to the king and his favourite Piers Gaveston began almost immediately, and in 1311 the
nobles issued the 'Ordinances', which attempted to limit royal control of finance and
appointments. Gaveston was twice exiled at the demand of the barons, only to return to England
shortly afterwards. In 1312, he was captured and executed by the barons.

In 1314, Edward invaded Scotland, only to be decisively defeated by Robert the Bruce. Power was
now in the hands of the barons headed by Edward's cousin Thomas of Lancaster.

By 1318, Edward and Lancaster had been partly reconciled, but the king had two new favourites,
Hugh Despenser and his son. Then a group of barons banished both father and son, making Edward
to fight back. He defeated Lancaster completely.

Edward's wife, Isabella of France, now emerged as a focus of opposition. In 1325, she was sent on a
diplomatic mission to France where she met and became the mistress of Roger Mortimer, an exiled
opponent of Edward. In September 1326, they invaded England. There was virtually no resistance
and the Despensers were captured and executed. Edward was deposed in favour of his and
Isabella's son, who was crowned Edward III in January 1327.

Edward II was imprisoned at Berkeley Castle and murdered there.

Edward III (b.1312 - r. 1327 -77) son of Edward II &Isabella of France. He became king in 1327 after
his father was deposed by his mother and her lover, Roger Mortimer. Isabella and Roger ruled in
Edward's name until 1330, when he executed Mortimer and banished his mother.

Edward's primary focus was war with France. Territorial disputes were intensified in 1340 when
Edward announced his claim for French throne, being a nephew of Charles IV who died without a
male heir. He started the Hundred Years War. In July 1346, Edward landed in Normandy,
accompanied by his son Edward, the Black Prince. He had a great victory at Crécy in August and
then he captured Calais, establishing it as a base for future campaigns. In 1348, he created the
Order of the Garter.
War restarted in 1355. The following year, the Black Prince won a significant victory at Poitiers,
capturing the French king, John II the blind king of Bohemia. The resulting Treaty of Bretigny in
1360 marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years War and the high point of English
influence in France. Edward renounced his claim to the French crown in return for the whole of
Aquitaine.

In 1369, the French declared war again. Edward, by now an elderly man, left the fighting to his
sons. They enjoyed little success and the English lost much of the territory they had gained in 1360.

After the death of his queen, Philippa, in 1369, Edward fell under the influence of Alice Perrers, his
mistress, Because of military failure in France the 'Good Parliament' of 1376 was organized. Perrers
and other members of the court were severely criticised and heavy taxation attacked. The death of
the Black Prince, Edward's heir, interrupted the crisis and the king's younger son, John of Gaunt,
who had ruled the country during Edward's frequent absence in France, later reversed the Good
Parliament's reforming efforts.

Edward died on 21 June 1377, leaving his young grandson Richard as king.

Richard II(b.1367 - r.1377- 99) the son of Edward, the Black Prince and grandson of Edward III.
Richard's father died in 1376 and his grandfather the following year, making Richard king at the age
of 10. The country was ruled largely by his uncle, John of Gaunt. The first crisis of Richard's reign
was the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The young king rode out to meet the rebels, who were led by
Wat Tyler. Tyler was killed and the revolt crushed.

As Richard began to control the government himself, he built a group of favourites. His request for
money to fight in France made parliament to demand the dismissal of these favourites. Richard's
refusal provoked parliament into creating a commission to oversee the king's activities. When
Richard declared these measures treasonable, parliament in 1388 outlawed his closest friends,
some of whom were executed. Richard appeared defeated and submitted to the demands of the
five 'Lords Appellant'.

For eight years Richard worked in harmony with Gaunt and the Lords Appellant. But he formed a
second royalist party. In 1397, he arrested and tried three of the appellants. Richard was granted
revenues for life and the powers of parliament were delegated to a committee.

In September 1398, a quarrel between two former appellants, Gaunt's son Henry Bolingbroke or
Lancaster and Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, gave the king another opportunity for revenge
and he banished them both. When Gaunt died in February 1399, Richard confiscated the vast
Lancastrian estates. In May, Richard left to campaign in Ireland.

Lancaster invaded England and got both noble and popular support. Returning to England in
August, Richard surrendered without a fight. In September, he abdicated and Lancaster ascended
the throne as Henry IV. In October, Richard was imprisoned in Pontefract Castle, where he died
four months later.

10. The House of Plantagenet 1399-1485

Henry V (b.1387 - r. 1413- 22) son of Henry IV

Initially, Henry V was not in line to the throne. After the exile of his father, King Richard II looked
after the young Henry and later took him in his service to Ireland. In 1399, Henry V’s father (Henry
Bolingbroke) returned home to usurp Richard II, and reclaim the crown for the Lancastrians. This
meant the future Henry V was recalled from Ireland and given the title ‘Prince of Wales’.

Nevertheless, there were political differences between father and son. In 1413, Henry IV died and
Henry V was crowned.

Henry made Britain a united country. He fought against domestic dissent and was successful in
forming a stronger national identity. He was the first king since the Norman Conquest to use
English as the official language.

Henry also turned his attention to France, where he had the dual aim of reclaiming his title King of
France and also securing parts of France considered being English.

In 1415, he took his army to France and, at the Battle of Agincourt, led his army to a famous
victory, even though they were heavily outnumbered.

In the next few years, Henry V would lead more successful campaigns taking Rouen and Paris.
Disunited because of disputes between Burgundians and Armagnacs, the French, in the Treaty of
Troyes, agreed that Henry V would become heir to the kingdom of France. In 1420, he married
Catherine of Valois, the daughter of the French king. They had one son, who became Henry VI.

King Henry V died in 1922, from dysentery, aged only 36. He failed to be crowned King of France
(he was outlived by Charles VI) and English gains in France would later be wiped out.

Henry VI (b.1421- r 1422- 61 & 1470-71) son of Henry V &Catherine of Valois

He was only nine months old when he succeeded his father, Henry V. He was crowned king of
England in 1429 and king of France in 1431. A regency council ran England until Henry was
considered old enough to rule in 1437. In 1445, he married Margaret of Anjou.

Henry wasn't a warrior. He preferred spending money, time and energy to his personal projects.
(The most known was Eton College founded in 1440 for Education of children from lower ranks of
society). The dual monarchy was too difficult. The successes of the Dauphin (a son of Charles VI
who had been crowned as a king by Franch Nobels) and Joan of Arc began to weaken England's
grip on its French possessions and Normandy was lost in 1450. This broke Henry's prestige and
authority.

In 1453, the king had a mental breakdown and Richard, Duke of York, his cousin, was made
protector. The king recovered in 1455, but civil war broke out between the Yorkist and Lancastrian
factions. The ensuing struggle came to be known as the Wars of the Roses. While the Duke of York
was the main figure on the Yorkist side, Margaret, Henry's queen, took charge of the Lancastrian
side. In 1460, York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield but his son took up the fight, defeating the
Lancastrians at Towton in 1461 and crowning himself Edward IV. Henry fled into exile, but returned
and was captured by Edward in 1465. The Earl of Warwick - previously an ally of Edward - now
switched sides and restored Henry to the throne in 1470. Edward returned from exile and
destroyed the Lancastrian forces at Tewkesbury in May 1471. Henry and Margaret's only son was
among the Lancastrian dead. Henry VI, who had been imprisoned in the Tower of London, was
murdered shortly afterwards.

Edward IV (b.1442 - r. 1461 -70 & 1471-83) the son of Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York. Edward's
father was the leading Yorkist in the dynastic war against the Lancastrians known as the Wars of
the Roses, which began in 1455. When Richard Plantagenet was killed at the Battle of Wakefield in
1460, Edward inherited his claim. With the support of the powerful Earl of Warwick, known as 'the
Kingmaker', Edward defeated the Lancastrians in a series of battles, culminating in the Battle of
Towton in 1461. With the Lancastrian king, Henry VI, overthrown, Edward was crowned Edward IV.

Warwick believed he could continue to control the new king. He was keen to negotiate a foreign
marriage for Edward, but in 1464 Edward secretly married Elizabeth Woodville, a commoner.
Warwick was furious at the favours now shown to Elizabeth's relatives and allied himself to
Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence, leading a revolt against the king. Warwick and
Clarence then fled to France, where they joined Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI. Margaret's
Lancastrian army invaded England in September 1470. Edward fled to the Netherlands until March
1471, when he and his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, returned to England. Edward defeated
and killed Warwick at Barnet before defeating the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury in May. Henry VI
was put to death in the Tower of London.

The second part of Edward's reign, from 1471 to 1483, was a period of relative peace and security.
He used income from the Crown Estates to pay governmental costs, and was therefore less in need
of parliamentary grants than his predecessors - he called parliament only six times.

Edward died on 9 April 1483. His young sons, Edward and Richard, were left in the protection of
their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Richard housed them in the Tower of London where they
were probably murdered on his orders. Parliament requested that Richard take the throne and he
accepted, being crowned Richard III.
Edward V (b. 1470 - r. 1483) The eldest surviving son of Edward IV &Elizabeth Woodville, he was
born when his father was in exile in Holland after being deposed by the Earl of Warwick. After
Edward IV had reclaimed his crown, young Edward was made Prince of Wales in June 1471.

Upon Edward IV's death in April 1483, Edward became king, aged 12. His uncle Richard, Duke of
Gloucester, was appointed protector. Conflict between Gloucester and the Woodville nobles who
dominated Edward V soon led the duke to arrest the Woodvilles and gain possession of Edward
and his younger brother, Richard. The two princes were housed in the Tower of London, then a
royal residence as well as a prison.

Edward V's brief reign came to an end on 26 June, when parliament accepted Gloucester's claim
that Edward IV's marriage was invalid and his children illegitimate. It proclaimed Gloucester
Richard III and, soon afterwards, the two princes disappeared from the Tower. It is possible they
were murdered by Richard's agents in August 1483

Richard III (b.1452 – r. 1483-85) son of Richard Duke of York & Cecily Nevill. He was King of England
for two years. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty.

His defeat at the Battle of Bosworth marked the end of the War of the Roses. He was succeeded by
Henry Tudor (Henry VII)

Richard’s brother Edward IV died in 1483. The next in line was the 12-year-old King Edward V.
However, as he was only 12 years old, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm until he
came of age.

However, a campaign was launched condemning Edward IV’s marriage to the boys’ mother,
Elizabeth Woodville. An assembly of Lords and commoners endorsed these claims and the
marriage was annulled. This meant, Richard III was promoted from Lord Regent to King Richard III
in 1483.

Edward V and his brother then disappeared. This led to accusations they had been murdered by
Henry in order to cement his hold on the throne.

Richard’s reign was troubled and he spent much time putting down major rebellions. The first was
by a former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. The revolt collapsed and Stafford was
executed.

A more serious rebellion occurred in 1485, headed by Henry Tudor. This was a continuation of the
war of the Roses. Landing in Wales, Henry Tudor raised an army of mercenaries and successfully
defeated Richard III in the Battle of Bosworth field. Henry refusing to flee, died in battle. The last
English King to die in battle. This proved the end of the Plantagenet line and led to the Tudor
Dynasty.
11. The Hundred Years War.
The Hundred Years War was fought between England and France and lasted from 1337 to 1453.
The war was a series of battles with long periods of peace in between.

How did it start?

In 1337, King Edward III of England claimed that he was the rightful king of France. This began the
long battle between the two countries. Other disputes kept the fighting going for over one
hundred years. These included the control of the valuable wool trade, disputes over certain areas
of land, and the support for Scotland by the French.

Edward III
King Edward III believed that he was the rightful heir to the French crown through his mother
Isabella. He first laid claim to the throne when he was fifteen years old and King Charles IV of
France died without a male heir. Instead of Edward, the French chose Philip to be their king. When
King Philip VI of France took control of Aquitaine from the English in 1337, King Edward III decided
to fight back. He decided to invade France and reassert his right to the French throne.

The Black Prince

In the 1350s, the army of King Edward III was led by his son, the valiant Edward the "Black Prince".
The Black Prince became a famous hero to the English and was known for his chivalry. The Black
Prince led the English to major victories over the French. At the battle of Poitiers, the Black Prince
captured King John II, the current King of France. Peace
King Edward agreed to release King John II for a ransom of three million crowns and some
additional land. When King Edward died, the son of the Black Prince, Richard II became King. He
was only 10 years old. There was a period of relative peace between England and France.

Battle of Agincourt
When Henry IV died in 1413 he passed on to his son Henry V a kingdom that was peaceful and
united. Henry V was a brave and intelligent man, and like Richard I, he became one of England's
favorite kings.
The war began again in 1415 when Henry renewed Edward Ill's claim to the throne of France.
English army was able to prove once more that it was far better in battle than the French army
was. The same year the English defeated a French army three times its own size. The English were
more skillful, and had better weapons.

Eventually, the French gave in and King Charles VI named Henry as the heir to the throne. Joan of
Arc
In 1428 the English began to invade southern France. They began a siege of the city of Orleans.
However, a young peasant girl by the name of Joan of Arc took leadership of the French army. She
claimed to have seen a vision from God. She led the French to a victory at Orleans in 1429. She led
the French to several more victories before she was captured by the English and burned at the
stake.
End of the War

The French were inspired by Joan of Arc's leadership and sacrifice. They continued to fight back.
They pushed the English army out of France taking Bordeaux in 1453 signaling the end of the
Hundred Years War.

12. The War of the Roses.

People from the Wars of the Roses

House of Lancaster House of York

Henry VI – The king at the start of the war, Henry
VI was mentally ill. He was housed in the Tower
of London for many years until he died.
Margaret of Anjou – Wife of Henry VI, she took
control of the country and led the fight against
Henry's enemies.
Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick – He began the
war on the side of the Yorks. He later changed
sides when he didn't like the way Edward IV was
leading the country.
Richard, Duke of York – Father of Edward IV and
Richard III, he began the war by defeating the
Lancastrians and putting Henry VI in jail. He
served as Lord Protector.
Edward IV – The first York to become king,
Edward IV was king for much of the war from
1461 to 1470 and 1471 to 1483.
Edward V - The son of Edward IV, he was twelve
when his father died. He was king for only a few
months before he was sent to the Tower of
London and disappeared.
Richard III - Brother of Edward IV, he took the
throne from his nephew Edward V. He was king
for just over two years before he was killed in
battle.
Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick

The War of the Roses was a series of battles fought in medieval England from 1455 to 1485
between the House of Lancaster and the House of York for the throne. Both houses were direct
descendants of king Edward III (the royal House of Plantagenet). The name War of the Roses is
based on the badges used by the two sides: the House of Lancaster was represented by a red rose
and the House of York by a white rose.

Henry VI had little interest in politics and was a weak ruler. In 1445, Henry VI married Margaret of
Anjou, a noble Frenchwoman whose ambition and political savvy overshadowed her husband’s.
Their marriage was arranged as part of an armistice in the Hundred Years’ War between France
and England. Henry VI was mentally ill. By the way, he was a grandson of King Charles VI of France
(also known as the Mad King). However, his symptoms were totally different to those of Charles VI.

The first phase of the war lasted from the first battle in 1455 to the defeat of the last Lancastrian
field army in 1464.
1455 – The Wars of the Roses began with the Battle at St. Albans on May 22, 1455. At that battle
Richard of York defeated the army of Henry VI. Richard put Henry VI in prison and became the
"Lord Protector" of England.

York's period of power soon came to an end. On 25 February 1456 Henry, who had recovered from
a second spell of illness, came to parliament and ended the Protectorate.

In the summer of 1460 the Yorkists invaded. Warwick defeated the Royalists at Northampton. York
tried to take the throne, but found that he lacked any support and was forced to back down. Then
he was killed at the battle of Wakefield. His son Edward continued the fight, and during 1461 won
the battles of Mortimer's Cross and Towton, allowing him to take the throne as Edward IV.
Margaret and her son ran to Scotland where they found a refuge. Henry VI was captured, spending
the rest of the decade in the Tower of London.

In October 1470, Queen Margaret with the help of her compatriots in France displaced Edward and
restored her husband to the throne.

Then Edward IV mustered an army again and won at the Battle of Barnett and the Battle of
Tewksbury. At Tewskbury, Henry and Margaret’s only son was killed and the royal couple were
captured and held in the Tower of London; the throne of England reverted back to Edward.

King Edward IV died in 1483. His twelve-year-old son, Edward V, became king. However, his uncle,
Richard III, sent him and his younger brother to the Tower of London, supposedly for their
protection. There both boys—now famous as the Princes in the Tower—vanished. Thus, Richard III
became king of England.

The wars ended when Richard III, the last Yorkist king, was defeated at the battle of Bosworth in
1485 by Henry Tudor (founder of the house of Tudor) and the new Tudor dynasty took over
England. Henry then married King Richard’s niece, Elizabeth of York, and united the two families.

Interesting facts:

 Prince Edward of Lancaster (1453-1471), son and heir of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou,
was born during his father's first mental breakdown.
 Margaret of Anjou led the Lancastrian army during several of the battles.
 The Battle of Towton was one of the deadliest battles ever fought in England (over 50,000
soldiers fought and around 25,000 soldiers were killed).
13. The Tudors

 Origins of the Tudors

 The history of the Tudors can be traced back to the thirteenth century, but their rise to
prominence began in the fifteenth. Owen Tudor, a Welsh landowner, fought in the armies
of King Henry V of England. When Henry died, Owen married the widow, Catherine of
Valois, and then fought in the service of her son, Henry VI. At this time, England became
divided by a struggle for the English throne between two dynasties, Lancastrian and York,
called The Wars of the Roses. Owen was one of Henry VI’s Lancastrians; after the battle of
Mortimer’s Cross, a Yorkist victory, Owen was executed.
 Taking the Throne
 Owen’s son, Edmund, was rewarded for his family’s service by being raised to the Earl of
Richmond by Henry VI. Crucially for his later family, Edmund married Margaret Beaufort,
great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, son of King Edward III, a tenuous but vital claim to
the throne. Edmund’s only child Henry Tudor led a rebellion against King Richard III and
defeated him at Bosworth Field, taking the throne himself as a descendant of Edward III.
Henry, now Henry VII, married the heir to the House of York, effectively ending the Wars of
the Roses. There would be other rebels, but Henry stayed secure.
 Henry VII
 Having defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, gained parliamentary approval
and married a member of his rival family, Henry was crowned king. He took part in
diplomatic negotiations to secure his position, making agreements at both home and
abroad, before instituting a reform of government, increasing royal administrative control
and improving the royal finances. He began using the Star Chamber in Westminster Palace
to hear cases and appeals to provide people with access to justice. On his death, he left a
stable kingdom and a wealthy monarchy. He had fought hard politically to establish himself
 and his family against the doubters and bring England together behind him. He has to go
down as a major success but one totally overshadowed by his son and grandchildren.
 Henry VIII
 The most famous English monarch of all, Henry VIII is best known for his six wives, the
result of a desperate drive to produce healthy male heirs to carry the Tudor dynasty
forward. Another consequence of this need was the English Reformation, as Henry split the
English Church away from the Pope and Catholicism in order to divorce. Henry’s reign also
saw the emergence of the Royal Navy as a powerful force, changes in government, which
bound the monarch tighter to parliament, and perhaps the apogee of personal rule in
England. His only surviving son, Edward VI, succeeded him. It's the wives that capture the
headlines, particularly as two were executed and the religious developments divided
England for centuries, leading to a question that just cannot be agreed upon: was Henry VIII
a tyrant, a great leader, or somehow both?
 Edward VI
 The son which Henry VI much desired, Edward inherited the throne as a boy and died only
six years later, his reign having been dominated by two ruling councilors, Edward Seymour,
and then John Dudley. They carried on the Protestant Reformation, but Edward’s strong
Protestant faith has led to speculation he’d have carried things further if he had lived. He is
the great unknown in English history and could have changed the future of the nation in
remarkable ways, such was the era.
 Lady Jane Grey
 Lady Jane Grey is the great tragic figure of the Tudor era. Thanks to the machinations of
John Dudley, Edward VI was initially succeeded by Lady Jane Grey, fifteen-year-old great-
granddaughter of Henry VII and devout Protestant. However, Mary, although Catholic, had
far greater support, and Lady Jane’s supporters swiftly changed their allegiances (быстро
сменили свои привязанности). She was executed in 1554, having done little personally
beyond being used by others as a figurehead. Reigned for 9 days.
 Mary I
 Mary was the first queen to rule England in her own right. A pawn of potential marriage
alliances in her youth, although none came to fruition, she was also declared illegitimate
when her father, Henry VIII, divorced her mother Catherine, and was only later brought
back into the succession. On taking the throne, Mary took part in an unpopular marriage to
Philip II of Spain and returned England to the Catholic faith. Her actions in bringing back the
heresy laws and executing 300 Protestants earned her the nickname Bloody Mary. But
Mary's life isn't just a tale of religious killing. She was desperate for an heir, resulting in a
false but very advanced pregnancy, and as a woman fighting to rule a nation, broke the
barriers Elizabeth later walked through. Historians are now assessing Mary in a new light.
 Elizabeth I
 Henry VIII’s youngest daughter, Elizabeth survived the plotting (заговор) which threatened
Mary, and which, in turn, cast doubt on the young princess, to become Queen of England
when she might have been executed. One of the nation’s most highly regarded monarchs,
Elizabeth returned the country to the Protestant faith, fought wars against Spain and
Spanish-backed forces to protect England and other Protestant nations, and cultivated a
 powerful image of herself as a virgin queen wedded to her nation. She remains masked to
historians, her true feelings and thoughts hidden away. Her reputation as a great ruler is
faulty, as she relied far more on dithering and her inbuilt difficulty in making decisions than
canny judgment. (Ее репутация великой правительницы ошибочна, поскольку она
больше полагалась на нерешительность и врожденную трудность в принятии
решений, чем на здравый смысл.) Died of melancholy and makeup.
 End of the Tudor Dynasty
 None of Henry VIII’s children had any lasting offspring of their own, and when Elizabeth I
died, she was the last of the Tudor monarchs; she was followed by James Stuart from
Scotland, the first of the Stuart dynasty and a descendant of Henry VIII’s eldest sister,
Margaret. The Tudors passed into history. And yet they have enjoyed a considerable
afterlife, and remain among the most famous monarchs in the world


14. The Elizabethan period

 The Elizabethan period began in 1558, when Elizabeth the First became queen and one of
the most popular monarchs in English history. This period is remembered for its richness of
poetry and drama
 Queen Elizabeth I
 Queen Elizabeth I was a Protestant. She re-established the Church of England as the official
church in England. Everyone had to attend their local church and there were laws about the
type of religious services and the prayers which could be said, but Elizabeth did not ask
about people’s real beliefs. She succeeded in finding a balance between the views of
Catholics and the more extreme Protestants. In this way, she avoided any serious religious
conflict within England. Elizabeth became one of the most popular monarchs in English
history, particularly after 1588, when the English defeated the Spanish Armada (a large fleet
of ships), which had been sent by Spain to conquer England and restore Catholicism.
 The Reformation in Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots
 Scotland had also been strongly influenced by Protestant ideas. In 1560, the predominantly
Protestant Scottish Parliament abolished the authority of the Pope in Scotland and Roman
 Catholic religious services became illegal. A Protestant Church of Scotland with an elected
leadership was established but, unlike in England, this was not a state Church.
 The queen of Scotland, Mary Stuart, (often now called ‘Mary, Queen of Scots’) was a
Catholic. She was only a week old when her father died and she became queen. Much of
her childhood was spent in France. When she returned to Scotland, she was the centre of a
power struggle between different groups. When her husband was murdered, Mary was
suspected of involvement and fled to England. She gave her throne to her Protestant son,
James VI of Scotland. Mary was Elizabeth I’s cousin and hoped that Elizabeth might help
her, but Elizabeth suspected Mary of wanting to take over the English throne, and kept her
a prisoner for 20 years. Mary was eventually executed, accused of plotting against Elizabeth
I.
 Exploration, poetry and drama
  The Elizabethan period in England was a time of growing patriotism: a feeling of pride in
being English. English explorers sought new trade routes and tried to expand British trade
into the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Sir Francis Drake, one of the commanders in the
defeat of the Spanish Armada, was one of the founders of England’s naval tradition. His
ship, the Golden Hind, was one of the first to sail right round (‘circumnavigate’) the world.
In Elizabeth I’s time, English settlers first began to colonise the eastern coast of America.
This colonisation, particularly by people who disagreed with the religious views of the next
two kings, greatly increased in the next century.
 The Elizabethan period is also remembered for the richness of its poetry and drama,
especially the plays and poems of William Shakespeare.


15. William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

 Shakespeare was born in Stratford-Upon-Avon, England. He was a playwright and actor and
wrote many poems and plays. His most famous plays include A Midsummer’s Night Dream,
Hamlet, Macbeth and Romeo and Juliet. He also dramatised significant events from the
past, but he did not focus solely on kings and queens. He was one of the first to portray
ordinary English men and women. Shakespeare had a great influence on the
English language and invented many words that are still common today. Lines from his
plays and poems which are often still quoted include:
       - Once more unto the breach (Henry V)
       - To be or not to be (Hamlet)
       - A rose by any other name (Romeo and Juliet)
       - All the world’s a stage (As You Like It)    
       - The darling buds of May (Sonnet 18 – Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer’s Day).
 Many people regard Shakespeare as the greatest playwright of all time. His plays and
poems are still performed and studied in Britain and other countries today. The Globe
Theatre in London is a modern copy of the theatres in which his plays were first performed.

Прим. редактора: я готовила ответ про его биографию, так что, если вам нужно
больше инфы – ловите:

William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright who is considered one of the
greatest writers to ever use the English language. He is also the most famous playwright in
the world, with his plays being translated in over 50 languages. He was also an actor and
the creator of the Globe Theatre, a historical theatre, and company that is visited by
hundreds of thousands of tourists every year.

His works span tragedy, comedy, and historical works, both in poetry and prose. And
although the man is the most-recognized playwright in the world, very little of his life is
actually known. No known autobiographical letters or diaries have survived to modern day.
So, Shakespeare is a figure both of magnificent genius and mystery.

Life Before the Stage

The exact date of Shakespeare's birth is unknown, but it is accepted that he was born in
April of 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England. He was the son of John
Shakespeare, an alderman, and Mary Arden, the daughter of the family's landlord and a
well-respected farmer. He was one of eight children and lived to be the eldest surviving son
of the family.

Shakespeare was educated at the King's New School, a free grammar school that was
located in Stratford. There he studied the basic Latin text and grammar. He was also known
to partake in the theatre while at the school as was the custom at the time. As a commoner,
Shakespeare's education was thought to finish at the grammar school level as there is no
record of him attending university, which was a luxury reserved for upper-class families.

In 1582, an 18-year-old Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, who was 26 years old and
already with child. Hathaway gave birth to a daughter named Susanna, with twins, named
Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet died at the age of 11 from unknown reasons.

After the birth of his twins in 1585, Shakespeare disappeared from public record until 1592,
when his works began appearing on the London stage. These seven years are known as
"Shakespeare's Lost Years," and have been the source of various stories that remain
unverified, including a salacious story involving Shakespeare escaping Stratford
prosecution for deer poaching.

Career and Creation of the Globe

William Shakespeare first made his appearance on the London stage, where his plays would
be written and performed, around 1592, although the exact date is unknown. He was,
however, well known enough to be attacked by critics in newspapers.
After the year 1594, Shakespeare's plays were solely performed by a company owned by a
group of actors known as the Lord Chamberlain's Men, which became London's leading
company. After Queen Elizabeth's death in 1603, the company was given a royal patent that
renamed it the King's Men, named so after King James I.

Shakespeare, along with a group of players that acted in his play, created his own theatre
on the River Thames in 1599 and named it the Globe Theatre.

It was in 1594 that the first known quartos of Shakespeare's plays were published,
solidifying his reputation by 1598 when his name became the selling point in new
productions. This led to his success as both an actor on stage and a playwright, and his
name was published on the title page of his plays.

Shakespeare continued to work with his company of men at the Globe Theatre until around
1610, the year that he retired from working on the stage. He, however, continued to support
the Globe Theatre, including buying apartments for playwrights and actors to live in, all of
which were near to the theatre.

Retirement and Death

Shakespeare retired from public life in 1610, right after the bubonic plague began to
subside its attack on London. But in fact, the playwright was an active dramatist and writer
up until 1613 when the last of his great works was finished. From then on, Shakespeare
spent most of his time with his family.

William Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616, and was buried at the Holy Trinity Church in
Stratford two days later. He was 52 years old at the time of his death and was survived by
his wife, Anna, and their two daughters.

The Shakespeare Canon

Shakespeare was noted both for poetry and plays, with both mediums serving different
needs; the plays were related to the theatrical fashion that was on trend/ while his poetry
served to provide storytelling in erotic or romantic ways.
William Shakespeare wrote at least 37 plays, two volumes of poetry and over 150 sonnets
that scholars know of.

The Shakespeare Influence

Shakespeare's influence on art, literature, language and art has long been known and
documented. He is the most-read playwright in the Western Hemisphere, and the English
language is littered with phrases from his works. He is also the inventor of the iambic
pentameter, a form of poetry that is still widely used today.

Shakespeare was, and still is, the most prominent influential figure in English literature
and language. Phrases such as "breaking the ice" or "heart of gold" are colloquial now, but
are also known to have originated in Shakespeare's plays and sonnets. In fact, words such
as lonely, frugal, dwindle, and more originate from Shakespeare, who transformed English
into the populist language that it is today.

16. The British Renaissance

The British Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the late 15th century
to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance that is usually regarded as
beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. As in most of the rest of northern Europe, England saw little of
these developments until more than a century later. The beginning of the English Renaissance is often
taken, as a convenience, to be 1485, when the Battle of Bosworth Field ended the Wars of the Roses and
inaugurated the Tudor Dynasty. Renaissance style and ideas, however, were slow to penetrate England, and
the Elizabethan era in the second half of the 16th century is usually regarded as the height of the English
Renaissance.

The English Renaissance is different from the Italian Renaissance in several ways. The dominant art forms of
the English Renaissance were literature and music. Visual arts in the English Renaissance were much less
significant than in the Italian Renaissance. The English period began far later than the Italian, which was
moving into Mannerism and the Baroque by the 1550s or earlier. In contrast, the English Renaissance can
only truly be said to begin, shakily, in the 1520s, and it continued until perhaps 1620.

Literature
England had a strong tradition of literature in the English vernacular, which gradually increased as English
use of the printing press became common during the mid 16th century. This tradition of literature written in
English vernacular largely began with the Protestant Reformation's call to let people interpret the Bible for
themselves instead of accepting the Catholic Church's interpretation. Discussions on how to translate the
Bible so that it could be understood by laymen but still do justice to God's word became contentious, with
people arguing how much license could be taken to impart the correct meaning without sacrificing its
eloquence. The desire to let people read the Bible for themselves led William Tyndale to publish his own
translation in 1526. This would become a predecessor to the King James Version of the Bible, and his works
influence on the vernacular contributed more to English than even Shakespeare.
Another early proponent of literature in the vernacular was Roger Ascham, who was tutor to Princess
Elizabeth during her teenage years, and is now often called the "father of English prose." He proposed that
speech was the greatest gift to man from God and to speak or write poorly was an affront. By the time of
Elizabethan literature, a vigorous literary culture in both drama and poetry included poets such as Edmund
Spenser, whose verse epic The Faerie Queene had a strong influence on English literature but was eventually
overshadowed by the lyrics of William Shakespeare, Thomas Wyatt and others. Typically, the works of these
playwrights and poets circulated in manuscript form for some time before they were published, and above
all the plays of English Renaissance theatre were the outstanding legacy of the period. The works of this
period are also affected by Henry VIII's declaration of independence from the Catholic Church and
technological advances in sailing and cartography, which are reflected in the generally nonreligious themes
and various shipwreck adventures of Shakespeare.
The English theatre scene, which performed both for the court and nobility in private performances and a
very wide public in the theatres, was the most crowded in Europe, with a host of other playwrights as well
as the giant figures of Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Elizabeth herself was a
product of Renaissance humanism trained by Roger Ascham, and wrote occasional poems such as "On
Monsieur's Departure" at critical moments of her life. Philosophers and intellectuals included Thomas More
and Francis Bacon. All the 16th century Tudor monarchs were highly educated, as was much of the nobility,
and Italian literature had a considerable following, providing the sources for many of Shakespeare's plays.
English thought advanced towards modern science with the Baconian Method, a forerunner of the Scientific
Method. The language of the Book of Common Prayer, first published in 1549, and at the end of the period
the Authorised Version ("King James Version" to Americans) of the Bible (1611) had enduring impacts on the
English consciousness.

Visual arts
England was very slow to produce visual arts in Renaissance styles, and the artists of the Tudor court were
mainly imported foreigners until after the end of the Renaissance; Hans Holbein was the outstanding figure.
The English Reformation produced a huge programme of iconoclasm that destroyed almost all medieval
religious art, and all but ended the skill of painting in England; English art was to be dominated by
portraiture, and then later landscape art, for centuries to come. The significant English invention was the
portrait miniature, which essentially took the techniques of the dying art of the illuminated manuscript and
transferred them to small portraits worn in lockets. Though the form was developed in England by foreign
artists, mostly Flemish like Lucas Horenbout, the somewhat undistinguished founder of the tradition, by the
late 16th century natives such as Nicolas Hilliard and Isaac Oliver produced the finest work, even as the best
producers of larger portraits in oil were still foreigners. The portrait miniature had spread all over Europe by
the 18th century. The portraiture of Elizabeth I was carefully controlled, and developed into an elaborate
and wholly un-realist iconic style, that has succeeded in creating enduring images.

Music
English Renaissance music kept in touch with continental developments far more than visual art, and
managed to survive the Reformation relatively successfully, though William Byrd and other major figures
were Catholic. The Elizabethan madrigal was distinct from, but related to the Italian tradition. Thomas Tallis,
Thomas Morley, and John Dowland were other leading English composers.
The colossal polychoral productions of the Venetian School had been anticipated in the works of Thomas
Tallis, and the Palestrina style from the Roman School had already been absorbed prior to the publication of
Musica transalpina, in the music of masters such as William Byrd.
The Italian and English Renaissances were similar in sharing a specific musical aesthetic. In the late 16th
century Italy was the musical center of Europe, and one of the principal forms which emerged from that
singular explosion of musical creativity was the madrigal. In 1588, Nicholas Yonge published in England the
Musica transalpina—a collection of Italian madrigals that had been Anglicized—an event which began a
vogue of madrigal in England which was almost unmatched in the Renaissance in being an instantaneous
adoption of an idea, from another country, adapted to local aesthetics. English poetry was exactly at the
right stage of development for this transplantation to occur, since forms such as the sonnet were uniquely
adapted to setting as madrigals; indeed, the sonnet was already well developed in Italy. Composers such as
Thomas Morley, the only contemporary composer to set Shakespeare, and whose work survives, published
collections of their own, roughly in the Italian manner but yet with a unique Englishness; interest in the
compositions of the English Madrigal School have enjoyed a considerable revival in recent decades.

Architecture
Despite some buildings in a partly Renaissance style from the reign of Henry VIII, notably Hampton Court
Palace, the vanished Nonsuch Palace, Sutton Place and Layer Marney Tower, it was not until the Elizabethan
architecture of the end of the century that a true Renaissance style emerged, influenced far more by
northern Europe than Italy. The most famous buildings, of a type called the prodigy house, are large show
houses constructed for courtiers, and characterised by lavish use of glass, as at "Hardwick Hall, more glass
than wall", Wollaton Hall and Hatfield House and Burghley House, the style continuing into the early 17th
century before developing into Jacobean architecture. Lesser, but still large, houses like Little Moreton Hall
continued to be constructed and expanded in essentially medieval half-timbered styles until the late 16th
century. Church architecture essentially continued in a late Gothic style until the Reformation, and then
stopped almost completely, although church monuments, screens and other fittings often had classical
styles from about the mid-century. The few new church buildings were usually still Gothic in style, as in
Langley Chapel of 1601.

17. The Stuarts

 House of Stuart, also spelled Stewart, orSteuart, royal house of Scotland from 1371 and of
England from 1603. It was interrupted in 1649 by the establishment of the Commonwealth
but was restored in 1660. It ended in 1714, when the British crown passed to the house of
Hanover.

 The first spelling of the family name was undoubtedly Stewart, the old Scots version, but
during the 16th century French influence led to the adoption of the spellings Stuart and
Steuart, because of the absence of the letter “w” in the French alphabet.

 The sixth High Steward of Scotland, Walter Stewart (1293–1326), married Marjorie,
daughter of Robert the Bruce, and also played an important part in the Battle of
Bannockburn gaining further favour. Their son Robert was heir to the House of Bruce, the
Lordship of Cunningham and the Bruce lands of Bourtreehill; he eventually inherited the
Scottish throne when his uncle David II died childless in 1371.

 In 1503, James IV attempted to secure peace with England by marrying King Henry VII's
daughter, Margaret Tudor. The birth of their son, later James V, brought the House of
Stewart into the line of descent of the House of Tudor, and the English throne. Margaret
Tudor later married Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, and their daughter, Margaret
Douglas, was the mother of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. In 1565, Darnley married his half-
cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, the daughter of James V. Darnley's father was Matthew
Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, a member of the Stewart of Darnley branch of the House.
Lennox was a descendant of Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland, also
descended from James II, being Mary's heir presumptive. Thus Darnley was also related to
Mary on his father's side and because of this connection, Mary's heirs remained part of the
House of Stuart. Following John Stewart of Darnley's ennoblement for his part at the Battle
of Baug? in 1421 and the grant of lands to him at Aubigny and Concressault, the Darnley
Stewarts' surname was gallicised to Stuart.

 Both Mary, Queen of Scots, and Lord Darnley had strong claims on the English throne,
through their mutual grandmother, Margaret Tudor. This eventually led to the accession of
the couple's only child James as King of Scotland, England, and Ireland in 1603. However,
this was a Personal Union, as the three Kingdoms shared a monarch, but had separate
governments, churches, and institutions. Indeed, the personal union did not prevent an
armed conflict, known as the Bishops' Wars, breaking out between England and Scotland in
1639. This was to become part of the cycle of political and military conflict that marked the
reign of Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, culminating in a series of conflicts known
as the War of the Three Kingdoms. The trial and execution of Charles I by the English
Parliament in 1649 began 11 years of republican government known as the English
Interregnum. Scotland initially recognised the late King's son, also called Charles, as their
monarch, before being subjugated and forced to enter Cromwell's Commonwealth by
General Monck's occupying army. During this period, the principal members of the House
of Stuart lived in exile in mainland Europe. The younger Charles returned to Britain to
assume his three thrones in 1660 as "Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland", but dated
his reign from his father's death eleven years before.

 In feudal and dynastic terms, the Scottish reliance on French support was revived during the
reign of Charles II, whose own mother was French. His sister Henrietta married into the
French royal family. Charles II left no legitimate children, but his numerous illegitimate
descendants included the Dukes of Buccleuch, the Dukes of Grafton, the Dukes of Saint
Albans and the Dukes of Richmond.

 These French and Roman Catholic connections proved unpopular and resulted in the
downfall of the Stuarts, whose mutual enemies identified with Protestantism and because
James VII and II offended the Anglican establishment by proposing tolerance not only for
Catholics but for Protestant Dissenters. The Glorious Revolution caused the overthrow of
King James in favour of his son-in-law and his daughter, William and Mary. James continued
to claim the thrones of England and Scotland to which he had been crowned, and
encouraged revolts in his name, and his grandson Charles (also known as Bonnie Prince
Charlie) led an ultimately unsuccessful rising in 1745, ironically becoming symbols of
conservative rebellion and Romanticism. Some blame the identification of the Roman
 Catholic Church with the Stuarts for the extremely lengthy delay in the passage of Catholic
emancipation until Jacobitism (as represented by direct Stuart heirs) was extinguished;
however it was as likely to be caused by entrenched anti-Catholic prejudice among the
Anglican establishment of England. Despite the Whig intentions of tolerance to be extended
to Irish subjects, this was not the preference of Georgian Tories and their failure at
compromise played a subsequent role in the present division of Ireland.
 The Royal House of Stuart became extinct with the death of Cardinal Henry Benedict Stuart,
brother of Charles Edward Stuart, in 1807. Duke Francis of Bavaria is the current senior heir.
[7] However, Charles II had a number of illegitimate sons whose surviving descendants in
the male line include Charles Gordon-Lennox, 11th Duke of Richmond; Henry FitzRoy, 12th
Duke of Grafton; Murray Beauclerk, 14th Duke of St Albans; and Richard Scott, 10th Duke of
Buccleuch. In addition, James II's illegitimate son, James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick,
founded the House of FitzJames comprising two branches, one in France and one in Spain.
The last of the French branch died in 1967; the senior heir of James II's male line
descendants is Jacobo Hernando Fitz-James Stuart, 16th Duke of Аranda de Duero.


18. The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution

 Fought between 1642–1651, the English Civil War saw King Charles I (1600–1649) battle
Parliament for control of the English government. The war began as a result of a conflict
over the power of the monarchy and the rights of Parliament. During the early phases of
the war, the Parliamentarians expected to retain Charles as king, but with expanded powers
for Parliament. Though the Royalists won early victories, the Parliamentarians ultimately
triumphed.

 Causes of the English Civil War

 Ascending to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1625, Charles I believed in the
divine right of kings, which stated that his right to rule came from God rather than any
earthly authority. In 1629, Charles elected to stop calling Parliaments and began funding his
rule through outdated taxes such as ship money and various fines.

 This approach angered the population and nobles, and the period from 1629–1640 became
known as the "personal rule of Charles I" as well as "the Eleven Years' Tyranny." 1638,
Charles encountered difficulty when he attempted to impose a new Book of Prayer on the
Church of Scotland. This action touched off the Bishops' Wars (1639–1640) and led the
Scots to document their grievances in the National Covenant.

 The Road to War

 Assembling an ill-trained force of around 20,000 men, Charles marched north in the spring
of 1639. Reaching Berwick on the Scottish border, he encamped and soon entered into
negotiations with with the Scots. The resulting Treaty of Berwick, signed on June 19, 1639,
 temporarily defused the situation. Charles was compelled to call a Parliament in 1640.
Known as the Short Parliament, he dissolved it in less than a month after its leaders
criticized his policies.

 With the situation in the north critical and still needing money, Charles recalled Parliament
that fall. Reconvening in November, Parliament immediately began introducing reforms
including a need for regular parliaments and prohibiting the king from dissolving the body
without the members' consent. The situation worsened when Parliament had the Earl of
Strafford (1593–1641), a close advisor of the king, executed for treason. In January 1642, an
angry Charles marched on Parliament with 400 men to arrest five members. Failing, he
withdrew to Oxford.

 The First Civil War - Royalist Ascent

 Through the summer of 1642, Charles and Parliament continued to negotiate while all
levels of society began to align in support of either side. While rural communities typically
favored the king, the Royal Navy and many cities aligned themselves with Parliament. On
August 22, Charles raised his banner at Nottingham and commenced building an army.
These efforts were matched by Parliament who was assembling a force under the
leadership of Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex (1591–1646).

 Unable to come to any resolution, the two sides clashed at the Battle of Edgehill in October.
The largely indecisive campaign ultimately resulted in Charles withdrawing to his wartime
capital at Oxford. The next year saw Royalist forces secure much of Yorkshire as well as win
a string of victories in western England. In September 1643, Parliamentarian forces, led by
the Earl of Essex, succeeded in forcing Charles to abandon the siege of Gloucester, and they
won a victory at Newbury. As the fighting progressed, both sides found reinforcements:
Charles freed troops by making peace in Ireland while Parliament allied with Scotland.

 Parliamentarian Victory

 Dubbed the "Solemn League and Covenant," the alliance between Parliament and Scotland
saw a Scottish Covenanter army under the 1st Earl of Leven (1582–1661) enter northern
England to reinforce Parliamentarian forces. Though English Parliamentarian general
William Waller (1597–1668) was beaten by Charles at Cropredy Bridge in June 1644,
Parliamentarian and Covenanter forces won a key victory at the Battle of Marston Moor the
following month. A key figure in the triumph was cavalryman Oliver Cromwell.
 Having gained the upper hand, the Parliamentarians formed the professional New Model
Army in 1645 and passed the "Self-denying Ordinance" which prohibited its military
commanders from holding a seat in Parliament. Led by Thomas Fairfax (1612–1671) and
Cromwell, this force routed Charles at the Battle of Naseby that June and scored another
victory at Langport in July. Though he attempted to rebuild his forces, Charles' situation
declined and in April 1646 he was forced to flee from the Siege of Oxford. Riding north, he
surrendered to the Scots at Southwell who later turned him over to Parliament.

 The Second Civil War

 With Charles defeated, the victorious parties sought to establish a new government. In each
case, they felt that the king's participation was critical. Playing the various groups against
one another, Charles signed an agreement with the Scots, known as the Engagement, by
which they would invade England on his behalf in exchange for the establishment of
Presbyterianism in that realm. Initially supported by Royalist revolts, the Scots were
ultimately defeated at Preston by Cromwell and John Lambert (1619–1684) in August and
the rebellions put down through actions such as Fairfax's Siege of Colchester. Angered by
Charles' betrayal, the army marched on Parliament and purged those who still favored an
association with the king. The remaining members, known as the Rump Parliament,
ordered Charles tried for treason.

 The Third Civil War

 Found guilty, Charles was beheaded on January 30, 1649. In the wake of the king's
execution, Cromwell sailed for Ireland to eliminate resistance there which had been
directed by the Duke of Ormonde (1610–1688). With the assistance of Admiral Robert Blake
(1598–1657), Cromwell landed and won bloody victories at Drogheda and Wexford that fall.
The following June saw the late king's son, Charles II, arrive in Scotland where he allied with
the Covenanters. This forced Cromwell to leave Ireland and he was soon campaigning in
Scotland.

 Though he triumphed at Dunbar and Inverkeithing, Cromwell allowed Charles II's army to
move south into England in 1651. Pursuing, Cromwell brought the Royalists to battle on
September 3 at Worcester. Defeated, Charles II escaped to France where he remained in
exile.

 Results of the English Civil War

 With the final defeat of Royalist forces in 1651, power passed to the republican
government of the Commonwealth of England. This remained in place until 1653, when
Cromwell assumed power as Lord Protector. Effectively ruling as a dictator until his death in
1658, he was replaced by his son Richard (1626–1712). Lacking the support of the army,
Richard Cromwell's rule was brief and the Commonwealth returned in 1659 with the re-
installation of the Rump Parliament.
 The following year, with the government in shambles, General George Monck (1608–1670),
who had been serving as Governor of Scotland, invited Charles II to return and take power.
He accepted and by the Declaration of Breda offered pardons for acts committed during the
wars, respect for property rights, and religious toleration. With Parliament's consent,
Charles II arrived in May 1660 and was crowned the following year on April 23.

 Glorious Revolution, also called Revolution of 1688 or Bloodless Revolution, in English
history, the events of 1688–89 that resulted in the deposition of James II and the accession
of his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, prince of Orange and stadholder of the
United Provinces of the Netherlands.

 After the accession of James II in 1685, his overt Roman Catholicism alienated the majority
of the population. In 1687 he issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the penal laws
against Nonconformists and recusants, and in April 1688 ordered that a second Declaration
of Indulgence be read from every pulpit on two successive Sundays. William Sancroft, the
archbishop of Canterbury, and six other bishops petitioned him against this and were
prosecuted for seditious libel. Their acquittal almost coincided with the birth of a son to
James’s Roman Catholic queen, Mary of Modena (June). This event promised an indefinite
continuance of his policy and brought discontent to a head. Seven eminent Englishmen,
including one bishop and six prominent politicians of both Whig and Tory persuasions,
wrote to William of Orange, inviting him to come over with an army to redress the nation’s
grievances.

 William was both James’s nephew and his son-in-law, and, until the birth of James’s son,
William’s wife, Mary, was heir apparent. William’s chief concern was to check the
overgrowth of French power in Europe. Between 1679 and 1684, England’s impotence and
the emperor Leopold I’s preoccupation with a Turkish advance to Vienna had allowed Louis
XIV to seize Luxembourg, Strasbourg, Casale Monferrato, and other places vital to the
defense of the Spanish Netherlands, the German Rhineland, and northern Italy. By 1688,
however, a great European coalition had begun to form to call for a halt to aggressions. Its
prospects depended partly upon England. Thus, having been in close touch with the leading
English malcontents for more than a year, William accepted their invitation. Landing at
Brixham on Tor Bay (November 5), he advanced slowly on London as support fell away from
James II. James’s daughter Anne and his best general, John Churchill, were among the
deserters to William’s camp. Thereupon, James fled to France.

 William was now asked to carry on the government and summon a Parliament. When this
Convention Parliament met (January 22, 1689), it agreed, after some debate, to treat
James’s flight as an abdication and to offer the crown, with an accompanying Declaration of
Rights, to William and Mary jointly. Both gift and conditions were accepted. Thereupon, the
convention turned itself into a proper Parliament and large parts of the Declaration into a
Bill of Rights. This bill gave the succession to Mary’s sister, Anne, in default of issue from
Mary, barred Roman Catholics from the throne, abolished the crown’s power to suspend
laws, condemned the power of dispensing with laws “as it hath been exercised and used of
late,” and declared a standing army illegal in time of peace.

 The settlement marked a considerable triumph for Whig views. If no Roman Catholic could
be king, then no kingship could be unconditional. The adoption of the exclusionist solution
lent support to John Locke’s contention that government was in the nature of a social
contract between the king and his people represented in Parliament. The revolution
permanently established Parliament as the ruling power of England.
19. The house of Hannover

 The House of Hanover (German: Haus Hannover), whose members are known as
Hanoverians, is a German royal house that ruled Hanover, Great Britain, and Ireland at
various times during the 17th through 20th centuries. The house originated in 1635 as a
cadet branch of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg, growing in prestige until Hanover
became an Electorate in 1692. George I became the first Hanoverian monarch of Great
Britain and Ireland in 1714. At Victoria's death in 1901, the throne of the United Kingdom
passed to her eldest son Edward VII, a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
The last reigning members of the House lost the Duchy of Brunswick in 1918 when
Germany became a republic.

 The formal name of the house was the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Hanover line.[1] The
senior line of Brunswick-Lüneburg, which ruled Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, became extinct in
1884. The House of Hanover is now the only surviving branch of the House of Welf, which is
the senior branch of the House of Este. The current head of the House of Hanover is Ernst
August, Prince of Hanover.

 George I (1714 – 1727)

 The first Hanoverian King of England was only 52nd in line to the throne, but, thanks to the
Act of Settlement, George was the nearest Protestant eligible to take the crown. Born in
Germany, George was not a fluent speaker of English and chose to speak in his native
language, which made him deeply unpopular with his subjects. Although times had changed
and most of Britain was now Protestant, George still had to fend off opposition from several
Scottish Jacobite supporters, but any rebellion was swiftly crushed.

 As with the reign of Queen Anne, George’s time on the throne saw the powers of the
monarchy even more greatly diminished as the modern system of government by a Cabinet
developed. By the end of his reign this progressed to the point at which actual power was
held by Sir Robert Walpole, Britain’s first Prime Minister. George died of a stroke during one
of his many visits to his beloved Hanover and was buried in the Chapel of the Leine Schloss.

 George II (1727 – 1760)

 George II was the only son of the king and was also born in Hanover. When he ascended the
throne he shared his father’s problem of having to fend off opposition from Jacobite
supporters, with 1745 seeing ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’ raise a strong army of rebellion in
Scotland. This was famously crushed the following year in the notoriously bloody Battle of
Culloden Moor.

 During George II’s later years he showed little interest in politics but he did involve Britain
in the Seven Years War, which saw many European countries rise up against one another.
His reign also saw the foundation of the Industrial Revolution. After thirty-three years on
 the throne, he died while on the toilet and was buried at Westminster Abbey. As his eldest
son Frederick had died of an abscess, the heir became the King’s grandson, also named
George.

 George III (1760 – 1820)

 Despite being the third Hanovarian monarch of Britain, this King George was the first to be
born in Britain and use English as his first language. During his reign, George III tried to
reverse the diminished role of the monarchy in governing the country but by this point
ministers were too powerful. Also during George’s reign Britain lost many of its colonies in
North America, but Great Britain and Ireland were joined together to form the United
Kingdom.

 In later years George III famously suffered from recurrent mental illness, thought to be
related to the blood disease porphyria. However, recent studies have revealed high levels
of arsenic in King George's hair, suggesting that the poison was also a possible cause of the
King’s insanity. After a final relapse in 1811, the King's eldest son, George, Prince of Wales
ruled as Prince Regent. Upon George's death aged 81, the Prince of Wales succeeded his
father as George IV.

 George IV (1820 – 1830)

 As a young man the Prince Regent earned a reputation for fine living and decadence, and
he became a lavish patron of the arts. Also developing a keen interest in architecture The
Prince Regent commissioned the elegant Brighton Pavilion, with no expense spared. Over
time he fell out with his father and many of his subjects who had to foot the bill for his
expensive lifestyle.

 George’s time as Regent was marked by victory in the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the
reconstruction by John Nash of Buckingham Palace as we know it today. When he finally
ascended the throne as George IV he had a suitably lavish coronation extravaganza,
although by this time he was obese and possibly addicted to laudanum, his life blighted by a
difficult arranged marriage to his own cousin and the death of his daughter and mother. He
died a bloated mess of a man, and was buried in Windsor Castle.

 William IV (1830 – 1837)

 Following the death of George IV, family deaths meant that his brother William took the
throne. During his youth, he served in the Royal Navy and as a result was nicknamed the
Sailor King. Due to ascending the throne at sixty-nine, his reign was short. It was, however,
one of several major reforms, including local government being democratised, child labour
restricted and slavery abolished throughout the British Empire.

 However, the most important reform of William IV's reign was the Reform Act of 1832,
which refashioned the British electoral system. He ultimately died of asthma-related illness
and was succeeded by his niece, Princess Victoria of Kent. Under ancient law no woman
 could carry the Hanoverian crown, which went to William’s brother and so ended the
Hanoverian Dynasty in Britain.

 Victoria of the United Kingdom
 Reigned: 20 June 1837 — 22 January 1901

 William IV outlived both of his legitimate children, so when he died the Crown came to his
niece, Victoria. (Hanover itself, meanwhile, passed out of personal union with Great Britain
and into the hands of William's younger brother Ernest Augustus, as the throne of Hanover
couldn't be inherited by a woman.) Her reign was long and eventful; she became both the
longest-lived British sovereign (the third time this had occurred in the last five monarchs)
and longest-reigning monarch in British history, only surpassed in either category by the
present Queen Elizabeth II. See Queen Victoria, Victorian Britain, and Victorian London for
more on this period. Her eldest son, Edward VII, marked the beginning of The House of
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (from the house name of Prince Albert), known today as The House
of Windsor.

 Ernest Augustus I of Hanover
 Reigned: 20 June 1837 –- 18 November 1851

 The fifth son of George III, he was sent to Hanover in his youth for education, military
training, and to get him away from the influence of the heir. By 1793 had received a lifelong
facial scar on the front lines of The War of the First Coalition, and was created Duke of
Cumberland and Teviotdale six years later. Of course his time on the continent helped
develop his arch-conservative political views, which alongside scandals up to and including
actual interference in the elections for a seat in the House of Commons made him
increasingly unpopular in Britain. He moved to Berlin with his new wife (twice widowed, the
second time conveniently after meeting Ernest) in 1818, but being happily married upon
the death of his only legitimate niece gave him a real chance at the British throne.

 It is note likely that The Duke of Wellington said this to the face of the late King William's
brother after the Anglo-Hanoveran Union of the Crowns ended in 1837, but the Duke of
Cumberland was not a popular man in Britain and the populace of Hanover would have
preferred passing him over in favor of the current Viceroy had the Hanoveran heir's
younger brother Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge not refused outright to lend himself
to such a thing. This and his high-handed response to several protesting professors at his
old alma mater of Göttingen University (the "Göttingen Seven", which included the Brothers
Grimm) met with yet more hostility from his birthplace.

 On a different note, he made no opposition to Catholic or Jewish emancipation in Hanover
itself. He saw the pledges to protect the Anglican Faith his house took upon gaining the
British throne did not apply to the continental domains. While he avoided bloodshed during
the widespread 1848 revolutions, Ernst August did finally cave and pass a new constitution
a few years before his death at age 80.

 George V of Hanovernote
  Reigned: 18 November 1851 –- 20 September 1866

 Born in Berlin and spending most of his formative years in Britain, he was 18 when he
arrived in Hanover as the new Crown Prince... and completely blind due to childhood
illnesses. His father had some hopes of getting him married off to his first cousin Victoria of
Kent with an eye toward reuniting Great Britain and Hanover in the next generation, but
that did not work out. Ernst August did override all attempts to set his only living child aside
from the Hanoverian succession due to his blindness and instructed his son in the art of
rulership.

 It ultimately did not go well.

 Georg V's 15 year reign was plagued with conflict between the crown and parliament,
ending with a dispute over whether to stay out of the 1866 Austro-Prussian war. He won
and sided with his Viennese ally... then was forced to flee with his family to Austria and
found himself formally deposed when Prussia overran the outmatched and strategically
vulnerable North German kingdom. He died in Parisian exile twelve years later.

 The House of Hanover, in the shape of Georg's grandson Ernst August, eventually made up
with the House of Hohenzollern, the ruling dynasty of Prussia, which had meantime unified
Germany, in 1913. Ernst August married Emperor Wilhelm II's only daughter Viktoria Luise
and at the same time was made reigning Duke of Brunswick (the duchy had been
administered by regents following the death of the last male heir of the elder line of the
House of Brunswick). But during World War I the Titles Deprivation Act of 1917 stripped the
House of Hanover of their titles of nobility in UK. In 1918 Ernst August was forced to
abdicate in the course of the November Revolution, and the new Weimar Republic then
abolished all German titles of nobility, including those of the House of Hanover. Some of
the family members would go on to support the Nazis in 1930s, only to to turn against them
in 1940s, as many German nationalists did, and wound up in concentration camps by the
end of World War II for their troubles.

 Georg's descendants are still around. His current heir, Ernst August Prinz von Hannover, is
married to Princess Caroline of Monaco. If he chose, he could apply to the UK Privy Council
to have the dukedom of Cumberland returned to him.


20. The Industrial Revolution.

Before the 18th century, agriculture was the biggest source of employment in Britain. There were
many cottage industries, where people worked from home to produce goods such as cloth and
lace.

The Industrial Revolution was the rapid development of industry in Britain in the 18th and 19th
centuries. Britain was the first country to industrialise on a large scale.
Manufacturing jobs became the main source of employment in Britain. Industrialization marked a
shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production. The iron and textile
industries, along with the development of the steam engine, played central roles in the Industrial
Revolution, which also saw improved systems of transportation, communication and banking.

Several influences came together at the same time to revolutionize Britain's industry: money,
labour, a greater demand for goods, new power, and better transport.

Increased food production made it possible to feed large populations in the new towns. These
populations were made up of the people who had lost their land through enclosures and were
looking for work. They now needed to buy things they had never needed before. In the old days
people in the villages had grown their own food, made many of their own clothes. As landless
workers these people had to buy food, clothing and everything they needed. So, they moved from
the countryside and started working in the mining and manufacturing industries.

By the early eighteenth century simple machines had already been invented for basic jobs. They
could make large quantities of simple goods quickly and cheaply so that "mass production" became
possible for the first time. Each machine carried out one simple process, which introduced the idea
of "division of labour" among workers.

The development of the Bessemer (Sir Henry Bessemer was an English inventor, whose steel
making process would become the most important technique for making steel in the 19th century)
process for the mass production of steel led to the development of the shipbuilding industry and
the railways.

By the I740s the main problem holding back industrial growth was fuel. There was less wood, and
in any case wood could not produce the heat necessary to make iron and steel either in large
quantities or of high quality. But at this time the use of coal for changing iron ore into good quality
iron or steel was perfected, and this made Britain the leading iron producer in Europe. In 1800
Britain was producing four times as much coal as it had done in 1700, and eight times as much iron.

Increased iron production made it possible to manufacture new machinery for other industries.
John Wilkinson built the largest ironworks in the country. He built the world's first iron bridge, over
the River Severn, in 1779. He built an iron chapel for the new Methodist religious sect.

When James Watt made a greatly improved steam engine in 1769, Wilkinson improved it further
by making parts of the engine more accurately with his special skills in ironworking, But in 1781
Watt produced an engine with a turning motion, made of iron and steel. It was a vital development
because people were now no longer dependent on natural power.

One invention led to another and increased production in one area led to increased production in
others.
Other basic materials of the industrial revolution were cotton and woollen cloth, which were
popular abroad. In 1764 a spinning machine was invented which could do the work of several hand
spinners. In 1785 a power machine for weaving revolutionized cloth making. It allowed Britain to
make cloth more cheaply than elsewhere and Lancashire cotton cloths were sold in every
continent. But this machinery put many people out of work. It also changed what had been a
"cottage industry" done at home into a factory industry.

In the Midlands, factories using locally found clay began to develop very quickly and produced fine
quality plates, cups and other china goods. These soon replaced the old metal plates and drinking
cups that had

been used. Soon large quantities of china were being exported. The most famous factory was one
started by Josiah Wedgwood. His high quality bone china became very popular as it still is.

The cost of such goods was made cheaper than ever by improved transport. Better transport links
were needed to transport raw materials and manufactured goods. Canals were built to link the
factories to towns and cities and to the ports, particularly in the new industrial areas in the middle
and north of England. George Stephenson built a public railroad between Stockton and Darlington
which was the first to carry passengers and freight using a locomotive. In 1829 Stephenson
invented his steam engine, the "Rocket" and from then on railroads dominated the country. By
1852 there were 7,000 miles of railway line.

Working conditions during the Industrial Revolution were very poor. There were no laws to protect
employees, who were often forced to work long hours in dangerous situations. Children also
worked and were treated in the same way as adults. Sometimes they were treated even more
harshly.

Workers tried to join together to protect themselves against powerful employers. They wanted fair
wages and reason able conditions in which to work. But the government quickly banned these
"combinations", as the workers' societies were known. Riots occurred, led by the unemployed who
had been replaced in factories by machines. In 1799 some of these rioters, known as Luddites,
started to break up the machinery which had put them out of work. The government supported
the factory owners, and made the breaking of machinery punishable by death.

This was also a time of increased colonisation overseas. Captain James Cook mapped the coast of
Australia and a few colonies were established there. Britain gained control over Canada, and the
East India Company, originally set up to trade, gained control of large parts of India. Colonies began
to be established in southern Africa.

Britain traded all over the world and began to import more goods. Sugar and tobacco came from
North America and the West Indies; textiles, tea and spices came from India and the area that is
today called Indonesia. Trading and settlements overseas sometimes brought Britain into conflict
with other countries, particularly France, which was expanding and trading in a similar way in many
of the same areas of the world.

21. The Victorian age.

Britain's relations with the other Great Powers were driven by the colonial antagonism of the Great Game
(political and diplomatic confrontation that existed between the British Empire and the Russian Empire over
Afghanistan and neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia), climaxing (кульминация) with Crimean
War (result: Russian Empire lost to an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain and Sardinia). Britain
embarked on global imperial expansion, particularly in Asia and Africa, which made the British Empire the
largest empire in history.

The two main political parties during the era remained the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives; by its end,
the Labour Party had formed as a distinct political entity.

(Ну что могу сказать, забрали британцы у нас влияние и на Азию, и на Европу. Хотя в российской
истории конец 19 века прославлен неплохим. Там наш Саня II покоряет Кавказ и Турцию).

Queen Victoria. Governed for 63 years (1837 – 1901) what is more than any other British monarch except
Elizabeth II.

Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until her death. In 1876 adopted the additional
title of Empress of India.

She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving heirs.

All these facts are true because they aren’t just historian’s theories, they are taken from her personal diaries
(there are 122 parts).

Was raised under strong control by her mother and her comptroller (финансовый директор) John
Conroy who was the main fear of her childhood. He wasn’t even her stepfather… he was just a man
who desired to receive power due to “silly little girl”. His efforts to place Victoria’s mother in the role of
regent were unsuccessful, as Victoria ascended the throne after reaching her majority in 1837 (because she
wasn’t “silly little girl”, as you can see)

(Вкратце, какой-то тупой мужик- счетовод пытался уговорить Вику отдать регентство её мамуле, а та
бы слушала только его. Но Вика не из простых. Так-то она правила дольше всех британских монархов).

Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840 (They were deeply in love). Their 9 children
married into royal and noble families across the continent, that’s why she is also known as "the
grandmother of Europe".

At the first time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig (название партии, хочется
надеяться, что ей они не нужны) prime minister Lord Melbourne. The Prime Minister at once became a
powerful influence on the politically inexperienced Queen, who relied on him for advice. Victoria saw him as
a father figure. However, some people called Victoria “missis Melbourne” …
After her marriage Prince Albert a little bit displaced Lord Melbourne from position of the main advisor.
Beloved husband, you know. But he wasn’t like stupid John Conroy. He didn’t want power or something, he
just wanted to help his woman. This one was a husband of our sweet dreams, girls. I’m crying.

After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria was depressed and avoided public appearances. As a result of it,
republicanism in the United Kingdom gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity
recovered (возобновилась). The rest of her life she was wearing only black dresses.

She was the first one who lived in Buckingham palace. But after Albert’s death she received nickname
“Widow of Windsor”, because she avoided London, people, fuss and so on.

However, then she received a nickname “missis Brown”. Because she had something with her Scottish
servant John Brown. She even wrote a book “ Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands”
(«Страницы из журнала нашей жизни в горной Шотландии») where John Brown took an important
place. And after his death “More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands” (what you thought? huh?)

She improved relations with France. FINALLY!!! CAN YOU IMAGINE IT??? (Каким образом? Она просто с
ними не воевала и приглашала в гости, да и сама ездила. Может быть им просто надоело воевать, кто
их знает)

IRONY: During her childhood she wasn’t allowed to go up and downstairs alone, only with help of servants.
When in her living room she knew about her uncle’s death and realized that she’s the queen, first thing that
she did was solitary walk on stairs of course. BUT in her old age in 1883 she fell down from stupid stairs…
and suffered because of it until her death.

Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901.
The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Of course, she was a kitty but, actually, since Victorian age the Queen became more a symbol of power than
real power. However, her monument is situated in front of the Buckingham palace. You know, in Russia
monarchs will be shot extremely soon, it is better to become a symbol than to be shot.

22. The House of Windsor

House of Windsor, formerly (1901–17) Saxe-Coburg-Gotha or Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the royal house of
the United Kingdom, which succeeded the house of Hanover on the death of its last monarch, Queen
Victoria, on January 22, 1901. The dynasty includes Edward VII (reigned 1901–10), George V (1910–36),
Edward VIII (1936), George VI (1936–52), and Elizabeth II (1952– ). The heir apparent is Charles, prince of
Wales. His elder son, Prince William, duke of Cambridge, is second in line to the British throne.

The House of Windsor came into being in 1917, when King George V(George was born on 3 June 1865, in
Marlborough House, London. He was the second son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, and Alexandra,
Princess of Wales. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, and his mother was the
eldest daughter of King Christian IX and Queen Louise of Denmark.), formerly of the House of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, concerned that his Germanic sounding surname would alienate his British subjects at the height of
German xenophobia during World War I, changed the name of his dynasty to the more English sounding
Windsor. Declaring at a meeting of the Privy Council on 17th July 1917, that 'all descendants in the male line
of Queen Victoria, who are subjects of these realms, other than female descendants who marry or who have
married, shall bear the name of Windsor'. The name Windsor has long been associated with the English
monarchy through its connections with Windsor Castle.

The House of Windsor has produced four British sovereigns, George V (1910-1936), his son Edward VIII
(1936) , who abdicated the throne to marry the twice divorced American Wallis Warfield Simpson in favour of
his brother George VI (1936-52) and the present Queen, Elizabeth II.

In 1960, the Queen and her husband the Duke of Edinburgh came to the joint decision that they would prefer
their direct descendants to be distinguished from the rest of the Royal Family (without changing the name of
the Royal House), declaring in the Privy Council that 'The Queen's descendants, other than those with the
style of Royal Highness and the title of Prince/Princess, would bear the surname of ‘Mountbatten-Windsor’

Edward VIII
b.1841

son of Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha &Queen Victoria

r.1901-1910

His wife: Alexandra of Denmark

George V
His wife: Mary of Teck (her mother was the first cousin of Queen Victoria, being the younger daughter of
Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, (the youngest surviving son of King George III) and Augusta of Hesse-
Cassel.

b.1865

son of- EdwardVII &Alexandra of Denmark

r.1910-36

Edward VIII
b.1894

son of- George V &Mary of Teck

r.1936

His wife: Wallis Warfield Simpson (she was the reason why Edward VIII abdicated in December 1936)

George VI(Albert Duke of York)

b.1895

son of- George V & Mary of Teck

r.1936-52

His wife: Lady Elizabeth

Bowes Lyon

Elizabeth II
b.1926

daughter of- George VI &Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon

r.1952

Her husband: Phillip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburg

Queen Elizabeth II’s children would normally have borne their father’s surname, Mountbatten (which itself
had been Anglicized from Battenberg). However, in 1952, soon after her accession, she declared in council
that her children and descendants would bear the surname Windsor. That decision was modified (February 8,
1960) to the effect that issue other than those styled prince or princess and royal highness should bear the
name Mountbatten-Windsor.

***

During the twentieth century, kings and queens of the United Kingdom have fulfilled the varied duties of
constitutional monarchy. One of their most important roles has been acting as national figureheads lifting
public morale during the devastating wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45.

The period saw the modernisation of the monarchy in tandem with many social changes which have taken
place over the past 90 years. One such modernisation has been the use of mass communication
technologies to make the Royal Family accessible to a broader public all over the world.

George V adopted the new medium of radio to broadcast across the Empire at Christmas; the Coronation
ceremony was broadcast on television for the first time in 1953, at The Queen's insistence; and the World
Wide Web has been used for the past seven years to provide a global audience with information about the
Royal Family.
During this period, British monarchs have also played a vital part in promoting international relations. The
Queen retains close links with former colonies in her role as Head of the Commonwealth.

23. The UK in the First Part of the 20th Century

Queen Victoria died in January 1901, and Edward VII, the son of Queen Victoria ascended the
throne. Edwardian Britain was a powerful and rich country, much of its wealth coming from
business abroad. By that time, British money had been invested in many countries, and British
banks and insurance companies had customers and did business all over the world, and, as the
result, much of the policy and affairs concerning the Edwardian Britain at that time were the
international ones.

In 1902, when Germany, supported by the Triple Alliance, became extremely powerful and the
ambitions of the Kaiser became evident, Britain entered the Anglo-Japanese alliance to avoid
political isolation. The war of 1904-1905 between Russia and Japan made the first one and Britain
nearly enemies, with the end of the war political situation changed. In 1907 the Triple Entente of
Great Britain, Russia and France was achieved as a countermeasure to the expansion of the Triple
Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy in Balkans.

Still, while the reign of King Edward VII was taking place, many of the British were concerned with
domestic matters. Some important changes in the way that people lived and were governed
happened.

In 1900 the Labour Representation Committee, which soon became the Labour Party, was formed.
Its aim was to see working people represented in Parliament, with the powerful support of trade
unions.

The Education Act of 1902 met the demand for national system of secondary education. The
government began providing such kind of education, although only a small number of
schoolchildren could pay for the secondary school, and the rest had to be clever enough to pass
the scholarship exams.

The general election of 1906 gave the Liberal Party an overwhelming majority in Parliament, with
the programme including old-age pensions, government employment offices, such as Employment
Exchanges, unemployment insurance, a contributory programme of national medical insurance for
most workers, and a board to fix minimum wages for miners and others; but women still were not
given the right to vote.

The years 1911 to 1914 were marked with strikes by miners, dock workers, and transport workers,
as wages scarcely kept up with rising prices; suffragists carried out numerous demonstrations in
favour of the enfranchisement of women, and while the Britain was in the midst of these domestic
problems and disputes, World War I broke out.
The first large operation in which the British expeditionary force took part was the battle of Marne
in 1915, which also happened to become the turning point of the whole war in the West front. The
German advance across the French territory was halted, and it made the quick victory of the
Germans impossible and gave time for great but slowly mobilized material resources of the British
Empire to have their effect. In the course of the following years the war turned into the stalemate
with mostly positional fighting and no significant advances of any of the combatants; the peace
among Germany and Britain was signed in 1918.

World War I had both positive effect on the British industry and negative effect on the internal
political situation. The Irish problems drew to the 1916 Easter Rebellion. If necessary, the Irish
nationalists were ready to seek German aid and support in fighting the British government. The
rebellion led to some several hundred casualities and imprisonment and execution of most of the
Irish political leaders. The civil war in Ireland began and lasted until the peace treaty of 1921. Most
of the Ireland became the Irish Free State, independent of British rule in all but name. One more
result of the disturbances in Ireland was the development of the new Irish Sinn Fein political party.

World War I created more opportunities for women to work outside domestic service. Women
aged 30 and over were granted the vote by the Reform Act of 1918, and the same Act granted the
vote to all men over the age of 21. In 1928 women were given voting rights that were equal to
those of men.

The immediate post-war years were marked by economic boom, rapid demobilization, and much
labour strife. By 1921, however, the number of people without work had reached one million.
Between 1929 and 1932, the depression more than doubled an already high rate of
unemployment. Unemployment rose to more than 2 million in the 1930’s. In the course of several
years, both the levels of industrial activity and of prices dipped by a quarter, and industries such as
shipbuilding collapsed almost entirely.

Between 1933 and 1937, the economy recovered steadily, with the construction, automobile, and
electrical industries leading the way. Unemployment remained high, however, especially in Wales,
Scotland, and northern parts of England.

In 1936 King Edward VIII ascended the throne, and a remarkable occasion took place. Edward
preferred to be happy in private life rather than to dedicate himself to the royal duties and
discharged his duty as a king and emperor in favour of a love affair. Edward VIII was succeeded by
his brother, George VI.

In 1939 World War II broke out. After the surrender of France in 1940, Britain remained the only
resisting country in the West front. In 1940, also, one of the greatest aerial battles in history took
place. The so-called Battle of Britain was the British answer to the permanent attempts of Germany
to ruin the industry of United Kingdom and to suppress the spirit of the British people by heavy air
bombardments. By the end of 1940 almost all aircraft factories in England were destroyed, and a
few British fighter squadrons remained operational, but the ability of Luftwaffe to carry out
offensive operations in the West was almost zeroed due to very heavy losses. The real help in
struggle against Germany was that beginning early in 1941, the still-neutral United States granted
lend-lease aid to Britain.

Luckily, the British Isles experienced no ground fighting throughout the whole war, and no British
troops were engaged in ground operations until the Allies landing in France in 1944. Before that
date, British took part in the coordinated Anglo-American operations in North Africa, fighting
against German troops there, the most significant battle being that at El Alamein, where the Allies
managed to defeat one of the best German commanders-in-chief Rommel. After the landing in
Normandy, which didn’t play the big role in the course of war, but helped to bring it to closure
sooner than it was expected, it took only ten month to make Germany to surrender on 8 May,
1945.

When World War II ended, the British government launched a number of important programmes
in an effort to restore the county’s economy. The National Insurance Act of 1946 was a
consolidation of benefit laws involving maternity, disability, old age, and death, as well as
assistance if unemployed. In 1948 the National Health Service was set up. The general election of
1945 gave the Labour party the majority in Parliament, and the party launched a programme of
nationalization of private industries to improve the economical situation.

24. The UK after 1945.

After horrible storms sea takes it easy. Супер корявая фраза, но ничего больше не могу сказать. К
счастью для нас, готовящихся к экзамену, это время на события не богата. Главное, что старый дед
Черчилль по-прежнему преимущественно главный, а Лиза II красотка. Ну и Англия немного
прогнулась под Америкой и совсем слегка проебала парочку своих колоний. Ну и она хейтит Россию,
иначе-то никогда и не бывало.

After victory in the Second World War, it was decided to reform the Parliament. Winston Churchill, warriors
Prime Minister with his “victorious sign” was changed by Clement Attlee and Labour party (На всякий
случай: Черчилль обожал показывать пальцам знак «пис» или «виктори». Хотя в первый раз какому-
то журналисту на камеру он показал тот же знак, но развернув кисть по-другому, что означает «пошел
в задницу»).

Period after War was like Churchill said period of “triumph and tragedy”. The most tragical for them were
political and economic dependence from USA and necessity to give independence to India, Burma and
Ceylon.

Indians aren’t so silly guys, they perfectly understood that severe Mummy England was weak and it was
brilliant time to claim for their freedom. However, England didn’t forget to spoil a little bit their happiness
with dividing India into to religious parts: Buddhistic India and Muslim Pakistan.

Maybe the UK lost some colonies but it received Nuclear power (стало ядерной державой)
Britain was a strong anti-Soviet factor in the Cold War and helped found NATO in 1949.

In 1951 Winston Churchill again became Prime Minister. His third government — after the wartime national
government and the short caretaker government of 1945 — would last until his resignation in 1955. During
this period, he renewed what he called the "special relationship" between Britain and the United States,
and engaged himself in the formation of the post-war order.

In February 1952, King George VI died and was succeeded by his eldest daughter Elizabeth. Her coronation
on 2 June 1953 gave the British people a renewed sense of national pride and enthusiasm which had been
lowered by the war.

In April 1955, Churchill finally retired, and Sir Anthony Eden succeeded him as Prime Minister. Eden was a
very popular figure, as a result of his long wartime service and also his famous good looks and charm. On
taking office he immediately called a general election, at which the Conservatives were returned with an
increased majority. He left domestic issues to his lieutenants such as Rab Butler, and concentrated largely
on foreign policy, forming a close alliance with US President Dwight Eisenhower.

Without extra words, Britain became really dependent from its ex-colony. And, of course, forgot who
helped them in the Second World War. USA is the guy who is more popular in this dumb secondary school
or world, I can’t see the difference.

Ну и супер надеюсь, что это никому не пригодится, но вот вам все премьер-министры до Тэтчер:

Leader(s)

Sir Winston Churchill

Clement Attlee

Sir Anthony Eden

Harold Macmillan

Sir Alec Douglas-Home

Harold Wilson

Edward Heath

James Callaghan

25. Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher (1925-2013) was Britain’s first female prime minister (1979-90). She was known
for her tough uncompromising, conservative political views, and became dubbed as ‘The Iron
Lady’. On the UK domestic front she instituted many free market reforms, implemented the
controversial poll tax and reduced the power of trades unions. In international affairs, she
cultivated a close relationship with American President Ronald Reagan and also developed a
working relationship with Russian leader Mikhail Gorbachev as the Cold War drew to a close.
The daughter of Alfred Roberts, a grocer and local alderman (and later mayor of Grantham), and
Beatrice Ethel Stephenson, Thatcher formed an early desire to be a
politician. Her intellectual ability led her to the University of Oxford, where she
studied chemistry and was immediately active in politics, becoming one of the first woman
presidents of the Oxford University Conservative Association.
Thatcher led the Conservatives to a decisive electoral victory in 1979.
The main impact of her first term was economic. Inheriting a weak economy, she reduced or
eliminated some governmental regulations and subsidies to businesses, thereby purging the
manufacturing industry of many inefficient—but also some blameless—firms. The result was a
dramatic increase in unemployment, from 1.3 million in 1979 to more than double that figure two
years later. At the same time, inflation doubled in just 14 months, to more than 20 percent, and
manufacturing output fell sharply. Although inflation decreased and output rose before the end of
her first term, unemployment continued to increase, reaching more than three million in 1986.
Thatcher embarked on an ambitious program of privatization of state-owned industries and public
services, including aerospace, television and radio, gas and electricity, water, the state airline, and
British Steel. By the end of the 1980s, the number of individual stockholders had tripled, and the
government had sold 1.5 million publicly owned housing units to their tenants.

In foreign policy, she got on well with American President Ronald Reagan. They often met and
talked of a ‘special relationship’ between the US and UK. Mrs Thatcher also expressed respect for
Russian President Mikhail Gorbachev. She famously said of Gorbachev, that ‘he was a man who we
could do business with’.

On a domestic front, the remaining years of her premiership were overshadowed by her
controversial and dogmatic decision to stick with the poll tax. This was widely regarded as an unfair
tax because everybody paid the same amount regardless of income. Opposition to the poll tax spilt
over into violent protest and her popularity plummeted. She also became associated with policies
to promote individualism.

Because of her declining popularity, she was eventually forced out as leader of the party and PM in
1990. Although she was bitter about her perceived betrayal, she left an unprecedented mark on
the UK economic and political landscape. For good or ill, she changed the British economic and
political situation. In particular, Thatcher marked a break with ‘One Nation Conservatism’ and the
post-war consensus.

Thatcher died on 8 April 2013 at the age of 87 after suffering a stroke.

26. Great British Inventions

Speaking of inventions, British people contributed a lot to the world. According to a Japanese
research firm, over 40% of the world’s inventions originated in the United Kingdom. Some of these
are complex inventions. Some of them are the simplest of the simplest, but still, you can never
imagine without these things.
In 1928, Scottish biologist Sir Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered an antibiotic substance
called “penicillin” which saved millions of lives. It helped women during childbirth, saved 15% of
the wounded soldiers in World War II, and eradicated prevalent STDs. Today, there are 34 million
antibiotics registered and prescribed to patients to treat certain disorders.
William Addis was an English entrepreneur who became popular in the world for his invention of
the toothbrush. He invented it inside the jail when he was imprisoned in 1770. He decided to
improve the way prisoners brush their teeth. He used a small bone from his meal, made holes and
attached bristles. After his release, he produced toothbrushes and became a worldwide hit.
English RAF fighter and pilot Frank Whittle invented the turbojet engine. When he was 22, he
thought that they can use a gas turbine to power a plane. He pursued his research without any
support for study and development. In 1937, he successfully invented the turbojet engine. Modern
turbojet engines today are used in British and American aircraft.
In 1755, Scottish professor William Cullen conceptualized a small refrigerating machine. But it was
only in 1856 when British journalist developed the first practical vapour compression refrigeration
system. He introduced this patent to meat processing houses and breweries. Today, 99% of
households have a refrigerator. In fact, over 100 million refrigerators are sold annually.
Another breakthrough technology that redefined entertainment was the television. There are
many inventors who can be attributed to its invention. But it was Scottish inventor John Logie Baird
who successfully demonstrated the first working TV system in 1962. Today, most people can’t live
without TV, spending two to six hours watching entertainment shows.
By the way, World Wide Web was invented by English engineer and computer scientist Tim
Berners-Lee who developed the link between the HTTP and the server which initiated the domain
system.
British scientist William Henry Fox Talbot pioneered photography using silver iodide on paper and
started contact printing, a system before the advent of digital cameras.
British physicist and chemist Sir Joseph Wilson Swan successfully developed an incandescent light
bulb. He is also responsible for supplying electric lights that have illuminated houses and buildings
up to today.

27. Great Britons.

There are a lot of Britons who made major contributions to the development of Great Britain over
years. I’d like to speak about some of these people.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel performed one of the most significant roles in the history of industrial
revolution. He is probably best remembered for his construction of a network of tunnels, bridges
and viaducts for the Great Western Railway. In 1833, he was appointed their chief engineer and
work began on the line that linked London to Bristol. Brunel was responsible for the design of
several famous ships. The 'Great Western', launched in 1837, was the first steamship to engage in
transatlantic service. The 'Great Britain', launched in 1843, was the world's first iron-hulled, screw
propeller-driven, steam-powered passenger liner. The 'Great Eastern', launched in 1859, was
designed in cooperation with John Scott Russell, and was by far the biggest ship ever built up to
that time, but was not commercially successful.
Churchill is best remembered for successfully leading Britain through World War Two. He was
famous for his inspiring speeches, and for his refusal to give in, even when things were going badly.
Many people consider him the greatest Briton of all time and he's almost certainly the most
famous British prime minister.

Charles Darwin is centrally important in the development of scientific and humanist ideas because
he first made people aware of their place in the evolutionary process when the most powerful and
intelligent form of life discovered how humanity had evolved. The theory of evolution by natural
selection was first put forward by Darwin in On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, and his
theory is still generally accepted as the best available explanation of the way life on this planet
developed.
Princess Diana may have been a style icon, but the world remembers her as a prominent
philanthropic force. She worked untiringly for numerous charities, using her fame to create
awareness on several humanitarian issues. She passionately fought for the ban of landmines;
worked ardently for HIV/AIDS and leprosy awareness; became a patron of Centrepoint, which
helps the young and homeless off the streets in 1992. She constantly visited shelters, taking her
young sons, Prince William and Princess Harry, along.
Isaac Newton changed the way we understand the Universe. Revered in his own lifetime, he
discovered the laws of gravity and motion and invented calculus. He helped to shape our rational
world view. Challenged by Robert Hooke to prove his theories about planetary orbits, Newton
produced what is considered the foundation for physics as we know it. Newton oversaw a huge
project to recall the old currency, and issue a more reliable one. Always methodical, Newton kept a
database of counterfeiters, and prosecuted them with a puritanical fury. He was appointed Master
of the Mint in 1700 and held the post for the rest of his life.

William Shakespeare had an incredible influence on the English language and invented hundreds of
words we still use today. He wrote three different types of plays: Histories - about the lives of kings
and famous figures from history; Comedies - which end with a marriage; Tragedies - which end
with the death of the main character. Shakespeare also wrote plenty of poetry and in 1609
published a book of 154 sonnets. He was famous for playing with words - he invented more than
1,700.

28. Language and Cultural Variations in the UK. Accents

Regional voices
All languages change over time and vary according to place and social setting. The way we speak is
influenced by many factors – the roots of our elders, our social and educational background, our
working environment, our friends and our own sense of identity. As we move across the country we
experience the changing landscape and architecture. At the same time we notice a gradual change in
the sounds we hear – the accents and dialects that immediately conjure up a sense of the place to
which they belong. The terms accent and dialect are often used interchangeably, although in strict
linguistic terms they refer to different aspects of language variation.
What is a dialect?
A dialect is a specific variety of English that differs from other varieties in three specific ways:
•lexis (vocabulary)
•grammar (structure)
•phonology (pronunciation or accent). English dialects may be different from each other, but all
speakers within the English-speaking world can still generally understand them. A speaker from
Newcastle upon Tyne, for instance, might pepper his speech with localised vocabulary, such as gan
for 'to go' or clarts for 'mud'. He may often use regional grammatical constructions, such as the past
tense constructions I’ve went and I’ve drank or the reflexive pronouns mysel, yoursel, hissel etc. In
addition he probably uses a range of local pronunciations. For all these reasons he could be described
as a Geordie dialect speaker.
In England, there are two main dialects or varieties of English:  

1. standard English, used widely in public institutions such as education, media and the
law. We learn it in school when we are taught to read and to write. Standard English is
not bound by geographic location, and is the form used  most commonly in writing. 
2. regional dialect/variation, that is bound by geographical location. It is  used most
commonly in speech, but also in writing such as Irving Welsh’s novel

What is an accent?
Accent, on the other hand, refers only to differences in the sound patterns of a specific dialect. A
speaker from Newcastle upon Tyne who generally uses mainstream vocabulary and grammar, but
whose pronunciation has an unmistakeable hint of Tyneside, should properly be described as having a
Geordie accent. In other words, dialect is the umbrella term for a variety of linguistic features, one of
which is accent. True dialect speakers are relatively rare, but despite popular belief we all speak with
an accent.

•Received Pronunciation
The accent most commonly associated with standard English is known as Received Pronunciation
(RP). RP is not bound by geographical location, and the accent most commonly associated with the
Royal Family, people in professional occupations and linked to upper and middle social classes. RP is
also subject to change, as the RP of Queen Elizabeth is different from that of her children and
grandchildren. BBC presenters, often once thought of as ‘gatekeepers’ of RP, now present the news
and current affairs programmes in a wide range of regional accents. There is also regional variation in
RP: for example, the fact that the sound can be pronounced as short, as in cat in words like bath and
grass or long, as in farm. A short is characteristic of Northern England and a long of Southern England.
Given that the South of England is perceived as a more prestigious than the North, then we may find
ourselves consciously using one or other as a way of marking identity with either region.

•Scottish English is considered the variant of the English language spoken in Scotland. Scottish English
has a long tradition as a separate written and spoken variety. Pronunciation, grammar and lexis differ,
sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English existing on the territory of the British Isles.
Among lexical peculiarities of Scottish English the following linguistic facts are of importance: 1) some
semantic fields are structured differently in Scottish English and in British English. For example, the
term minor in British English is used to denote a person below the age of 18, while Scottish law
distinguishes between pupils (to age 12 for girls and 14 for boys) and minors (older children up to 18);
2) there are so many words which have the same form, but different meanings in Scottish English and
British English. For example, the word gate in Scottish English means “road”; 3) some Scottish words
and expressions are used and understood across virtually the whole country, e.g. dinnae (“don’t),
wee (“small”), kirk (“church”), lassie (“girl”) and others.

It should be noted that in different regions of Scotland there are their own versions of emphasis. For
example, residents of the western part of the country speak quickly, sometimes omit vowels and
consonants. But there are common features:
• A longer and louder sound is used / r /;
• no diphthongs / ai /, / eə /, / əʊ /, and others;
• The vowel in the words trap and palm can be pronounced the same - like / æ / or / ɑː /;
• in words with the ending -ed, a  sound: carried - / karɪt /.

•Irish English is considered the variant of the English language used in Ireland. It is also widely
referred as Anglo-Irish. Anglo-Irish is the oldest, long associated with people of mainly English origin.
Irish English subsumes all the Englishes of the island, and other terms stands for subvarieties. The
two main politico-linguistic divisions are Southern and Northern, within and across which further
varieties are Anglo-Irish, Hiberno-English, Ulster Scots, and the usage of the two capitals, Dublin and
Belfast.
The Irish English vocabulary is characterized by the following distinctive features: 1) the presence of
words with the same form as in British English but different meanings in Irish English, e.g. backward –
“shy”; to doubt – “to believe strongly”; bold – “naughty”; 2) the presence of words typical only of Irish
English (the so-called Irishisms), e.g. begorrah – “by God”; 3) the layer of words shared with Scottish
English, e.g. ava – “at all”; greet – “cry, weep”; and some other features.
Besides distinctive features in lexis Irish English has grammatical, phonetical and spelling peculiarities
of its own, e.g. the use of ‘does be/to be” construction in the following phrase: “They do be talking on
their mobiles a lot’. In Irish English the plural form of you is distinguished from the singular, normally
by using the otherwise archaic English word ye to denote plurality, e.g. “Did ye all go to see it?”
Irish accents greatly differ depending the region. We will present only the most common features
of the accent:
• sound / r / is firmly pronounced;
• the sound / th / is replaced by / t /: the word think is / tɪŋk / instead of / θɪŋk /;
• the sound / t / is pronounced after the letter u as / tʃ /: the word butter - / ˈbʌtʃə / instead of /
ˈbʌtə /;

• the diphthong / aɪ / changes to / ɔɪ /: the word Irish - / ˈɔɪrɪʃ / instead of / ˈaɪrɪʃ /.

•Cockney
Cockney, dialect of the English language traditionally spoken by working-class Londoners. Cockney is
also often used to refer to anyone from London—in particular, from its East End.
The word Cockney has had a pejorative connotation, originally deriving from cokenay, or cokeney, a
late Middle English word of the 14th century that meant, literally, “cocks’ egg” (i.e., a small or
defective egg, imagined to come from a rooster—which, of course, cannot produce eggs). That
negative sense gave rise to Cockney’s being used to mean “milksop” or “cockered child” (a pampered
or spoiled child). The word was later applied to a town resident who was regarded as either affected
or puny.
Cockney as a dialect is most notable for its argot, or coded language, which was born out of ingenious
rhyming slang. There are as many as 150 terms that are recognized instantly by any rhyming slang
user. For example, the phrase use your loaf—meaning “use your head”—is derived from the rhyming
phrase loaf of bread. That phrase is just one part of London’s rhyming slang tradition that can be
traced to the East End. That tradition is thought to have started in the mid-19th century as code by
which either criminals confused the police or salesmen compared notes with each other beyond the
understanding of their customers.
Cockney can be identified by two characteristics: rhyming phases and features of pronunciation.
Rhyming:

1. Adam and Eve – believe

2. Alan Whickers – knickers
3. apples and pears – stairs
4. Artful Dodger – lodger
5. Ascot Races – braces
6. Aunt Joanna – piano
7. Baked Bean – Queen
8. Baker’s Dozen – Cousin
9. Ball and Chalk – Walk
10. Barnaby Rudge – Judge etc.

Accent phonetic features 

• Sound / h /: half is pronounced as / ɑːf /;
• Absence sound / t / between vowels: letter - / leə /;
• Sound changes / l / to / w /: silk - / sɪwk /;
• Transformation of the sounds / θ / and / ð / into / f / or / v /: weather - / ˈwevə /;
Diphthong pronunciation / eɪ / as / aɪ /: / raɪn / instead of / reɪn /.

•Estuary English
Spoken by a large and growing number of people in the South of England, Estuary is tipped to
dominate general British pronunciation within 50 years.
it’s from the South of England, but it isn’t cockney, and it isn’t RP. It’s somewhere in between, so
some people are a bit more towards cockney than others.
It’s called “Estuary”because it’s spoken around the river Thames, but it’s spread a lot now, you’ll hear
it pretty much everywhere within a 50 mile radius of London these days. Everywhere from Essex to
Oxford, Kent to Milton Keynes.
Lots of posh people sound a bit Estuary when they’re trying to impress their mates in the pub, which
is pathetic really. It’s a sort of classless accent, but posh people copy it to sound cool.
Features of Estuary English include
• the glottalisation (replacing 't' with a glottal stop, as in /butter/ pronounced as 'buh-uh'),
• pronunciation of 'th' as 'f' or 'v' as in /mouth/ pronounced as 'mouf' and /mother/ pronounced as
'muvver,'
• the use of multiple negation, as in I ain't never done nothing.
•Welsh
As the dialect of Wales, Welsh English combines many lexical and phonological features of the Welsh
language with Standard English. But that’s not all – in the north of Wales there are Scouse and
Merseyside English influences to be seen, and towards the south you can even detect influences from
the West Country dialect.
It’s important to clarify that the Welsh language Cymraeg is separate from Welsh English, which is
actually an English dialect. Cymraeg originates from the ancient Celts; from around the 9th century,
languages in the north and south of England and Wales started to differentiate due to geographic
separation. Thus, Welsh evolved as a distinct language, retaining many features of the ancient
language of the Celts. This explains certain phonological traits of Welsh speakers when speaking
English; for example, the slight trill of the letter R, which is also a trait of the Scottish accent and has
more Celtic influence than other English accents. There is also the fact that they don’t emphasise any
single syllable in a word in particular, giving the Welsh accent its distinctive rhythm. Take the word
“language”, for example. In standard English the emphasis would be placed on the first syllable “lan-“,
but in Welsh both syllables are emphasised equally.
So for Welsh English, the accent comes from the Welsh language. But what about the vocabulary?
Some words in the Welsh English dialect are also taken directly from the Welsh language. Cwtch, for
example, means “a little cuddle”, or literally in Welsh, “safe place”. Other words from Welsh English
derive from the way in which standard English words are pronounced with a Welsh accent; for
example, “butty”, which means “friend”; this comes from “buddy” in standard English, and has
changed based on how it is said with a Welsh accent. “Tidy” is used to describe anything nice, and
represents a third lexical feature of Welsh English: words from Standard English that, over the years,
have developed completely different meanings in Welsh English. Why’s that? Well, that likely has to
do with the geographic position of Wales: given that it’s a bit separate from other accents, and also
considering its small population, the usage of such words in this way can spread and become
common in no time at all.
This accent differs its melodiousness, the Welsh pronounces sentences as if we sing it. There are
also two other characteristics:
The sound is omitted / j /: the word juice - / uːz / instead of / juːz /, the word news - / nuːz / instead
of / njuːz /;
The sound / r / stands out clearly.

•Brummie
the modern city of Birmingham was originally founded as Brummagem in around 600 AD and despite
the name altering slightly over the centuries, the original name has remained etched in our collective
minds. Even today, Brummagem is still used to refer to Birmingham as slang, and this is often
shortened to just Brum. As a result, natives of the city are collectively known as Brummies, and the
accent is known by the same name.
Unlike most regional accents, Brummie uses a downward intonation at the end of each sentence. This
means that typically the voice lowers in pitch and the sound of the last word fades away slowly. This
is a stark contrast to an accent such as Scouse (the Liverpool accent) which has an upward intonation,
and an increase in pitch during talking, giving this particular accent a great deal of vibrancy and
appeal. Brummie is a rather monotone accent, only hitting one note, usually a low one, and sticking
to it no matter what. This lack of aural variation may be the primary reason why the Brummie accent
has such a negative reputation in the UK. Normally, whenever a Brummie is portrayed on British TV,
they are rather dull, unimaginative and stupid.
Let's have a look at the features of the accent:
 
the diphthong  / əʊ / may sound close to / ɑʊ /: the word goat - / gɑʊt / instead of / ɡəʊt /;
The diphthong / aʊ / may sound like / æʊ /: the word mouth - / mæʊt / instead of / maʊθ /;
unstressed sound / i / at the end of words can be pronounced as / əi /: the word happy - / ˈhæpəi /
instead of / ˈhæpi /.
 

•Scouse(Liverpool EA)
Liverpool became known around the world due to the unlimited popularity of The Beatles in the
60s of the last century. In general, over the centuries, the attitude towards Liverpool in the UK has
been formed not entirely positive, Liverpool accent was considered something features of the
underclass. But due to the popularity of a famous group, public opinion has changed slightly
towards Scouse. This is another name for Liverpool, because the inhabitants of Liverpool are called
Liverpudlian or Scouse. This accent is most recognizable in the country. He is famous for his hard
nasal tones and, despite some similarities, it differs significantly from the accents of the
surrounding areas. The famous linguist Fritz Spiel described him as “one-third Irish, one-third
Welsh, and one-third cold”. Liverpool is characterized by speed and rising and falling tonality. The
influence of the Irish is expressed in the fact that the name of the letter H is pronounced as / heɪtʃ /,
and the words at the end of which -ch are pronounced.
Scouse is one of the most distinctive regional accents in England, with unique sound variations and a
melody all of its own.
Scouse intonation is clearly different from both GB and other Northern accents. As with many
regions, it has more rising tones.
But the really distinct feature is the Scouse melody which has a wide pitch range and a lot of high, flat
tones after the main stresses.
Features of the   Liverpool accent or Scouse
• The /k/ phoneme is often pronounced [x], especially at the end of a word, so that back [bax]
sounds like German Bach and lock [lɒx] sounds like Scottish English loch. In other positions /k/ may
be realised as an affricate [kx].
• There are several possibilities for the /t/ phoneme in Scouse.It can sound as [θ̠] or as a similar
affricate [tθ̠]; these sounds may sound like [s] and [ts] respectively. The sounds [s] and [ts]
themselves may also be used. Hence right may be heard as rice or rights.
• In some words, for example but and what, the final /t/ may be replaced by [h] or a flap [ɾ], which
may be heard as an /r/.
• The th sounds /θ, ð/ may be pronounced as dental [t, d].
• The velar nasal [ŋ] is usually followed by a hard [g] sound   so that sing is [sɪŋg] as opposed to
[sɪŋ] in Received Pronunciation.

•Geordie
Geordie is an accent spoken by many people in the northeast corner of England, particularly
Newcastle and the Tyneside area. The word also refers to the people of that area. Despite several
theories, nobody really knows why this region's people and their way of speaking are called Geordie.
Some suggest the name George, locally popular in the 18th century, figured in several popular
ballads. Others say Geordies were supporters of the Hanoverian King George I, in Newcastle, during
the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 when the surrounding area supported the Stuart cause.
Geordie is more than an accent. It's a strong regional dialect, a full-blown variant of English with
many of its own words for common things. It is crammed with words of Anglo Saxon origin compared
to the English spoken further south (which has more Latin roots) and may derive from Anglo Saxon
mercenaries brought over by the Romans to fight the Scottish tribes to the north.

Some experts say that Geordie words and pronunciation may be close to the English spoken by
Chaucer. The Geordie word "claes", meaning clothes, for example, is more than "clothes" spoken with
an accent It's the actual Anglo Saxon word.

•Yorkshire
As with all English dialects, the origins of this particular one can be traced back to the Saxon Era.
However, as a dialect from the North of England, there was also considerable influence from the
Vikings, who settled heavily in this region, incorporating the area that constitutes modern-day
Yorkshire into the Danish-ruled region Danelaw.
The Yorkshire dialect arguably contains some of the most obvious traces of Old English out of any
British dialect. Anyone not familiar with it might be rather confused by two words which crop up
frequently – owt and nowt. No, these aren’t noises you make when you accidentally walk into a door
on your way out of the pub, rather the Yorkshire variants of “anything” and “nothing” respectively.
Seems a bit, well, foreign? Not when you compare them with the Old English a wiht and ne wiht…

The first thing you should work on is how to pronounce the vowel A. Rather than the long A sound
common in Southern England, pronounced as if it were followed by an R, if you want to sound like a
proper Yorkshire native, then you should opt for a short and sweet A sound, and practise saying
“bath” and “grass” until you’ve perfected it. Next, chuck “the” out of your vocabulary – no more
definite articles! “The” is often shortened to simply T, essentially becoming a glottal stop. For
example, if you were really proud of yourself, then rather than saying “I’m very proud of myself”, you
could instead employ the Yorkshire phrase “I’m chuffed t’bits!” (notice how the word “to” has been
shortened to ‘t’).

•East Anglian
East Anglia is a region of eastern England consisting of the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and parts of
Essex and Cambridgeshire. Linguistic East Anglia is a lot smaller than it was two hundred years ago, as
the English of London and the Home Counties has encroached on the region; but East Anglian English
is still spoken today in northeastern Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, except for the Fens of western
Norfolk and northwestern Suffolk. This is, in essence, the area dominated by Norwich as the region’s
largest city. Until the Industrial Revolution, Norwich was one of the four largest urban centres in
England, but these days it is well down the list.

29. Festivals and traditions in UK

There are lots of traditional festivals, parades and celebrations that are held all over UK.

The main Christian festivals

Christmas Day, 25th December, celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ.
It is a public holiday. Many Christians go to church on Christmas Eve
(24th December) or on Christmas Day itself Christmas is celebrated
in a traditional way. People usually spend the day at home and eat
a special meal, which often includes roast turkey, Christmas pudding
and mince pies. They give gifts, send cards and decorate their houses. Christmas is a special time
for children. Very young children be-
iieve that Father Christmas (also known as Santa Claus) brings them
presents during the night before Christmas Day. Many people decorate a tree in their home.

Boxing Day is the day after Christmas Day and is a public holiday.

Easter takes place in March or April. It marks the death of Jesus

Christ on Good Friday and his rising from the dead on Easter Sunday.
Both Good Friday and the following Monday, called Easter Monday,
are public holidays. The 40 days before Easter are known as Lent. It is
a time when Christians take time to reflect and prepare for Easter. Tra-
ditionally, people would fast during this period and today many peo-
pie will give something up, like a favourite food. The day before Lent
starts is called Shrove Tuesday, or Pancake Day. People eat pancakes,
which were traditionally made to use up foods such as eggs, fat and milk before fastmg. Lent
begins on Ash Wednesday. There are church services where Christians are marked with an ash
cross on their forehead as a symbol of death and sorrow for sin. Easter is also celebrated by people
who are not religious. "Easter eggs" are chocolate eggs often
given as presents at Easter as a symbol of new life.

Other religious festivals

Diwali normally falls in October or November and lasts for five days. It is often called the Festival of
Lights. It is celebrated by Hindus
and Sikhs. It celebrates the victory of good over evil and the gaining of knowledge. There are
different stories about how the festival came
about. There is a famous celebration of Diwali in Leicester.

Hannukah is in November or December and is celebrated for eight days. It is to remember the
Jews' struggle for religious freedom. On each day of the festival a candle is lit on a stand of eight
candles (called a menorah) to remember the story of the festival, where oil that should have lasted
only a day did so for eight.

Eid al-Fitr celebrates the end of Ramadan, when Muslims have fasted for a month. They thank
Allah for giving them the strength to complete the fast. The date when it takes place changes every
year. Muslims attend special services and meals.

Eid ul Adha remembers that the prophet Ibrahim was willing to sacrifice his son when God ordered
him to. It reminds Muslims of their own commitment to God. Many Muslims sacrifice an animal to
eat during this festival. In Britain this has to be done in a slaughterhouse.

Vaisakhi (also spelled Baisakhi) is a Sikh festival which celebrates the founding of the Sikh
community known as the Khalsa. It is celebrated on 14th April each year with parades, dancing and
singing.

Other festivals and traditions

New Year, 1st January, is a public holiday.People usually celebrate on the night of 31st December
(called New Year's Eve). In Scotland, 31st December is called Hogmanay and 2nd January is also a
public holiday. For some Scottish people, Hogmanay is a bigger holiday than Christmas.

Valentine's Day, 14th February, is when lovers exchange cards and gifts. Sometimes people send
anonymous cards to someone they secretly admire.

April Fool's Day, 1st April, is a day when people play jokes on other until midday. The television and
newspapers often have stories that are April Fool jokes.

Mothering Sunday (or Mother's Day) is the Sunday three weeks before Easter. Children send cards
or buy gifts for their mothers.

Father's Day is the third Sunday in June. Children send cards or buy gifts for their fathers.

Halloween, 31st October, is an ancient festival and has roots in the pagan festival to mark the
beginning of winter. Young people will often dress up in frightening costumes to play 'trick or
treat'. People give them treats to stop them playing tricks on them. A lot of people carve
lanterns out of pumpkins and put a candle inside.

Bonfire Night, 5th November, is an occasion when people in Great

Britain set off fireworks at home or in special displays. The origin of
this celebration was an event in 1605, when a group of Catholics, led
 by Guy Fawkes failed in their plan to kill the Protestant king with
a bomb in the Houses of Parliament.

Remembrance Day, 11th November, commemorates those who died fighting for the UK and its
allies. Originally it commemorated the dead
of the First World War, which ended on 11th November, 1918. People wear poppies (the red
flower found on the battlefields of the First
World War). At 11.00 am there is a two-minute silence and wreaths
are laid at the Cenotaph in Whitehall, London.

As well as those mentioned previously, there are other public holidays each year called bank
holidays, when banks and many other businesses are closed for the day. These are of no religious
significance. They are at the beginning of May, in late May or early June, and in August. In Northern
Ireland, the anniversary of the Battle of Boyne in July is also a public holiday.

30. Music in the UK.

*Long song about how beautiful and rich British music is*. 

Venues and music events (take place often in summer):

1. The Proms is an 8-week summer season of orchestral classical music that takes place in
various  venues (and also in Albert Hall in London). Organized by the BBC since 1927. The
Last Night of the Proms is the most well-known concert and is broadcast on television. 
2. Wembley Stadium.
3. The O2 in Greenwich.
4. Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC) in Glasgow.

Classical music (not all but still):

1. Henry Purcell (1659-1695) was the organist at Westminster Abbey. He wrote church music,
operas and other pieces. Even if he wasn’t in the UK, he continued to be influential on British
composers.
2. George Frederick Handel (1695-1759) was a German-born composer, he spent many years in
the UK and became a British citizen in 1727. He wrote: Water Music for King George I; Music
for the Royal Fireworks for George II; oratorio Messiah which is sung often at Eastern time.
3. Gustav Holst (1874-1914) wrote The Planets, a suite of pieces themes around the planets of
the Solar System. He adapted Jupiter as the tune of I vow to thee my country, a popular churchs
hymn.
4. Sir Edward Elgar (1857-1934) was born in Worcester. He’s known for the Pomp and
Circumstance Marches. March No 1 (Land of Home and GLory) is usually played at the Last
Night of Proms at the Royal Albert Hall.
5. Ralph Williams (1872-1958) - he influenced on traditional folk music.

Other types of popular music (such as jazz, op and rock) have flourished in the UK since 20th
century. Since the 60s, british pop-music has made on of the most important cultural contributions to
love in the UK. The Beatles and The Rolling Stones continue to have an influence on music in the
UK and even abroad. It was always innovated - the Punk movement of the late 70s, boys/girlsbands
in the 90s as well. 

31. British ART

During the Middle Ages, most art had a religious theme, particularly wall paintings in churches and
illustrations in religious books. Much of this was lost after the Protestant Reformation but wealthy
families began to collect other paintings and sculptures. Many of the painters working in Britain in
the 16th and 17th centuries were from abroad – for example, Hans Holbein and Sir Anthony Van
Dyck. British artists, particularly those painting portraits and landscapes, became well known from
the 18th century onwards.

Works by British and international artists are displayed in galleries across the UK. Some of the most
well-known galleries are The National Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern in London, the
National Museum in Cardiff, and the National Gallery of Scotland in Edinburgh.

The Turner Prize was established in 1984 and celebrates contemporary art. It was named after
Joseph Turner. Four works are short-listed every year and shown at Tate Britain before the winner
is announced. The Turner Prize is recognized as one of the most prestigious visual art awards in
Europe. Previous winners include Damien Hirst and Richard Wright.

Notable British artists

Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) was a portrait painter who often painted people in country or
garden scenery.

David Allan (1744-1796) was a Scottish painter who was best known for painting portraits. One of
his most famous works is called The Origin of Painting.

Joseph Turner (1775-1851) was an influential landscape painter in a modern style. He is considered
the artist who raised the profile of landscape painting.

John Constable (1776-1837) was a landscape painter most famous for his works of Dedham Vale
on the Suffolk-Essex border in the east of England.

The Pre-Raphaelites were an important group of artists in the second half of the 19th century.
They painted detailed pictures on religious or literary themes in bright colours. The group included
Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Sir John Millais.
Sir John Lavery (1856-1941) was a very successful Northern Irish Portrait painter. His work included
painting the Royal Family.

Henry Moore (1898-1986) was an English sculptor and artist. He is best known for his large bronze
abstract sculptures.

John Petts (1914-1991) was a Welsh artist, best known for his engravings and stained glass.

Lucian Freud (1922-2011) was a German-born British artist. He is best known for his portraits.

David Hockney (1937) was an important contributor to the ‘pop art’ movement of the 1960s and
continues to be influential today.

32. Architecture in the UK.

*Long song about how important architecture for understanding English culture in general*.
Let’s start with periodization, kids.
1. The Middle Ages - at these times a lot of cathedrals and churches were built, many of which
still stand today. Countryside became more peaceful and houses of wealthy became more
elaborate. 
a. Elegant villas, carefully-planned towns and engineering marvels such as Hadrian’s
Wall.
b. Gothic cathedral-builders of the Middle Ages played an important role in the revival
of British culture. 
c. Examples of buildings:
i. White Tower [1078-1097 by Bishop Gundulf in orders of William the
Conqueror] - powerful symbol of Norman domination.
ii. Durham Cathedral [1093-1175 by Bishop William de St Cariled] - one of the
most imposing Norman buildings in England. 
iii. Haddon Hall [was begun in the 12th century but was remodelled and adapted
at various times to the 16th century, and theeeeeen it was restored in the early
20th century] - it shows the quality that characterises the great medieval
house.
2. The Tudors - most of the building were governed by fitness for purpose. Rich buildings were
used to show status and wealth.
a) Much more exterior ornament. Rooms became more bigger and lighter.
b) Great expanses of glass.
c) Symmetrical exteriors.
d) Stone, and later brick, began to replace timber as the standard building material for
the homes of farmers, tradespeople and artisans.
e) Examples of buildings:
i. Hampton Court Palace [by Cardinal Wolsey] - was built for Henry VIII in
1525, but there were a lot of changes since the 16th century. 
ii. Longleat House [was completed in 1580] - the main example how slow
Renaissance ideas were creeping into Britain. 
 iii. Hardwick Hall [1591-1597] - tall and compact. It was designed by Robert
Smythson for Elizabeth, who was better known as Bess of Hardwick.
1. 17th century - most early 17th century buildings tended to take the innocent exuberance of
late Tudor work one step further. 
a) Passion for the Baroque grandeur.
b) Formal, geometrical and symmetrical planning.
c) The British Baroque was a reassertion of authority, an expression of absolutist
ideology by men who remembered a world turned upside down during the Civil War.
The style is heavy and rich, sometimes overblown and melodramatic.
d) Examples of buildings:
i. The Queens House [by Inigo Jones/Christopher Wren] - was begun for Queen
Anne between 1616 and 1619 and completed for Henrietta Maria between 1630
and 1635.
ii. St Paul’s Cathedral [1675-1710] - one of the greatest buildings anywhere in
England. It was designed by Wren to replace the old cathedral which had been
devastated during the Fire of London in 1666.
. 18th century - by the end of the 18th century, the idea of a single national style of
architecture had had its day. 
a) Simpler designs became popular. 
b) Examples of buildings:
i. Chiswick House [in 1729 by Richard Boyle] - is one of the first shots fired in
the war waged by the Georgians against the Baroque.
ii. Kedleston Hall [1758-1777 by Robert Adam, James Pine] - is a high point of
British neo-classicism. 
. 19th century - medieval gothic style began popular again. As cities expanded, many great
public building were built in this style. 
i. The Houses of Parliament [1840-1860 by Charles Barry and A.W.N.Pugin] -
replaced the building destroyed by fire in 1834. A good example of the
period's confused love affair with the past.
ii. Castell Coch [1872-1879 by John Crichton-Stuart] - the interior is downright
weird, combining High Victorian romanticism with Burges' own eclectic
drawings from ancient British history, Moorish design and classical
mythology.
. 20th century - POLNY PIZDEC
a) Again hard expanses of glass.
b) Reinforced concrete frames.
c) Examples of buildings:
i. The Royal Festival Hall [1951 by Sir Leslie Martin] - is all that survives of the
complex laid out on London's South Bank for the 1951 Festival of Britain.
The festival buildings were important for the opportunity they afforded of
presenting a showcase for good modern architecture.

33. Theatre in the UK.

Theatre has always been an important part of the culture of any country or civilisation. It allows the
audience to immerse themselves in the emotions of another, whether joy or frivolity in the case of a
comedy, or deep sorrow and regret, as in a tragedy.
Medieval theatre (500-1500): 

 all about mystery and Christian (surprise-surprise);

 Bible plays about God and Devil, Cain and Abel, etc (why not);
 “An Ordinale Kernewek” - religious drama that was written in 1400. The main example of
plays of that period. 
Renaissance theatre/the age of Shakespeare (1500-1660): 

 DRAMAAAA, tragedy and art - the main themes;

 William Shakespeare wrote about 40 plays during that time (“Hamlet" in 1603; “Othello” in
1604);
 British authors prefer to use talented Italian actors in their plays - Italians just settled in
London in that time and it was very conveniently;
 “The Spanish Tragedy” created a new genre in English theatre because of  the similar-named
play that was written by Thomas Kyd between 1582 and 1592. Plot contains several violent
murders and includes as one of its characters a personification of revenge. 
 There were some plays in anti-Scottish style. George Chapman was one of the authors who
write such plays, using a bit of tragedy (“Bussy D’Ambois”).  
 NO FEMALE ACTRESSES, ONLY BOYS. All female roles were playing by males. 
Restoration theatre (1660-1710):

 In that period of time theatres were kept closed by the Puritans for some religious reasons
but after that theatres were opened again with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660.
 Introduction of the first professional actresses. 
 New genres, such as:
o heroic drama - mythological events, other important matters; hero must be powerful
and decisive. 
o pathetic drama [she-tragedy] -  suffering of an innocent and virtuous woman who has
committed some sort of sexual sin.
o Restoration comedy is famous for its sexual explicitness, a quality encouraged by
Charles II personally and by the rakish aristocratic ethos of his court.
18th-century - theatres wasn’t so popular as usual, so, no interesting information at all. This is the
period of music’s development. 

Romanticism (1798-1836):

 The main genres are:

o light comedies;
o operas;
o pantomimes;
o translations of french farces.
 Victorian burlesque became more and more popular.
Victorian era (1837-1901):
  Still remember about old plays and don’t forget to write something new. But there is only
one problem - censorship from government.
 A lot of melodrama (“A Tale of Mystery” by Thomas Holcroft) and music burlesque. 
 James Planché was a prolific playwright. He revolutionised stage productions of
Shakespeare and the classics by introducing the use of historically appropriate costume
design, working with antiquarians to establish what was known about period dress.
 Dion Boucicault made the latest scientific inventions important elements in his plots and
exerted considerable influence on theatrical production (“London Assurance” in 1841).
20th century:

 Musical comedy came to dominate the musical stage. 

 George Shaw and J.M Synge (“The Playboy of the Western World”) were influential in
British Drama. 
 The main themes are political and social issues, like marriage and class, the rights of woman
and etc.
There are theatres in most towns and cities throughout in the UK. 

 London’s West End (Thetreland) is particularly well known in the country and all over the
world. The Mousetrap - a murder-mystery play by Agatha Christie has been running in the
West End since 1952, the longest initial run of any show in history. 
 There is also a strong traditional of musical theatre. In the 19th century, Gilbert and Sullivan
wrote comic operas, making fun of culture and politics (HMS Pinafore, The Pirates of
Penzance).
 The Lawrence Olivier awards take place annually at different venues of London. There are a
lot of categories (director, best actress and so on). It was named after Sir Laurence Olivier
(Lord), who was best known for his roles in various Shakespeare plays.
English drama has its origin in the fusion of 2 theatrical traditions that were popular in the Middle
Ages, such as street performances and dramatisations. 

 Street performances: from the time of Anglo-Saxon scop, they had traveled around the UK
(singers, storytellers, dancers and so on). 
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the audiences started to develop preferences for certain actors.
Actors were renowned for their abilities, senses of humour and even their aesthetic appeal. Some
well-known actors of the day included Nell Gwynne, Thomas Betterton, Elizabeth Barry and
Charles Macklin.

34. British Literature (up to Victorian Age).

Old English literature, also known as Anglo-Saxon literature, is literature written in Old English c.
650–c. 1100. This era encompasses the surviving literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon
England, in the period after the settlement of the Saxons and other Germanic tribes in England
(The Jutes and the Angles) c. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and "ending soon after the
Norman Conquest" in 1066. These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography,
sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles and riddles. In all, there are about 400 surviving
manuscripts from the period.

In 731, The venerable Bede completes his history of the English Church and people. Bede is known
as the Father of English History. He lived and died in between the twin monasteries of Wearmouth
and Jarrow in the North East of England between 673 and 735 AD and wrote or translated some
forty books on practically every area of knowledge, including nature, astronomy, and poetry. He
also wrote the first martyrology (a chronicle about the lives of the saints).

Beowulf is the oldest surviving Germanic epic and the longest Old English poem; it was likely
composed between 700 and 750. Other great works of Old English poetry include The Wanderer,
The Seafarer, The Battle of Maldon, and The Dream of the Rood.

Two known poets from this period are Caedmon, considered the first Old English Christian poet,
and Cynewulf.

Old English poetry has survived almost entirely in four manuscripts: the Exeter Book, the Junius
Manuscript, the Vercelli Book, and the Beowulf manuscript.

Old English prose works include legal writings, medical tracts, religious texts, and translations from
Latin and other languages. Particularly notable is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical record
begun about the time of King Alfred’s reign (871–899) and continuing for more than three
centuries.

The Middle English Era (1066-1500)

The Norman Conquest worked no immediate transformation on either the language or the
literature of the English.

Older poetry continued to be copied during the last half of the 11th century; two poems of the
early 12th century—“Durham,” which praises that city’s cathedral and its relics, and “Instructions
for Christians,” a didactic piece—show that correct alliterative verse could be composed well after
1066.

But even before the conquest, rhyme had begun to supplant rather than supplement alliteration in
some poems, which continued to use the older four-stress line, although their rhythms varied from
the set types used in classical Old English verse. A postconquest example is “The Grave,” which
contains several rhyming lines; a poem from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle on the death of William the
Conqueror, lamenting his cruelty and greed, has more rhyme than alliteration.

After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the written form of the Anglo-Saxon language
became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the standard
language of courts, parliament, and polite society.
In this period religious literature continued to enjoy popularity and Hagiographies were written,
adapted and translated: for example, The Life of Saint Audrey, Eadmer's (c. 1060 – c. 1126). At the
end of the 12th century, Layamon in Brut adapted the Norman-French of Wace to produce the first
English-language work to present the legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It
was also the first historiography written in English since the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Geoffrey Chaucer (1340 - 1400) is considered to be the father of English poetry because he wrote in
English rather than in French or Latin. His Canterbury Tales records the imagined conversations of
pilgrims as they journeyed from London to Canterbury.

The Renaissance (1500-1660)

The Renaissance in England culminated during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (ruled 1558 − 1603), a
period of prosperity, successful sea voyages, and cultural activities. The Reformation of the Church
in England from Catholic to Protestant was begun by Elizabeth’s father, King Henry VIII in the
1530s.

William Shakespeare (1564 - 1616), the world's greatest playwright, wrote historical plays about
Kings of England (Richard II, Henry V), comedies (Twelfth Night, As You Like It), tragedies

(Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear) as well as love poetry, in the form of
sonnets. Many well−known English sayings come from Shakespeare's work, and he had a great
influence on the English language.

The English Revolution and Restoration(1625-1776)

In 1640, a revolutionary struggle, The Civil War between the King's army and Oliver Cromwell's
Parliamentary forces, began. In 1660, the bourgeoisie decided to restore the monarchy and Charles
II (the son of executed Charles I) returned from exile in France. John Milton (1608 - 1674) one of
the greatest poets is celebrated for his powerful, rhetoric poetry and is famous mainly for his epic
poem Paradise Lost. Besides poems, Milton published pamphlets defending civil and religious
rights.

18th century literature

This century is the time of the Enlightenment, the "Age of Reason", when all branches of science
were developed and resulted in great technical progress.

Jonathan Swift (1667 - 1745) uses his black humour and irony in his satirical pamphlets (The Battle
of Books). His most famous work is Gulliver's Travels, a satire on British society.

Daniel Defoe (1660 - 1731) is remembered for his book Robinson Crusoe, which is still one of the
most popular books among children. In Moll Flanders, he gives a realistic picture of the life of a
prostitute in London.
Henry Fielding's (1707 - 1754) masterpiece, Tom Jones, is a novel about a rather controversial
character of an adventurous sincere boy, who had no respect for the moral codes of society, but
had a natural sense of justice.

Romantic literature (1798-1837)

Literature at the end of the 18th century turned again to sentiments, traditions, and exotic settings.

George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788 - 1824) represents the so−called "Revolutionary Romantics".

His work is concerned with the freedom of the individual as well as nations (The Prisoners of
Chillon).

Sir Walter Scott (1771 - 1832) took for his novels themes from Scottish history (Waverly, Rob Roy)
and from English history (Ivanhoe).

Themes of horror and mystery appeared in prose called "Gothic novels".

Mary Shelley (1797 - 1851) wrote Frankenstein, which is the most well−known of the Gothic novels
with the horror genre that we are so familiar with in films and on TV today.

Victorian novels (1837-1901)

During the Victorian Age (Queen Victoria ruled from 1837 − 1901), novels in which writers
described English society with all its characters became the most popular literary form.

There were many talented women writers: The Brontë sisters lived in isolation in North Yorkshire.
Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë (1816 - 1855) and Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë (1818 − 1848)
were two of the most original novels of the day as they were very fresh and unconventional.

Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870) wrote novels where heroes and villains were taken from the hustle
and bustle of Victorian London (Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations, Bleak House).

Thomas Hardy (1840 - 1928) wrote about life in the Dorset countryside. He depicted the tragedy of
the common man in his struggle with the elements and the social system of the time (Tess of the
D'Urbervilles).

Прим. редактора: ВОТ ЗДЕСЬ ЗАКАНЧИВАЕТСЯ ЭТОТ БИЛЕТ, НО ТОТ, КТО ЕГО ДЕЛАЛ,
НЕМНОГО ПЕРЕСТАРАЛСЯ ;) Может вам это пригодится тоже (это уже билет номер 35)

The Edwardian Period (1901–1914)

This period is named for King Edward VII and covers the period between Victoria’s death and the
outbreak of World War I. Although a short period (and a short reign for Edward VII), the era
includes incredible classic novelists such as Joseph Conrad, Ford Madox Ford, Rudyard Kipling, H.G.
Wells, and Henry James (who was born in America but who spent most of his writing career in
England), notable poets such as Alfred Noyes and William Butler Yeats, as well as dramatists such
as James Barrie, George Bernard Shaw, and John Galsworthy.

The Modern Period (1914-1950)

The modern period traditionally applies to works written after the start of World War I. Common
features include bold experimentation with subject matter, style, and form, encompassing
narrative, verse, and drama. W.B. Yeats’ words, “Things fall apart; the center cannot hold” are
often referred to when describing the core tenet or “feeling” of modernist concerns. Some of the
most notable writers of this period, among many, include the novelists James Joyce, Virginia
Woolf, Aldous Huxley, D.H. Lawrence, Joseph Conrad, Dorothy Richardson, Graham Greene, E.M.
Forster, and Doris Lessing; the poets W.B. Yeats, T.S. Eliot, W.H. Auden, Seamus Heaney, Wilfred
Owens, Dylan Thomas, and Robert Graves; and the dramatists Tom Stoppard, George Bernard
Shaw, Samuel Beckett, Frank McGuinness, Harold Pinter, and Caryl Churchill. New Criticism also
appeared at this time, led by the likes of Woolf, Eliot, William Empson, and others, which
reinvigorated literary criticism in general. It is difficult to say whether modernism has ended,
though we know that postmodernism has developed after and from it; for now, the genre remains
ongoing.

The Postmodern Period (1945–?)

The postmodern period begins about the time that World War II ended. Many believe it is a direct
response to modernism. Some say the period ended about 1990, but it is likely too soon to declare
this period closed. Poststructuralist literary theory and criticism developed during this time. Some
notable writers of the period include Samuel Beckett, Joseph Heller, Anthony Burgess, John Fowles,
Penelope M. Lively, and Iain Banks. Many postmodern authors wrote during the modern period as
well.

35.British Literature (Early Twentieth century and Modernism.The

Contemporary Age)

The 20th Century (From 1900 to 1945). The Edwardians

The death of Queen Victoria in 1901 and the accession of Edward VII seemed to confirm that a franker, less
inhibited era had begun.

Many writers of the Edwardian period, drawing widely upon the realistic and naturalistic conventions of the
19th century (upon Ibsen in drama and Balzac, Turgenev, Flaubert, Zola, Eliot, and Dickens in fiction) and in
tune with the anti-Aestheticism unleashed by the trial of the archetypal Aesthete, Oscar Wilde, saw their task
in the new century to be an unashamedly didactic one. In a series of wittily iconoclastic plays, of which Man
and Superman (performed 1905, published 1903) and Major Barbara (performed 1905, published 1907) are
the most substantial, George Bernard Shaw turned the Edwardian theatre into an arena for debate upon the
principal concerns of the day:

-the question of political organization

-the morality of armaments and war

-the function of class and of the professions

-the validity of the family and of marriage

-the issue of female emancipation.

Nor was he alone in this, even if he was alone in the brilliance of his comedy. John Galsworthy made use of
the theatre in Strife (1909) to explore the conflict between capital and labour, and in Justice (1910) he lent his
support to reform of the penal system, while Harley Granville-Barker, whose revolutionary approach to stage
direction did much to change theatrical production in the period, dissected in The Voysey Inheritance
(performed 1905, published 1909) and Waste (performed 1907, published 1909) the hypocrisies and deceit of
upper-class and professional life.

Twentieth-Century Authors

 Joseph Conrad
 Thomas Hardy
 Rupert Brooke
 Wilfred Owen
 Edward Thomas
 T.S. Eliot
 D.H. Lawrence
 W.B. Yeats
 James Joyce
 Virginia Woolf
 W.H. Auden
 Ford Madox Ford
 Samuel Beckett
 John Millington Synge
 Derek Walcott
 Dylan Thomas

It was a period that was marked by two world wars, by a great, worldwide economic depression, by the
dissolution of the British Empire, by increasing democratization of society, and by the advent of new
technologies.
Not surprisingly, the literature of the century is just as varied. At the turn of the century the Georgians and the
Decadent or Aesthetic movements were two streams of poetry that derived from, and were in reaction to, the
poetry of the Victorian era.
In fiction, the realistic novel was dominant. But just as World War I shattered many assumptions about
society and humanity, the poetry of the first world war and the literature that came afterwards was often
unsettling, disruptive and emphasized new interests and approaches. Imagism and Modernism (as distinct
from simply modern) flourished in the period between the two world wars. In the post-World War II era,
various reactions to Modernism (including Postmodernism) appeared. With all literary periods, what we later
come to see as its signal characteristics is not always immediately evident and is not always neatly contained
within a set of dates.

The influence of the First World War

One of the most heavily impacted cultural arenas to be touched by the war was literature. Literature during
the Great War often reflects upon and bitingly criticizes the horrors of war, as well as the changes society
was undergoing and provides a drastic transition between pre and post war work. Many social, political, and
economic shifts occurred during the war, and any of the writers of the time felt the need to speak out against
the flaws they saw in their society, sometimes even while fighting for their lives in the trenches. The new style
of war allowed soldiers an unprecedented amount of time to ponder the battles which they fought; not only in
the literal sense, but battles of the mind and spirit which were of no shortage in the hellish conditions that they
endured. Literature became a common way for the British soldiers to approach the reality of the war, whether
to express dissent against it, or to simply understand it.

The poetry of The Great War

The trench poets:

-Edgell Rickword (1898-1982)

-Wilfred Owen (1893-1918)

-Isaac Rosenberg (1890-1918)

-Julian Grenfell (1888-1915)

Beginning of Modernism

“The excitement, however, came to a terrible climax in 1914 with the start of the First World War, which wiped
out a generation of young men in Europe, catapulted Russia into a catastrophic revolution, and sowed the
seeds for even worse conflagrations in the decades to follow. By the war’s end in 1918, the centuries-old
European domination of the world had ended and the “American Century” had begun. For artists and many
others in Europe, it was a time of profound disillusion with the values on which a whole civilization had been
founded. But it was also a time when the avante-garde experiments that had preceded the war would, like the
technological wonders of the airplane and the atom, inexorably establish a new dispensation, which we call
modernism.”
The most exemplified phase of Modernism, referred to as “High Modernism,” occurred during the inter-war
years (1918-1939). This was the time when writers synonymous with Modernism, such as Virginia Woolf,
James Joyce, T.S. Eliot, and D.H. Lawrence, thrived. While Victorians typically concerned themselves with
rendering reality as they understood it into fiction, Modernists recognized that reality was subjective, and
instead strove to represent human psychology in fiction. This is evidenced in the stream-of-consciousness
narrative of Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses, Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway and To the
Lighthouse, and Eliot’s “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.”

Modernism is further characterized by a systematic rejection of social and literary norm. In light of the
widespread human suffering of the early 20th century, modernists oppose all major ideals and conventions
with unrelenting pessimism directly contradicting the social optimism of the Victorian Era. Modernists claim
that past movements and ideologies are disconnected from the reality of the human condition. Through
abundant literary experimentation, modernists attempt to convey the complexity of a world apparently on the
brink of deflagragation. Accordingly, modernists, by their copious experimentation with literary form and style,
risk literary incoherence to express the perceived fragmentation and incoherence of the modern world–a
feeling rooted in the cosmopolitan origins of the majority of modernist literature. The emergence of a hectic
city life coupled with the sense of human decay drove modernists to seek a unifying philosophy. Thus, culture
became politically important since it was perceived as the only universal source of identity and social
reference (Modernism).

In successful modernist literature, the result of these characteristics is a more complex and nuanced analysis
of the world than anything ever produced. Archetypes are rarely reinforced, and no clear interpretation of a
subject is commonly found. Not only is the structure of both writing and the world analyzed, but the meaning
of words, patterns, and occurrences is subjected to the literary lens with the express intent of avoiding
oversimplification. Disorder is observed. As a result, an unprecedented level of literary criticism emerges. In
fact, notable modernist writers such as T.S. Eliot and W.B. Yeats were also accomplished literary critics
(Modernism).

36. Leisure time and sports in the UK

Sport is one of the UK’s most popular leisure activities. The Government’s view is that sport is an
important component of regeneration, and can have a beneficial effect in helping the development
of run-down areas.

Many of the world's famous sports began in England, including cricket, football, lawn tennis and
rugby. It is difficult to identify the national sport of the UK or even that of the constituent
countries.

Some of England's football teams are world famous, the most famous being Manchester United,
Arsenal, Chelsea and Liverpool.
  Cricket  
The game started in England in the 16th century. It is a sport which is played between two teams
of eleven players. This is done by hitting the ball across the boundary, or by running between two
sets of three small, wooden posts called wickets. The England cricket team
represents England and Wales in international cricket.

 Football (Soccer)
Soccer appeared in 1863, when England’s newly formed Football Association wrote down a set of
rules. At the time, it was the most widely played game of its kind in the country.

 Rugby
Rugby football started about 1845 at Rugby School in Warwickshire, England. The two major
sports are rugby league and rugby union (the size of the playing field and the number of players
are different).  Rugby League, played mainly in the north of England, and Rugby Union, played in
the rest of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. For many years Rugby was only played by the rich
upper classes, but now it is popular all over the country.

 Tennis
Wimbledon is the oldest of all the major tennis tournaments beginning in 1877. It begins on the
nearest Monday to June 22, at a time when England enjoys the finest weather.  The Centre Court
(on the picture) has a capacity for over 13,000 spectators. Millions of people watch the
Championships on TV live. It is traditional for visitors to eat strawberries and cream while they
watch the games.  During Wimbledon fortnight over 23 tons of strawberries and 285,000 cups of
tea are consumed!

 Netball
Netball is a team sport similar to basketball. Netball is the largest female team sport in England.
More than 60,000 adults play netball regularly in England alone and a further 1 million young
people play it in schools. The sport is played almost exclusively by women and girls, although male
participation has increased in recent years.

 Golf
Scotland is traditionally regarded as the home of golf. Golf is an increasingly popular sport that can
be played for one's entire life. There are over 400 golf courses in Scotland alone.

 Horse racing
The Derby originated here, as did The Grand National which is the hardest horse race in the world. 
Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular spectator sports.  People can place bets on the
races at legal betting shops.  Some of the best-known horse races are held at Ascot, Newmarket,
Goodwood and Epsom. 

 Polo
Polo was brought to Britain from India in the 19th Century by army officers. It is the fastest ball
sport in the world.  Polo is played with four men on horses per team. 

 Table tennis
Table tennis was (also) invented in England in the 1880s. It began with Cambridge University
students using cigar boxes and champagne corks. Although the game originated in England, British
players don't have much luck in international championships.

 Badminton
Badminton takes its name from the Duke of Beaufort’s country home, Badminton House, where
the sport was first played in the 19th century. The game is organised by the Badminton Association
of England and the Scottish, Welsh and Irish (Ulster branch) Badminton Unions.  Around 2 million
people play badminton regularly.

 Fishing (Angling)
Angling is one of the most popular 'sports' in the UK, with an estimated 3.3 million people
participating in the sport on a regular basis. Fishermen can be see sitting beside rivers and lakes.

 Darts
Darts is a very popular pub game. The game of darts, as it is today, was invented in the north of
England in a town called Grimsby.  However, the origins of the game date back to at least the
Middle Ages.

 Betting
Betting on team sports has become an important service industry in the UK.  Millions of Britons
play the football pools every week.  Over 40% of adults in Great Britain participated in one or more
of the National Lottery games every week in 2002.

How do British spend their leisure time

 Homes and gardens
The British are known as a nation of gardeners. Gardening has been a popular pastime
since Roman times.
  Visiting pubs

The most common free-time activity outside the home amongst adults is a
visit to the pub.

 Watching television and videos, and listening to the radio are by far the
most popular leisure pastimes, with an average of 20 hours a week
devoted to these.

37. British cinema

English film production until 1900 was highly decentralized.

The first English film producer is William Paul. He worked in the same years as the
Lumiere brothers, and his apparatus for shooting films was called "bioscope". In 1897
appeared his first short and very simple films "the New maid", "Children's tea",
"poster Boy". In 1898, W. Paul built his first film Studio in London.

English cinema in the postwar period developed in two directions:

 Classic English cinema. This direction includes films on historical themes and
adaptation of classics. These are films directed by Alexander Korda, David Lin
(the film "Lawrence of Arabia"), as well as actor and Director Laurence Olivier
("hamlet", "Richard III", " Henry V»)
 Cinema of the absurd The direction largely inherited the tradition of
Hitchcock, which combined horror and irony, appeared black humor.
Especially interesting were the films produced by the Studio " Ealing "(eng.
Ealing Studios). Ilansky Comedy of the absurd has become a special
phenomenon of English cinema, it is built on situations that do not happen in
life.

Commercial English cinema

Of particular importance in the late 50s and early 60s was a commercial English
cinema, which was based on the detective genre, including the film adaptation of the
works of Agatha Christie about Poirot and Miss Marple and the famous James bond
films.
The most famous representative of commercial cinema is the fictional character James
bond.

New wave (1955-1964)

The best directors are Karel Reisch, Tony Richardson, Lindsay Anderson, Basil
Dearden. When these Directors try to look at English life from a position of critical
realism, they are interested in the present, not the past of England. In game cinema,
the protest against reality sounds more harshly.

Nowadays English films are always easy to recognize by the intellectual content and
a little bit strange British humor.

In addition, the UK has given us such talented actors as "Mr. Bean" Rowan Atkinson,
the charming Jude law, Sean Connery, Hugh Grant, Benedict Cumberbatch, Daniel
Craig and many others. Among British Actresses, Kate Winslet, Keira Knightley,
Emma Watson, Emily Blunt are especially popular with the audience.

38. The Political and Legal System of the UK. The Royal Family.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed within the framework (в рамках стрyктуры) of a
parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy in which the monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth
II, is the head of state while the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, currently Boris Johnson, is the head
of government.

Executive power is exercised by the British government (Her Majesty’s government)

Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the House of
Commons and the House of Lords, as well as in the Scottish Parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland.

The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The highest court is the Supreme Court of
the United Kingdom.

The UK political system is a multi-party system. Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties have been the
Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before the Labour Party rose in British politics, the Liberal Party
was the other major political party, along with the Conservatives.

The constitution of the United Kingdom is uncodified, being made up of constitutional conventions, statutes
and other elements such as EU law. This system of government, known as the Westminster system, has
been adopted by other countries, especially those that were formerly parts of the British Empire.
The United Kingdom is also responsible for several dependencies, which fall into two categories: the Crown
dependencies, in the immediate vicinity of the UK, and British Overseas Territories, which originated as
colonies of the British Empire.

Royal family.

The British royal family comprises Queen Elizabeth II and her close relations. There is no strict legal or
formal definition of who is or is not a member of the British royal family.

The British royal family support Queen Elizabeth II in her state and national duties. Each year the family
"carries out over 2,000 official engagements throughout the UK and worldwide".[8] Engagements include
state funerals, national festivities, garden parties, receptions, and visits to the Armed Forces.[8]

Members of the royal family have started their own individual charities. Prince Charles started The Prince's
Trust, which helps young people in the UK that are disadvantaged.

PRINCE PHILIPP, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and other
Commonwealth realms.

Philip was born in the Greek and Danish royal families. He was born in Greece, but his family was exiled
from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United
Kingdom, he joined the British Royal Navy in 1939, aged 18. From July 1939, he began corresponding with
the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served
with distinction in the Mediterranean and Pacific Fleets. After the war, Philip was granted permission by
George VI to marry Elizabeth. Before the official announcement of their engagement in July 1947, he
abandoned his Greek and Danish royal titles, became a naturalised British subject, and adopted his maternal
grandparents' surname Mountbatten. He married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947. Just before the wedding,
he was created Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth and Baron Greenwich. Philip left active military service
when Elizabeth became queen in 1952, having reached the rank of commander, and was formally made a
British prince in 1957.

Philip and Elizabeth have four children: Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward.
Through a British Order in Council issued in 1960, descendants of the couple not bearing royal styles and
titles can use the surname Mountbatten-Windsor, which has also been used by some members of the royal
family who do hold titles, such as Princess Anne, and Princes Andrew and Edward.

CHARLES, PRINCE OF WALES, (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is the heir apparent to
the British throne as the eldest son of Elizabeth II. He has been Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay since
1952, and is the oldest and longest-serving heir apparent in British history. He is also the longest-serving
Prince of Wales, having held that title since 1958.

Charles was born at Buckingham Palace. After earning a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of
Cambridge, Charles served in the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy from 1971 to 1976. In 1981, he married
Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons: Prince William (b. 1982) and Prince Harry (b. 1984). In 1996, the
couple divorced following well-publicised extramarital affairs by both parties. Diana was killed in a car crash
in Paris the following year. In 2005, Charles married long-time partner Camilla Parker Bowles.
PRINCE WILLIAM, Duke of Cambridge, KG, KT, PC, ADC (William Arthur Philip Louis;[fn 1] born 21 June 1982)
is a member of the British royal family. He is the elder son of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of
Wales. Since birth, he has been second in the line of succession to the British throne.

William was educated at four schools in the United Kingdom and studied for a degree at the University of St
Andrews. During a gap year, he spent time in Chile, Belize, and Africa. In December 2006, he completed 44
weeks of training as an officer cadet and was commissioned in the Blues and Royals regiment. In April 2008,
William completed pilot training at Royal Air Force College Cranwell, then underwent helicopter flight
training and became a full-time pilot with the RAF Search and Rescue Force in early 2009. His service with
the British Armed Forces ended in September 2013. He then trained for a civil pilot's licence and spent over
two years working as a pilot for the East Anglian Air Ambulance.

In 2011, Prince William was made Duke of Cambridge and married Catherine Middleton. The couple have
three children: Prince George, Princess Charlotte, and Prince Louis.

39. Places of interest in Great Britain

Millions of people visit Great Britain every year to learn more about its places of
interest.

One of the most thrilling sights is the Stonehenge. It’s an ancient monument made of
stones standing either in circle or in a horseshoe shape. The origin and the meaning of
these stones remains a mystery. However, the scientists think that it was used as a
prehistoric calendar.

Another attractive sight is Stratford-upon-Avon. It’s a small city in England, where

the most famous English writer Shakespeare was born. Stratford-upon-Avon is not
only his birthplace. He also lived and created his plays there. Lots of people come to
see the Shakespeare’s house in Henley Street and the Royal Shakespeare Theatre.

Other famous cities which attract lots of visitors are Oxford and Cambridge. These

cities have become well-known thanks to their educational features. The best and
highly-respected universities in the world are situated here. Nearly everyone wishes to
study in Cambridge and Oxford, as it’s considered to be a very prestigious education.

Tourists, who are passionate followers of the music band “Beatles”, might want to
visit Liverpool. It’s a home town of this famous band.

Many British places of interest are situated in the capital-city of London. Among
them, the Buckingham Palace, which is the Queen’s official residence, the
Westminster Abbey, where the most prominent Englishmen are buried, Big Ben,
which is the biggest clock in the world, the Tower of London, which has once been a
fortress, a prison and a royal palace.
The football fans will enjoy a trip to Manchester, which is a home city of a world-
famous team Manchester United.

Natural attractions of Great Britain are also interesting. For example, the Scottish
Highlands, Loch Ness Lake, the Lake District and some others.