Chapter Ten




APPROXIMATING In Section ??, for , we found the sum

of a geometric series as a function of the


common ratio :
FUNCTIONS  


 






Viewed from another perspective, this formula

gives us a series whose sum is the function
"!
$#%'& ! (

$#
. We now work in the
opposite direction, starting with a function and
looking for a series of simpler functions whose
sum is that function. We first use polynomials,
which lead us to Taylor series, and then
trigonometric functions, which lead us to
Fourier series.

Taylor approximations use polynomials, which

may be considered the simplest functions. They
are easy to use because they can be evaluated
by simple arithmetic, unlike transcendental


functions, such as )'* and +-, .

Fourier approximations use sines and cosines,

the simplest periodic functions, instead of
polynomials. Taylor approximations are
generally good approximations to the function
locally (that is, near a specific point), whereas
Fourier approximations are generally good
approximations over an interval.
446 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

10.1 TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS

In this section, we see how to approximate a function by polynomials.

Linear Approximations
We already know how to approximate a function using a degree 1 polynomial, namely the tangent
line approximation given in Section 4.8 :
.0/2143657.0/2893:;.=<>/>893?/@1AB893?C

1DE8
The tangent line and the curve share the same slope at . As Figure 10.1
1
suggests,
8
the tangent
line approximation to the function is generally more accurate for values of close to .

J4K GVL
True value
J4K GVL
Approximate value of

W
Tangent line
H
JNSTK FML K GUQFNL

P GQRF O IH
H
J4K FML J4K FNL

I I G
F G

J4K GVL
Figure 10.1: Tangent line approximation of for G near F

8(DYX 1DZX
We first focus on 1RD[X. The tangent line approximation at is referred to as the first
Taylor approximation at , or as follows:

\!
$#

Taylor Polynomial of Degree 1 Approximating for near 0
.0/@1=35^]`_a/21436D7.0/2XN3:(.=<T/2XN3b1

We/@1=now look at approximations

36D[d?eMfV1 1D[X
by polynomials of higher degree. Let us compare approxima-
tions c near by linear and quadratic functions.

/21436D^d?eNf91 1 1D[X
Example 1 Approximate c , with in radians, by its tangent line at .
1RD^X Dih
Solution The tangent line at is just the horizontal line g , as shown in Figure 10.2, so
/21436D[d?eNf915jhMk 1
c for near 0.
1%DXVC XMl
If we take , then /2XmC XNln3`DdoeMfp/2XVC XMlM3`DXVC qnqMrsCoCtCuk
c
doeMf915ih 1DjAvXmCwh
which is quite close to the approximation . Similarly, if , then
/xAvXmCwhy30D[d?eNfo/zAvXVChp3`D^XmC qMqMl{CtCoC
c
 10.1 TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS 447

d?eNf91R5jh 1RD^XVC |
is close to the approximation . However, if , then
/2XmC |}3DdoeMfp/2XVC |N3`D[XVC qM~VhCoCtCuk
c

d?eMfV15h 1
so the approximation
X
is less accurate. The graph suggests that the farther a point is
away from , the worse the approximation is likely to be.
‚
‚ƒ„

P …‡†pˆ G

G
Q € €

Qs

G
Figure 10.2: Graph of …‡†pˆ and its tangent line at G‰ƒ Š

Quadratic Approximations
To get a more accurate approximation, we use a quadratic function instead of a linear function.

/@143‹D^doeMf91 1 X
Example 2 Find the quadratic approximation to c for near .
]'ŒM/2143 /@1=3DdoeMf91 1ŽDX
Solution To ensure
doeMf91
that the quadratic, , is a good approximation to c at , we require
that
1RD^X
and the quadratic have
]'Œn/>XM3D
the same value,
/>XM3 ] Π< />XM3D
the same slope, and the same second derivative at
< /2XN3 ] Π< < /2XN3D < < />XM3
. That is, we require c , c , and c . We take the quadratic
polynomial ] Œ /@1=36D[‹:;s_‘1$:; Œ 1
Œ
k

   _ Œ
and determine , , and . Since
Œ
] Œ /@1=36D76{:(s_?1$:( Œ 1 /@1=36DdoeMf91
and c
] Œ < /@1=36D7{_6:(~M Œ 1 < /@143DAf-’w“s1
c
] Œ < < /@1=36D7~n Œ < < /@143DAd?eNf91”k
c

we have ‹UD[] Œ /2XN3D /2XN3DdoeMfVX‰Djh ‹UDjh

c so
s_vD[] Œ < /2XN3D < /2XM3DjAfz’“vXD^X s_vD^X
c _
~n Œ D[] Œ < < />XM3D < < /2XN3DAd?eNfVXDjA•hMk  Œ DjA Œ C
c

Consequently, the quadratic approximation is

Œ
h Π1
doeMf91R5^] Œ /@1=36Dih‹:X–?1"A 1 DihsA k 1
~ ~ for near 0.
doeMf915]—ŒM/@1=3
Figure 10.3doeMsuggests that the 1 quadratic approximation
f91˜5E] _ /@1=3
is better than the linear
approximation
]`_a/@1=3D™h 1
for near 0.
1BDšXVC |
Let’s compare the accuracy of the
doeMft/2XVC |N3D›XmC qN~9hCtCoC
two] Œapproximations.
/2XmC |}3vDšXVC qM~œX
Recall that for all . At , we have and ,
so the quadratic approximation is a significant improvement over the linear approximation. The
magnitude of the error is about 0.001 instead of 0.08.
448 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS
¡—¥ K G9L”ƒ„


Q‰ ž ž
G
Q € QŸ   Ÿ   €
…‘†tˆ G O

Qs
P ¡ ž K GVLƒ„Q£¢už ¤

G ¡—¥ K G9L ¡ ž K GVL

Figure 10.3: Graph of …‘†pˆ and its linear, , and quadratic, , approximations for G near 0

1RD^X
Generalizing the computations in Example 2, we define the second Taylor approximation at
.

\!
$#

Taylor Polynomial of Degree 2 Approximating for near 0
. < < /2XN3 Œ
.0/214365[] Π/@1=36D7.0/2XM3:;. < /2XM3x1$: 1
~

Higher-Degree Polynomials
1šD¦X
In a small interval around , the quadratic approximation to a function is usually a better
approximation than the linear (tangent line) approximation. However,1
Figure 10.3 shows that the
quadratic can still bend away from the original function for large . We can attempt to fix this by
.0/2143
using
1
an approximating polynomial of higher degree. Suppose that we approximate a function
for near 0 by a polynomial of degree § :
Œ ¨}© _ ¨
.0/21435[]—¨/21436D7  :( _ 1$:;‹Œo1 :^–o–t–y:;¨}© _ 1 :(¨91 C

‹nk{_œk6 Œ ktCoCtC?k‹ ¨
We need.0to find the values of the constants:
/@1=3
. To do this, we] require
¨ /@143
that
the function
1D[X
and each of its first § derivatives agree with those of the polynomial
1RD[X
at the
point . In general, the more derivatives there are that agree at , the larger the interval on
which the function and the polynomial remain close Dª
to each other.
To see how to find the constants, let’s take § as an example
Œ «
.0/214365^]—«N/@1=36D[‹:;s_‘1$:; Œ 1 :;‹«o1 C

1%D^X
Substituting gives .0/>XM3D[] « /2XN3D[  C

]'«N/@143
Differentiating yields ]•« < /@143‹D^s_:;~n Œ 1$:(ªM«o1
Œ
k

1RDX
so substituting shows that . < /2XN3D] « < />XM3D7{_aC

Differentiating and substituting again, we get

] « < < /@1=36D7~U–œhp Œ :(ª–t~U–nhy«?1”k

which gives . < < /2XM3D[] « < < />XM36D[~U–nhy‹Œnk

 10.1 TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS 449

so that . < < /2XN3

 Œ D C
~U–œh

] «< < <

The third derivative, denoted by , is
]•« < < < /@1=36D^ª–p~U–nhp«nk

so . < < < /2XM3D^] « < < < />XM3D[ª–t~U–nhy‹«nk

and then . < < < /2XN3

 « D C
ª–t~U–nh
¬‡®
]—¬M/2143 .—­
You can imagine a similar calculation starting with , using the fourth derivative ,
which would give .—­
¬‘®
/>XM3
 ¬ D k
|•–tª–t~U–Mh

and so on. Using factorial notation,1 we write these expressions as

¬‘®
. < < < /2XM3 .—­ /2XN3
«D k°‹¬D C
ªV¯ |±¯

¨ ®
.—­ .
Writing for the §=²2³ derivative of , we have, for any positive integer §
¨ ®
.—­ /2XN3
¨´D C
¯
§
1D[X
So we define the §=²>³ Taylor approximation at :

"!
$#

Taylor Polynomial of Degree µ Approximating for near 0
.0/@1=365^] ¨ /@1=3
¬‘® ¨ ®
. < < /2XN3 Œ . < < < />XM3 « .—­ /2XM3 ¬ .—­ /2XN3 ¨
D[.0/>XM3:;. < />XM3x1$: 1 : 1 : 1 :^–o–t–y: 1
~9¯ ªm¯ |m¯ ¯
§

] ¨ /2143 1D^X
We call1RD^X the Taylor polynomial of degree § centered at , or the Taylor polynomial
about .

.0/@1=36D^f-’“s1 1
Example 3 Construct the Taylor polynomial of degree 7 approximating the function
. 1D¶—·œª
for near 0.
Compare the value of the Taylor approximation with the true value of at .

Solution We have .0/@143‹D f-’w“s1 .0/2XM3D X

giving
. < /@143‹D doeMf91 . < /2XM3D h

. < < /@143‹D¸A%f-’“1 . < < /2XM3D X

. < < < /@143‹D¹Ad?eMf}1 . < < < /2XM3DA•h

¬‘® ¬‘®
.—­ /@143‹D f-’w“s1 .—­ /2XM3D X
® ®
.—­wº /@143‹D doeMf91 .—­wº /2XM3D h
® ®
.—­w» /@143‹D¸A%f-’“1 .—­w» /2XM3D X
® ®
.—­w¼ /@143‹DjAd?eNf}1”k .—­w¼ /2XM3DiA•hnC

1 Recall that ½M¾o¿%½MÀ½‹ÁÃÂ-ÄMÅxÅxÅÇÆ0Åu . In addition, Âu¾t¿ŽÂ , and Èp¾t¿ŽÂ .

450 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

Using these values, we see that the Taylor polynomial approximation of degree 7 is
Œ « ¬
1 1 1 14º 1±» 14¼
f-’“1%5^] /21436D[XÉ:hs–t1$:(X– A„hs– :(X– :^hs– :(X– A„hs–
¼ ~9¯ ªm¯ |m¯ lV¯ Ê ¯ Ë ¯
«
1 1 º 1 ¼
D^1\A : A k 1 C
ªV¯ l9¯ Ë ¯ for near 0
®
.—­wÌ /2XM3D^X fz’“s1
Notice that since , the seventh and eighth Taylor approximations to are the same.
In Figure1
10.4 we show the graphs of the sine function
1
and the approximating polynomial of
degree
1
7 for near 0. They are indistinguishable where is close to 0. However, as we look at values
of farther away from 0 in either direction, the two graphs move apart. To check the accuracy of this
fz’“”/@¶—·œªM3D7Í ª}·œ~•D[XVC r ÊnÊ XM~Mla|vCtCoCzC
approximation numerically, we see how well it approximates

ˆbÐÒÑ G ¡=Ï K GVL 

G
Q € Î €

Qs ¡Ï K GVL ˆbÐÒÑ G

G ¡ Ï K GVL
Figure 10.4: Graph of ˆbÐÓÑ and its seventh degree Taylor polynomial, , for G near Š

¶—·aªDihnC Xœ| Ë htq Ë Ê CtCoC ] /2¶—·aªN3D

When we substitute into the polynomial approximation, we obtain ¼
XVC r ÊMÊ XN~9htªvCoCoC‡k
which is extremely accurate—to about four parts in a million.

r /21436D^d?eMfV1 1
Example 4 Graph the Taylor polynomial of degree approximating c for near 0.

Solution We find the coefficients of the Taylor polynomial by the method of the preceding example, giving
Œ ¬
1 1 1±» 1±Ì
doeMf91R5[] /@1=36DihsA : A : C
Ì ~V¯ |±¯ Ê ¯ rV¯

] /2143 1
Figure 10.5 shows that Ì ] Œ is/@14close to theŒ ·œcosine
3‹DhsAB1 ~
function for a larger interval of -values than
the quadratic approximation in Example 2 on page 447.

¡=Ô K GVL ¡4Ô K GVL

…‘†tˆ G  …‘†tˆ G

G
Q € €
Qs

¡ ž K GVL ¡ ž K G9L

¡ Ô K GVL G ¡ ž K GVL
Figure 10.5: approximates …‘†pˆ better than for G near Š

1RD^X .0/@143D[ÕyÖ
Example 5 Construct the Taylor polynomial of degree 10 about for the function .
 10.1 TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS 451
.0/2XM3Djh ÕyÖ ÕyÖ
Solution WeÕyhave
Ö
. Since the derivative of is .—
DØhnk‡~VkoCtCoCukohpX
equal® to , all the .—
­Ù /@1=3sDÕyÖ
higher-order
®
­Ù />XM3{DÕ
 derivatives are equal
Dšh
to . Consequently, for any × , and . Therefore, the
Taylor polynomial approximation of degree 10 is given by
Œ « ¬ _b
1 1 1 1
Õ Ö 5]`_b}/@1=36Dih‹: 1$: : : :^–o–o–y: k 1 C
~9¯ ªm¯ |±¯ hpXV¯ for near 0

_
ÕD[Õ D[~VC Ë htrN~œrVhprM~nrsCoCtC
To check1;theDZh
accuracy]0of_xMthis approximation, we use it ]`
/zhp3D™~9C Ë htrN~œrmhtrnXmh
to_bapproximate

.
Substituting
Õ
gives 1
. Thus, yields the first
ÕyÖ
seven decimal places
for . For large1E values
ÚÜÛ
of , however, the accuracy diminishes because
.0/2143\DÝÕpÖ
grows faster than any
polynomial as
DXVkthnk‘~9k-ªmkz|
. Figure 10.6 shows graphs of and the Taylor polynomials of
degree § . Notice
1
that each successive approximation remains close to the exponential
curve for a larger interval of -values.

¡=ß á ¢‹¡=ßâ¡ Î ¡ ž

 oŠ

¡ ž

‘Š
¡ ¥

¡=à ¡=à

á ¢ G
QÞ Q‹    Þ
¡ ¥

¡ Î Qs‘Š

¢
Figure 10.6: For G near Š , the value of á is more closely approximated by higher-degree Taylor
polynomials

h
.0/2143D 1
Example 6 Construct the Taylor polynomial of degree § approximating hsAâ1 for near 0.
¬‘®
.0/2XN3sDØh . < /2XM3sDãh . < < />XM3sDi~ . < < < />XM3vDiªV¯ .—­ /2XN3sD|m¯
Solution Differentiating gives , , , , , and so on. This
means h Œ « ¬ ¨
5[] ¨ /21436Dih‹: 1´: 1 : 1 :1 :^–o–t–p: 1 k 1
hsAB1 for near 0,

Let us compare the Taylor polynomial with the formula obtained on page ?? for the sum of a finite
geometric series: hsAB1
¨nä _
Œ « ¬ ¨
Djh‹:1$:1 :1 : 1 :–t–o–a: 1 C
hsAB1

¨œä _
1 1
If is close to 0 and is small enough to neglect, the formula for the sum of a finite geometric
series gives us the Taylor approximation of degree § :
h Œ « ¬ ¨
5h‹:1$:1 :1 : 1 :^–o–o–y: 1 C
hsAB1
452 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

Taylor Polynomials Around å„æèç

.0/@1=3‹D^éw“s1
Suppose we want to approximate
1 DX
by a Taylor polynomial.
1;êiX
This function has no Taylor
polynomial about because the function is not defined for1%D8 . However, it turns out that
we can construct a polynomial centered about some other1point,
D^8
.
First, let’s look at the equation of the tangent line at :
D[.0/>8}3:;.=<T/2893?/21"A8}3?C
g

This gives the first Taylor approximation

.0/@1=365^.0/>8}3—:(.=<T/2893?/21\A8}3 1 84C
for near
. < />8}3o/@1%A893 . 1
The 8 term is a correction term which approximates the change in as moves away
from . ]—¨/2143 17DÝ8 .0/>893
Similarly, the Taylor 1
polynomial
D8
centered at is set up as plus correction
/@1%A(893
terms which are zero1 for . This is achieved by writing the polynomial in powers of
instead of powers of :
Œ ¨
.0/@1=365] ¨ /21436D[6s:(s_œ/@1\A893”:( Œ /@1\A893 :^–o–t–p:; ¨ /@1\A893 C

]'¨/@1=3 .0/2143
If we require §
1D[8
derivatives of the approximating polynomial and the original function
1D[8
to agree at , we get the following result for the § ²2³ Taylor approximations at :

"!
´#

Taylor Polynomial of Degree µ Approximating for near ë
.0/214365^] ¨ /@143
¨ ®
. < < />8}3 Œ . ­ /2893 ¨
D[.0/2893”:;.=<>/>893?/@1"AB893”: /@1AB893 :[–t–o–p: /@1\A893
~V¯ ¯
§
]'¨/@1=3 1ŽDi8
We call the Taylor polynomial of degree § centered at
1D[8
, or the Taylor poly-
nomial about .

8RD›X
You can derive the formula for these coefficients in the same way that we did for . (See
Problem 28, page 454.)

.0/@143‹D£é“s1 1
Example 7 Construct the Taylor polynomial of degree 4 approximating the function for near 1.

Solution We have .0/@1=3D é“s1 .0/xhp3D^é“”/xhy3D^X

so
. < /@1=36D hy·a1 . < /xhp3D h
Œ
. < < /@1=36DìA•hy·a1 . < < /xhp3D A•h
«
. < < < /@1=36D ~N·y1 . < < < /xhp3D ~
¬‘® ¬ ¬‘®
. ­ /@1=36DjA Ê ·y1 k . ­ /xhp3D A Ê C

The Taylor polynomial is therefore

Œ « ¬
/@1A;hy3 /@1"A;hy3 /@1"A;hy3
é“s1R5]—¬N/21436D[XÉ:[/@1\A„hp3'A :;~ A Ê
~9¯ ªV¯ |m¯
Œ « ¬
/21"A„hp3 /@1"A;hy3 /@1\A„hp3
D›/@1"A;hy3'A : A k 1 C
~ ª | for near 1
é“s1
Graphs of
]—¬N/2143
and several of
é“s1
its Taylor
1
polynomials are shown 1 in Figure 10.7. Notice that
stays reasonably close to for near 1˜1,ê;
but
X
bends
éw“s1
away as gets farther from 1. Also,
note that the Taylor polynomials are defined for , but is not.
 10.1 TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS 453

¡ Î K G9L ¡”¥ K GVL

î Ñ G

¡ ž K GVL

G
   í

¡—¥ K GVL
P ¡=ß K GVL ¡ ß K GVL

¡ ž K GVL

¡ Î K GVL
î G
Ñ

î Ñ G
Figure 10.7: Taylor polynomials approximate closely for G near  , but not necessarily farther away

The examples in this section suggest

1âDj8
that the following results are true for common
.0/@1=3 1
functions:
8
ï
Taylor polynomials centered at give good approximations to for near . Farther
away, they may or may not be good.
ï
The higher the degree of the Taylor polynomial, the larger the interval over which it fits the
function closely.

Exercises and Problems for Section 10.1

Exercises

For Problems 1–10, find the Taylor polynomials of degree ð

approximating the given functions for G near 0. (Assume ñ is
a constant.)
  For Problems 11–14, find the Taylor polynomial of degree ð

1. , ð
ƒ Þ
,ó ,ô 2. , ð
Ē
,õ , ö for G near the given point F .
—òG QRG

—òG ƒ  ˆbÐÒÑ G F ƒ €4þ   …‘†pˆ G F ƒ €=þ Þ

3. Ÿ
, ð ,í ,Þ 4. …‘†pˆ G
, ð
ƒ 
,Þ ,ó 11. , , 12. , ,
ƒÞ ƒ í
…-ù Ñ G ƒ í Þ ù Ñ G ƒ í Þ ð ð
5. ÷oø ÷ , ð , 6. ÷ , ð ,
`QRG ƒ  î K }òûGVL
7. Ÿ
ú , ð ,í ,Þ 8. Ñ
, ð
ƒ
õ ,ö ,ü 13. á ¢
, FUƒ„
, ð
ƒÞ
14. Ÿ 'ò˜G
, F ƒ 
,
ƒ í
 ð
ƒ  K —ò˜G9L2ý
9. Ÿ —òG
, ð ,í ,Þ 10. , ð
ƒ 
,í ,Þ

Problems

For Problems 15–18, suppose GVL‹ƒ[FÉòBÿ-G•ò ‡G

J
is the
¡ ž K
ž
15. J4K GVL 16. J4K GVL17. J4K GVL
18.
second degree Taylor polynomial for the function about G G G G
G‰ƒ Š J
. What can you say about the signs of F , ÿ , if has the J4K G9L
graph given below?

J4K G9L GƒŠ

19. Suppose the function is approximated near
454 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

by a sixth degree Taylor polynomial


¡ K G9L”ƒ íoGQ"ÞtG
Î
ò G
 (b) Compare this result to the Taylor polynomial ap-
G‰ƒŠ
J4K
proximation of degree 2 for the function GVL—ƒ(á ¢
õ about . What do you notice?

 
(c) Use your observation in part (b) to write out the Tay-


Give the value of
J4K ŠyL JNSTK ŠpL JNS S SÇK ŠpL J -K ŠyL J -K ŠpL
lor polynomial approximation of degree 20 for the
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) function in part (a).


(d) What is the Taylor polynomial approximation
J4K
ž
¢
of de-

20. Suppose is a function which has continuous deriva-
K S K LâƒQ‹  S S K LBƒ

   
gree 5 for the function GVLƒ á ? Î
tives, and that õ L⃠í
S S S K Lƒ£Q6í
õ .
õ , õ ,
30. Consider the equations ˆbÐÒÑ G‰ƒ Š
  
and G•Q
G


í
ƒŠ
  

(a) What is the Taylor polynomial of degree   for near 


(a) How many zeros does each equation have?
í
õ ? What is the Taylor polynomial of degree for (b) Which of the zeros of the two equations are approx-
near 5? imately equal? Explain.
(b) Use the two polynomials that you found in part (a)
K
to approximate Þ ü L .   31. The integral à ˆbÐÒÑ þ L 
¥
K
  "! 
is difficult to approximate
J4K GVLûƒ
using, for example, left Riemann sums or the trapezoid
K
 
21. Find
ÞpG
ž
Q
the second-degree Taylor polynomial for
GòŽ 
about G‰ƒ Š . What do you notice? 
rule because the integrand ˆbÐÒÑ L þ is not defined at
ƒ Š

 ##$ 
ö . However, this integral converges; its value is


J4K Š Þ Š
22. Find
Î thež third-degree Taylor polynomial for GVL„ƒ ü ó ô Estimate the integral using Taylor polyno-
G ò
ö
G Q
õ
G`ò
about G‰ƒ Š . What do you notice? mials for ˆbÐÓÑ about ƒ Š of
(a) Degree 3 (b) Degree 5
 
23. (a) Based on your observations in Problems 21–22, J ¥ J ž J Î ž
¥


make a conjecture about Taylor approximations in 32. One of the two sets of functions, , , , or , ,
J Î

% &
the case when is itself a polynomial. , is graphed in Figure 10.8; the other set is graphed in
each have G ƒØŠ . Taylor

(b) Show that your conjecture is true. Figure 10.9. Points and
ˆbÐÒÑ G polynomials of degree 2 approximating these functions
24. Show how
Î you can use the Taylor approximation

 
near G‰ƒ Š are as follows:
 , for
G ˆbÐÒÑ G

'  (
GQ G î Ð ƒ„
near 0, to explain why à . ž ž


í G J ¥ K G9L ¥ K GVL
¢ ( ò%Gòâ ?G „—ò˜GÉòŽ oG

25. Use the ž fourth-degree

ß Taylor approximation …‘†tˆ G
(
J ž K GVL  `ò˜GQG
ž

 (ž K GVL „—ò˜GÉòG

ž

ØQ
G

 
 
ò
G

Þ for G
near Š
to explain why (
J Î K GVL  `ò˜GÉòG
ž

 (
Î K GVL „`QRGÉòG
ž

 
`Q …‘†pˆ G 


î Ð ž ƒ
. J
à G   (a) Which group of functions, the s or the s, is repre-

¢

 % &
sented by each figure?
26. Use a fourth degree Taylor approximation for á , for
(b) What are the coordinates of the points and ?
near 0, to evaluate the following limits. Would your
(c) Match the functions with the graphs (I)-(III) in each
answer be different if you used a Taylor polynomial of

     
figure.
higher degree?
á vQ˜Q
î
Ð ž

 
(a) à

 III II III II

(b)  
á QŽ`Q Q ž¤


î
Ð Î
à

  

J4K  tLsƒ K  pL{ƒ K  pLsƒEŠ J S K  tLsƒ S K  tLsƒEŠ

 ,
27. If , and ,
S K  pL•ƒš p  J S S K  tLƒí S S K  pLƒ NS S K  tLƒ
, and , , õ ö
calculate the following limits. Explain your reasoning.
(a)   (b) 
J4K GVL J4K GVL
I
  
î î
Ð ž Ð ž
K GVL K GVL
¢ ¢

28. Derive the formulas given in the box on page 452 for % &
the coefficients of the Taylor polynomial approximating I
J
a function for G near F .
Figure 10.8 Figure 10.9
29. (a) Find the Taylor polynomial approximation of degree
J4K
4 about G•ƒŠ for the function GVLƒ á ¢ ¤ .
 10.2 TAYLOR SERIES 455

10.2 TAYLOR SERIES

In the previous section we saw how to approximate a function near a point by Taylor polynomials.
Now we define a Taylor series, which is a power series that can be thought of as a Taylor polynomial
that goes on forever.

Taylor Series for cos )+* sin )+*-,

1%DX d?eNf91
We have the following Taylor polynomials centered at for :
doeMf91R5[]—M/@1=36Dih
Œ
1
doeMf91R5[] Π/@1=36DihsA
~V¯
Œ ¬
1 1
doeMf91R5[] ¬ /@1=36DihsA :
~V¯ |±¯
Œ ¬
1 1 1±»
doeMf91R5[] /@1=36DihsA : A
» ~V¯ |±¯ Ê ¯
Œ ¬
1 1 1±» 1±Ì
doeMf91R5[] /@1=36DihsA : A : C
Ì ~V¯ |±¯ Ê ¯ rV¯

]—M/@1=3 ] Œ /2143 ]”¬N/@1=3 ] /2143 ] /@143

Here we have a sequencedoeMoff91 polynomials, 1
, , , » , Ì , ..., each of which is a
better approximation
] ]
to than the last, for
1±Ìp·œrV¯
near 0. When we go to a higher-degree polynomial
(say from » to Ì ), we add more terms ( , for example), but the terms of lower degree don’t
change. Thus, each polynomial includes the information from all the previous doeMf91
ones. We represent
the whole sequence of Taylor polynomials by writing the Taylor series for :
Œ ¬
1 1 1±» 1±Ì
h{A : A : A;–t–o–oC
~V¯ |m¯ Ê ¯ rV¯

]'¨/@1=3
Notice that the partial sums of this series
fz’“{1
are the
ÕyÖ
Taylor polynomials, .
We define the Taylor series for and 1 similarly. It turns out that, for these functions, the
Taylor series converges to the function for all , so we can write the following:

f-’w“{1RD^1\A
1
«

:
1±º
A
1±¼
:
/.
1
A;–t–o–
ªV¯ l9¯ Ë ¯ qm¯
Œ ¬
1 1 1±» 1±Ì
d?eNf91RDihsA : A : A;–t–o–
~V¯ |m¯ Ê ¯ rV¯
Œ « ¬
1 1 1
Õ Ö Dih‹: 1´: : : :^–o–t–
~V¯ ªm¯ |m¯

f-’w“s1 d?eMfV1 ÕpÖ 1D[X

These series are also called Taylor expansions of the functions , , and about 1
.¨ The
· ¯
general term of a Taylor series is a formula which ÕyÖ
gives any term
/zA•hp3-Ùp1
Πin the series. For example,
ÙM·9/T~ 3?¯
§

is the general d?term

eNf91
in the Taylor expansion for , and × is the general term in the
expansion for . We call § or × the index.

Taylor Series in General

.
Any. function , all of whose derivatives.0/@exist
143
at 0, has a Taylor
1
series. However, the
1
Taylor series
for does not necessarily converge
.0/2143
to for all values of . For the values of for which the
series does converge to , we have the following formula:
456 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

"!
$#
è

Taylor Series for about 0
¨ ®
. < < /2XN3 Œ . < < < /2XM3 « .—­ /2XN3 ¨
.0/2143D7.0/2XM3:;. < /2XM3x1$: 1 : 1 :^–o–t–y: 1 :–t–o–
~9¯ ªV¯ ¯
§

X
In addition, just as we have 1„
Taylor
D 8
polynomials centered at points . other than1„D™
, we
8
can also
have a Taylor
1
series centered at (provided
.0/@1=3
all the derivatives of exist at ). For the
values of for which the series converges to , we have the following formula:

"!
$#
è

Taylor Series for about ë

J S S K FNL ž J S S S K FML Î

0#010 J 32 K FML
2 40$0#0
J4K GVLƒ J4K FML±ò J S K FML K GQFNLVò

 
K GQFML ò

í
K G•Q"FML ò uò
ð
 K GQFML ò

The Taylor series is a power series whose partial sums are the Taylor polynomials. 1[DZ8
As we saw in
Section ??, power series generally converge1 on an interval centered at . The Taylor series
for such a function can be interpreted when is replaced by a complex number. This extends the
domain of the function. See .
Problem 41.1
For
.0/@143
a given function and a given , even if the Taylor series converges, it might not converge
to , though it does for most commonly1encountered
DZ8
functions. Functions for which this is
true for the Taylor series about every
ÕyÖ
point
d?eMfV1 f-’“s1
in their domain are called analytic functions.
1
Fortunately, the Taylor series for , , and converge to the original function for all , so
they are analytic. See Section 10.4.

Intervals of Convergence of Taylor Series

é“s1 1 D h
Let us look again at the Taylor polynomial for about that we derived in Example 7 on
page ??. A similar calculation gives the Taylor Series
Œ « ¬ ¨
/@1"A;hy3 /@1\A„hp3 /21"A„hp3 ¨}© _ /@1"A;hy3
éw“s1D›/@1\A„hp3'A : A :–t–o–p:[/xA•hy3 :–t–o–tC
~ ª |
§

convergence
65
Example 2 onX page1š449 êè~
and Example 5 on page 451 show that this power series has interval of
. However, although we know that the series converges in this interval,
75 85 95
éw“s1
we do notX yet
71
know
~
that its sum is . The fact that in Figure 10.10éw“s
the
1
polynomials
X 71(êj~
fit the curve
well for suggests that the Taylor series does converge to for . For such
9:
1
-values, a higher-degree
1 ~9k
polynomial gives, in general, a better approximation.
However, when the polynomials move away from the curve and the approximations get
worse as the degree oféw“sthe
1
polynomial increases.
1
Thus, the Taylor polynomials are effective only
as approximations to for values of between X
0~ and 2; outside that interval, they should not
be used. Inside the interval, but near the ends, or , the polynomials converge very slowly. é“s1
This
means we might have to take a polynomial of very high degree to get an accurate value for .
 10.2 TAYLOR SERIES 457

P
Interval of convergence O
¡ Ï K GVL ¡
 K GVL

î
Ñ G

G
   í Þ

/
¡ K VG L O
¡ K GVL O
¡
¡
Ï K V
G L
Ô K GVL
O
O
î Ñ G
¡4Ô K GVL 
¡ K GVL

Figure 10.10: Taylor polynomials

¡
 ;  ;
K GVL ¡ K GVL ¡=Ï K GVL ; ¡ Ô K G9L ; ## converge to î Ñ G
for Š =< ?>
âG B 
and
diverge outside that interval

To compute the interval of convergence exactly, we first compute1the

1D[X D[~
radius of convergence
using the method on page ??. Convergence at the endpoints,é“s1 and , has to be determined
separately. However, proving that the series converges to on its interval of convergence, as
Figure 10.10 suggests, requires the error term introduced in Section 10.4.

éw“”/zh:143 1RD^X
Example 1 Find the Taylor series for about , and calculate its interval of convergence.
é“”/zh‹: 1=3 1D[X
Solution Taking derivatives of and substituting leads to the Taylor series
Œ « ¬
1 1 1
é“”/xh{: 1=3D1\A : A :^–o–o–tC
~ ª |

/xh‹:143 1 é“s1
Notice that this is the same series that we get by substituting for in the series for :
?5
Œ « ¬
/@1\A„hp3 /@1\A„hp3 /21\A;hy3
é“s1RDj/21"A„hp3'A : A :^–o–t– X (1˜ê~
~ ª | for .
@5
A5
éw“s1 1âDh X [1 ê7~
Since the series for about 1RDconverges
éw“”/zh‹: 1=3 X
for
A•h ;1êEh
, the interval of convergence for the
Taylor series for about is . Thus we write
A5
Œ « ¬
1 1 1
é“”/zh: 1=36D£1"A : A :^–o–t– A•h (1˜êEh
~ ª | for .
é“”/zhs:;1=3 1(êA•h é“”/xhv:;143
Notice that the series could not possibly converge to for since is not
defined there.

P Interval of O
B
¡ K GVL ¡Ï K GVL ¡
 K G9L

convergence

î Ñ K —òGVL

G
Qs 


¡ K GVL O

B
¡ K GVL O
¡Ï K V G L
¡ Ô K GVL
O
O
P
P
¡
î Ñ
K GVL
K 'ò˜G9L
¡=Ô K GVL ¡  K GVL

Figure 10.11: Interval of convergence for the Taylor series for

î Ñ K 0ò%GVL
is QsC< ->
âG 
458 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

The Binomial Series Expansion

We now find the Taylor series about for the function
1RDX .0/2143D›/xh‹:143 ED , with F a constant, but
not necessarily a positive integer. Taking derivatives:
.0/@143‹Di/zh‹: 1=3 D .0/>XM3Dih

. < /2143D
F /xh‹:143 ED © _ so
. < />XM3D
F
. < < /2143D
F F / A„hp3?/zh‹: 1=3 ED ©4Œ
. < < />XM3D
F F / A„hp3

. < < < /2143D

F F / A„hp3?/
F A~M3?/zh‹: 1=3 ED © «
k . < < < />XM3D
F F / A„hp3o/
F A ~n3?C

1
Thus, the third-degree Taylor polynomial for near 0 is
/zh‹: 1=3 D 5[]'«M/21436Djh‹:
F 1$: F F / A„hp3

~9¯
1
Œ
: F F
/ A;hy3?/

ªm¯
F A~M3
1
«
C

Graphing .0/@1=3 forš

] « /@1=3uk-]
various
¬ /@143?koCtCoC

?5 G5
specific values of suggests that the Taylor polynomials F
ED
A•h E1 h
converge to for . (See Problems 24–23, page 459.) This can
.0/@1=3Di/zh‹: 1=3
be confirmed using
1RD[X
the radius of convergence test. The Taylor series for about is as follows:

The Binomial Series

/xh‹:143 D Djh‹:
F 1û: F F
/

~9¯
A„hp3
1
Œ
: F F / A„hp3o/

ªV¯
F A ~n3
1
«
:^–o–t–
for
A•h =5 H5 „1 7h
.

In fact the binomial series gives the same result as multiplying out when is a positive
/xh:R143 ID F
integer. (Newton discovered that the binomial series can be used for noninteger exponents.)

F
«
D[ª /zh‹: 1=3
Example 2 Use the binomial series with to expand .

Solution The series is

« ªU–p~ Œ ª–t~U–nh « ª–p~U–œhs–pX ¬
/xh‹:143 Dh‹:(ªœ1$: 1 : 1 : 1 :–t–o–oC
~9¯ ªV¯ |m¯

¬
1
The term and all terms beyond it turn out to be zero, because each coefficient contains a factor
of 0. Simplifying gives /xh‹:143
«
Djh‹:(ªœ1$:(ªœ1
Œ
: 1
«
k
«
/xh‹:143
which is the usual expansion obtained by multiplying out .

h
1D[X
Example 3 Find the Taylor series about for h‹: 1 .
h © _

Solution Since h‹:1

Di/zh‹: 1=3
, use the binomial series with F DA•h
. Then
h © _ /xA•hy3?/zAÉ~n3 Œ /xA•hp3o/xAÉ~M3?/xAvªN3 «
D›/xh‹:143 Dih‹:^/zA•hp3b1û: 1 : 1 :–t–o–
h‹:1 ~9¯ ªm¯

DihsAâ1$:1
Œ
Aâ1
«
:–t–o–
for
A•h =5 H5 „1 7h
.
This series is A•
converges for
both a special
h ;1 Eh
.
A5 95
case of the binomial series and an example of a geometric series. It
 10.2 TAYLOR SERIES 459

Exercises and Problems for Section 10.2

Exercises

For Problems 1–4, find the first four terms of the Taylor series 12. QRG

ƒ„—òGÉò˜G
ž
òG
Î
òG
ß
40#0$0
ò

for the given function about Š .


Ÿ —ò˜G

Ÿ `Q‚
13. 'ò˜G

ƒ„`QGÉò˜G
ž
QG
Î
òG
ß
N0#0$0
Q

1. `QG
2. 3. Ÿ —òG
4. ú
ž Î

O0#010
ß
G G G
î Ñ K QGVLƒ„QGQ Q Q Q
14.   í Þ
For Problems 5–11, find the first four terms of the Taylor se-
ries for the function about the point F . G
ž
G
Î
G
ß
 H010#0 G

KJ , LJ ,
î Ñ K 'òGVLƒGQ ò Q ò Q
15.   í Þ
G Fûƒ F•ƒ


ˆbÐÒÑ …‘†tˆ ˆbÐÒÑ õ
5. , 6. 7. Î

 P0#0#0
€4þ Þ €4þ Þ FUƒ„Q €=þ Þ Ï

 
G G G
ˆbÐÒÑ G•ƒGQ ò Q ò
ù Ñ G  þ G Fèƒ  þ G F ƒ
16. í


8. ÷ , 9. , 10. , õ ö
Î

P0#0#0
F ƒ
U €4þ Þ    Ï
G G G
…-ù Ñ G‰ƒ GQ ò Q ò
 þ G FYƒ 17. ÷oø ÷ í


11. , õ ö
Qs

   P0#0#0
ß Ô
ž G G G
á ¢ ¤ ƒ„—òG ò ò ò ò
18.   í Þ
Find an expression for the general term of the series in Prob-
M 
   P0#010
ß Ô
lems 12–19 and give the starting value of the index (ð or , ž ž ž G G G
G …‘†pˆ G ƒG Q ò Q ò
for example). 19.   Þ
ó

Problems

20. (a) Find the termsž up to degree ó of the Taylor series for By recognizing each series in Problems 27–35 as a Taylor se-
J4K GVLƒ K G L
ˆbÐÒÑ
about G‰ƒ Š by taking derivatives. ries evaluated at a particular value of G , find the sum of each
(b) Compare your result in part (a) to the series for ˆbÐÒÑ G . of the following convergent series.
How could you have obtained your answer to part (a)
from the series for ˆbÐÒÑ G ?
2
010#0 2
0#010
 "  P0$010  40#0$0
27. 28. K Qs?L

 "  ;
J4K î K   Þ     
21. (a) Find the Taylor series for G9L'ƒ Ñ 'òB oG9L about 'ò ò ò ô ò ?ò ò Q ò Q ò oò
K  
ò
G‰ƒŠ    í í ò?L
by taking derivatives. ð õ ö ð

RQ 'S RQ 'S P0#0#0 RQ "S  2 40#0$ 0  40$010 2 0 2 P0

(b) Compare your result in part (a) to the series for ž Î ž
î Ñ K ‹òG9L 29. 30.
. How could you have obtained your an- K Qs?L

;
    ‘ŠpŠ uŠpŠtŠpŠ tuŠ
î K 'ò ò ò ò ?ò Q òò ò ?ò ò
swer to part (a) from the series for Ñ 0ò%GVL ? Þ Þ Þ Þ   Þ K   L
ð
(c) What do you expect the interval of convergence for
î K
the series for Ñ 'ò˜ oGVL to be?
22. By graphing the function GVLƒ Ÿ 0ò%G and several of
J4K

Q
¥ ž
K žnL
ò
¥ Î
K žaL
Q
¥ ß
K žœL
40$0#0
ò oò
K Qs?L 2 0 U2 T P0#0#0 ¥
K žnL
¥

ò
its Taylor polynomials, estimate the interval of conver- 31.     í Þ K ò?L
ð
gence of the series you found in Problem 2.
 40$0#0  
ž Î

J4K GVLUƒ Q%Š 0ò˜Š  QŠ  ò
23. By graphing the function and several 32.

"   P0#0#0
Ÿ 'ò˜G
  
of its Taylor polynomials, estimate the interval of con- 'òŽíò ü ò ö ò ô ò
33.   í Þ
vergence of the series you found in Problem 3.

   P0$010
   
J4K GVL‹ƒ
Q ò Q ò
24. By graphing the function `QG and several of 34.   Þ
ó

    " 40#0$0
its Taylor polynomials, estimate the interval of conver- Š Šœ Š ŠtŠn
gence of the series you found in Problem 1. Compute the Q%Š 0ò Q ò
35.   í
radius of convergence analytically.
25. Find the radius of convergence of the Taylor series In Problems 36–37 solve exactly for the variable.
î K
around zero for Ñ `QGVL .
26. (a) Write the general term of the binomial series for 36. 'ò˜GÉòG
ž
òG
Î
40#0$0 ò œƒ
õ

P010$0 
K —ò˜GVL2ý
about G‰ƒŠ .  ž  Î
G•Q G ò G ò aƒ Š  
(b) Find the radius of convergence of this series. 37.   í
460 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS
J ¥ J ž J Î
  ¥ ž J4K G9L”ƒ


38. One of the two sets of functions, , , , or , , 39. Suppose
ž that you are told that the Taylor series of
Î
G á ¢ ¤
is graphed in Figure 10.12; the other set is graphed in about G‰ƒ Š is

% & 
Figure 10.13. Taylor series for the functions about a point

0#010 0#0#0    P0#0#0 

corresponding to either or arež as follows: Ô ¥ à

 ß ž
ž G G G
J ¥ K GVLƒ íò K GQŽ?LQ K GQŽ?L ¥ K GVLƒ Q K G•QÞaL=Q K G QÞaL
G  òG ò ò ò ò

0#010 0#0#0
õ


ž ž   í Þ

!  Q
J ž K GVLƒ íQ K GQŽ?L±ò K GQŽ?L ž K GVLƒ K G•QÞaLmò K GQÞaL

! Q
Q

0#010 #
0 #
0 0
õ

 
ž ž

SYVV X 
J Î K GVLƒ ísQ%  K GQŽ?L±ò K GQŽ?L Î K GVLƒ K G•QÞaLmò K G ž ž

Find ! SWVV X and !

ò QÞaL
õ tG á ¢ ¤ oG á ¢ ¤

VV VV
aG à aG à
(a) Which group of functions is represented in each fig- ¢ ¢

% &
ure?
40. Suppose you know that all the derivatives of some func-
J J
(b) What are the coordinates of the points and ?
tion exist at Š , and that Taylor series for about GƒŠ
(c) Match the functions with the graphs (I)-(III) in each

P0#0#0 2 40$0#0 
is ž Î
figure. ß
G G G G
GÉò ò ò ò uò ò
I   í Þ
ð

I Find
J S K ŠpL
,
J S S K ŠyL
, , and
  J S S S K ŠyL J
¥ à
K ŠyL

Z . We define [\ by substituting Z J

% 41. Let ƒ Ÿ Qs á
in the
& Taylor series for
ler’s formula
á ¢
. Use this definition2 to explain Eu-

[\
II II
á ƒ …‡†pˆ KJ Z ]J  ò ˆbÐÒÑ

III III

Figure 10.12 Figure 10.13

10.3 FINDING AND USING TAYLOR SERIES

Finding a Taylor series for a function means finding the coefficients. Assuming the function has all
its derivatives defined, finding the coefficients can always be done, in theory at least, by differen-
ED
ÕyÖ
tiation.
f-’w“s1
That is how
doeMf91
we derived the four most important Taylor series, those for the functions ,
/zh:£1=3
, , and . For many functions, however, computing Taylor series coefficients by
differentiation can be a very laborious business. We now introduce easier ways of finding Taylor
series, if the series we want is closely related to a series that we already know.

New Series by Substitution

©
¤ Õ Ö 17DèX
Suppose we want to find the Taylor© series for about . We© could find the coefficients
Õ Ö ¤ AÉ~œ1±Õ Ö ¤
by differentiation.
© Differentiating
Œ © by the chain rule gives , and differentiating again
AÉ~nÕ Ö ¤ :£|M1 Õ Ö ¤
gives . Each time we differentiate we use © the product rule, and the number © of
Õ Ö ¤ Õ Ö ¤
terms
1
_x grows.
1
Œ  Finding the tenth or twentieth derivative of , and thus the series for up to
the or terms, by this method is tiresome (at least without a computer or calculator that can
differentiate).
Fortunately, there’s a quicker way. Recall that

^
Œ « ¬

Õ •Dh‹: : g : g : g :^–o–t– C
g ~V¯ ªV¯ |±¯ for all g
Œ
DjAs1
Substituting g tells us that
Œ Œ Œ « Œ ¬
© Œ /xAs1 3 /zAs1 3 /xAs1 3
Õ Ö ¤ Dh‹:[/xAs1 3: : : :–t–o– 1—C
~9¯ ªV¯ |m¯ for all
2 Complex numbers are discussed in Appendix B.
 10.3 FINDING AND USING TAYLOR SERIES 461
©
Õ Ö ¤
Simplifying shows that the Taylor series for is
¬
© Œ 1 1 » 1 Ì
Õ Ö ¤ DhsAB1 : A : :^–o–t– 1
~V¯ ªm¯ |m¯ for all .
_b Œ 
1 1
Using this method, it is easy to find the series up to the or terms.

h
1D[X .0/@1=36D Œ
Example 1 Find the Taylor series about for h‹:1 .

Solution The binomial series tells us that

h‹:
h
Di/zh‹:
g
3
© _
DjhsA
g
:
g
Œ
A
g
«
:
g
¬
:–t–o–
for
A•h A5 5 g
EhœC

g
Œ
D1
Substituting g gives

h‹:1
h
ΠDihsAB1
Œ
:1
¬
AB1 » : 1 Ì :–t–o–
for
A•h5 H5 (1 7h
,
h
Œ
which is the Taylor series for h‹:1 .

These examples demonstrate that we can get new series from old ones by substitution. More
advanced texts show that series obtained by this method
Dã1
Πare indeed correct.
In Example 1, we made the substitution g . We can also substitute an entire series into
another one, as in the next example.

Example 2 Find the Taylor series about _ D[X

for c
/
_ 3D^Õ U`ba c'd .
Solution _
For all g and , we know that

^
Œ « ¬

Õ Dih‹: : g : g : g :^–o–o–
g ~9¯ ªm¯ |m¯

_ _ _ _
«
and º
f-’“ D A : A;–t–o–tC
ªV¯ l9¯

Let’s substitute the series for

f-’w“
_ for g :
Œ «

`ba cd 4e _ _ _ f e_ _ _ f e_ _ _ f
« « «
º h º h º
Õ Dhn: A : A£–o–t– ‰: A : A„–o–t– : A : A„–o–t– :Öo–t–oC
ªm¯ lV¯ ~V¯ ªm¯ lV¯ ªV¯ ªm¯ lV¯

h
To simplify, we multiply out and collect terms. The only constant term is the , and there’s only one
_ _ _
Œ Œ
·œ~9¯
term. The only term is the first termA we« ·œget by multiplying out the square, namely . There
_ _
«
ªV¯
are two contributors to the term: the from within the first parentheses, and the first term
_
«
·œªV¯
we get from multiplying out the cube, which is . Thus the series starts

`ba c/d _ _ e _ _ f
Œ « «

Õ Djh‹: : : A : :^–o–o–
~9¯ ªV¯ ªV¯

_ _
Œ
«
Djh‹: :
~9¯
:X–
_ :^–o–o–
for all _ C
462 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

New Series by Differentiation and Integration

Just as we can get new series by substitution, we can also get new series by differentiation and
integration. Here again, proof that this method gives the correct series and that the new series has
the same interval of convergence as the original series, can be found in more advanced texts.

h h
1D[X ΠC
Example 3 Find the Taylor Series about for /xhsAB143 from the series for hsAB1

g e f
h h
[D Œ
Solution We know that 1 h{AB1 , so we start with the geometric series
g
/zhsAâ1=3

hsAB1
h
Djh‹:1$:1
Œ
:1
«
: 1
¬
:–t–o–
for
A„h=5 95
„1 EhnC

Differentiation term by term gives the binomial series

g e f A5 95
h h Œ «
Œ D 7Dh‹:;~a1´:ªn1 :|n1 :–t–o– A„h „1 7hMC
1 hsAB1 for
g
/zhsAâ1=3

h"i 1j h
h
1D[X d “{1 Œ C
Example 4 Find the Taylor series about for from the series for h‹: 1

1j
g "h i h
/ d “{143 h
D Œ
Solution We know that 1 h6:1 , so we use the series from Example 1 on page 461:
g
hg i j h
/ d

1
“1=3
D
h‹:1
h
Œ DhsAB1
Œ
:1
¬
Aâ1 » : 1 Ì A„–o–o–
for
A•h A5 H5;1 7h
.
g
Antidifferentiating term by term gives
.
h i j h lk A5 95
«
h 1 14º 14¼ 1
d “‹1RD 1RD[: 1\A : A : A„–o–t– A;h „1 7hMk

g
Œ
h‹:1 ª l Ë q for

where

is the constant of integration. Since h i j h d “{X‰D[X
, we have
ED[X
, so
.
h"i 1j h 5 95
«
1 1±º 1±¼ 1
d “{1D^1\A : A : A;–t–o– A„h ;1 EhnC
ª l Ë q for

The series for h i j h d “1

was discovered by James Gregory (1638–1675).

Applications of Taylor Series

Example 5 Use the series for h"i 1j h d “1

to estimate the numerical value of .
¶
 10.3 FINDING AND USING TAYLOR SERIES 463

Solution
j
Since h i h
d “h;D ¶—·y| 1j from Example 4. We assume—as is the
, we use the series for h"i h
d “{1

case—that the series does converge to j at

¶—·a| 1£DÝh
, the endpoint of its interval of convergence.
into the series for h i h
1%Djh d “1
Substituting gives

h i j h We f h h h h
¶ŽD£| d “hÉD^| =hsA : A : A„–o–t– C
ª l Ë q

Table 10.1 Approximating

¶
using the series for h i j hd “‹1

m2
ð 4
2.895 3.340
5
3.182
25
3.132
100
3.140
500 1000
3.141
10,000
3.141

Table 10.1 shows the value of¨ the § ²2³ partial sum, ,¶˜ obtained by summing the nonzero terms from n ¨

1 through § . The values of do seem to converge to n

D^ªmCwht|mhCtCoC‘C
However, this series converges
very
¶
slowly, meaning that we have
¶
to take a large number of terms to get an accurate estimate for
. So this way of calculating is not particularly
¶
practical. (A better one is given in Problem 1,
page 475.) However, the expression for given by this series is surprising and elegant.

A basic question we can ask about two functions is which one gives larger values. Taylor series
can often be used to answer this question over a small interval. If the constant terms of the series for
two functions are the same, compare the linear terms; if the linear terms are the same, compare the
quadratic terms, and so on.

d
Example 6 By looking at their Taylor series, decide which of the following functions
h is largest, and which is
_
smallest, for near 0. (a)
h‹:f-’w“
_ (b)
Õ
(c) Í hsA~
_
Solution The Taylor expansion about _ D[X
for
fz’“
_ is

_ _ _ _ _
«
º ¼
f-’“ D A : A :–t–o–tC
ªV¯ l9¯ Ë ¯

_ _ _ _
«
So º ¼
h‹:f-’“
_ Dih‹: A
ªm¯
:
lV¯
A
Ë ¯
:^–o–t–oC

The Taylor expansion about _ D[X

for
Õ d is
d _ _ _ _
Œ « ¬

Õ Dih‹: : : : :^–o–o–tC
~V¯ ªm¯ |m¯

The Taylor expansion about _ D[X

for
hy· Í h‹:
_ is
h © po
_ Πh /zA
_
Πo3 /xA
«
Π3 Π/zA
_
Πo3 /xA
«
Œ 3?/xA ºŒ 3 «

Í h‹:
_
D›/xh‹:
_ 3 DihsA
~ _ :
~V¯ _ :
ªm¯ _ :^–o–o–

h ª Œ l

_ _ _
«
DihsA : A :–t–o–oC
~ r h Ê

So, substituting
AÉ~
_ _
for :
h h ª Œ l «

Í hsA~
_
DihsA
~
/xAÉ~
_ 3”:
r
/xAÉ~
_ 3 A
h Ê
/xAÉ~
_ 3 :^–o–o–

ª Œ l «
Dih‹:
_ :
~ _ :
~ _ :^–o–t–?C
464 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

_
For near 0, we can neglect terms beyond the second degree. We are left with the approximations:
h‹:(f-’w“
_ 5ih‹:
_
d _ _
Œ

Õ 5ih‹: :
~
h ª Œ

Í hsA ~
_
5ih‹:
_ :
~ _ C

_ 5 _ 5
Since h Œ ª Œ
h‹: Eh‹:
_ :
~
[h‹:
_ :
~ _ k

and since the approximations are valid for near 0, we conclude that, for near 0, _ _
_ 5 d 5
h
h‹:(fz’“ „Õ C
Í hsA~
_

Example 7 Two electrical charges of equal magnitude and opposite signs located near one another are called
an electrical dipole. The charges and
A
are a distance apart. (See Figure 10.14.) The electric q q r
s ]
field, , at the point is given by

s D
tq ΠA
/ t q r : 3
ΠC

t
Use series to investigate the behavior of the electric field far away from the dipole.
is large in comparison to , the electric field is approximately proportional to
hy·
Show
«

.
that when
r t
¡
P u O
w P v O
Q w

Figure 10.14: Approximating the electric field at due to a

w w
¡
v
dipole consisting of charges and Q a distance apart

Solution In order to use a series approximation, we need a variable whose value is small. Although
r t
we know
r r t
t r t
·
that is much smaller than ,hawe do not Πknow that itself is small. The quantity is, however,
very small. Hence we expand
·9/ : 3
in powers of
·
so that we can safely use only the first r
few terms of the Taylor series. First we rewrite using algebra:

t Q tr S
©=Œ
h h h

/ t :
r 3
ΠD
t Œ
/xh‹:
r t
· 3
Œ D Œ h‹: C

Now we use the binomial expansion for

/zh‹: 1=3 ED with 1D
r t and F · DjAÉ~
:

tr S t e Q tr S Q tr S Q tr S f
©4Œ Œ «

t Q
h h /xAÉ~M3?/zAvªM3 /zAÉ~n3o/xAvªM3o/xAs|}3
Œ h‹: D Œ h‹:^/zAÉ~n3 : : :^–o–t–
~9¯ ªm¯

t e tr tr tr f
Œ «
h
D Œ hsA~ :(ª Œ Aâ| « :–t–o– C

So, substituting the series into the expression for s , we have

tq t q r q xt t e tr tr tr f{z
Œ «
h h

s D ΠA
/ : 3
ΠD
y Œ A Œ hsA ~ :ª Œ AB| « :^–o–t–

t q e tr tr tr f
Œ «

D Œ ~ Aª Œ : | « A„–o–t– C
 10.3 FINDING AND USING TAYLOR SERIES 465

Since r
t r t converges. We are
©4Œ

t t interested
· /zh9: · 3
is smaller than 1, the binomial expansion for in
the electric field far away from the dipole. The quantity r is small there, and r
Œ
· / · 3
and higher
powers are smaller still. Thus, we approximate by disregarding all terms except the first, giving

tq e t r f t qr
~ ~

s 5 Πk
so s 5 « C

Since q r
and are constants, this means that s is approximately proportional to
hy· t «
C

s r t
r t
·
In the previous example,
·
we say that is expanded in terms of , meaning that the variable
in the expansion is .

Exercises and Problems for Section 10.3

Exercises

Find the first four nonzero terms of the Taylor series about 0 lems 13–15. Give the general term.
for the functions in Problems 1–12. Î
K 'ò˜G9L

 13.
  
J 3. 
ž Î
ž K


K nˆbÐÒÑ L4Q
1. Ÿ `Q% oG
2. …‡†pˆ L á ¢
4. 14.
€
—ò 
15. ž
Q‚

~ ~


}|
î Ñ K yQ ?‚NL G
…‘ˆbÐÒÑ ž
5. 6. ÷?ø 7. Ÿ `Q
8. Î ž
K L
…‘†pˆ For Problems 16–17, expand the quantity about 0 in terms of
the variable given. Give four nonzero terms.
|  ‚
9. 
á ¤
10. € K —ò
 11.
L ˆbÐÒÑ 
á …‘†pˆ
12.
Ÿ —ò ˆbÐÒÑ LJ 16.


 ò˜G
in terms of
G

 
17. Ÿ F
ž
F

ò%G
ž in terms of
G

F
 where „ƒ F âŠ

Find the Taylor series around 0 for the functions in Prob-

Problems

18. For F , ÿ positive constants, the upper half of an ellipse J

†J ‡J
small positive .
J

has equation (a) 'ò ˆbÐÒÑ
(b) …‘†tˆ
(c) ž
`Q

U… 
ž
G
‚Uƒ J4K G9L”ƒÿ Q ž
F

J4K 20. For values of ‚ near 0, put the following functions in in-
(a) Find the second degree Taylor polynomial of GVL
creasing order,
ž using their Taylor ž expansions.
about Š . î K K
(a) Ñ tòv‚ L (b) ˆbÐÒÑ ‚ L (c) aQ …‘†pˆ ‚
(b) Explain how you could have predicted the coeffi-
cient
J
of G in the Taylor polynomial from a graph of
.
(c) For G near Š , the ellipse is approximated by a
21. Figure 10.15 shows the graphs of the four functions be-
parabola. What is the equation of the parabola?
low for values of G near 0. Use Taylor series to match
What are its G -intercepts?
graphs and formulas.
(d) Taking FUƒ í and ÿƒ  , estimate the maximum dif-
‰ˆ
J4K

 {> ?> 
ference between GVL and the second-degree Taylor
Š
Q6Š  ŽG BŠ   ¥ ß G
polynomial for . K uòGVL 'ò
ž
(a) Q"G (b) (c)  

19. By looking at the Taylor series, decide which of the fol-
(d) Ÿ QRG
lowing functions is largest, and which is smallest, for
466 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

(I) (III)
M
where is a positive constant whose value depends on
Πu
the units. Expand as a series in  þ , giving the first
two nonzero terms.
(IV)
26. Assume F is a positive constant. Suppose | is given by
the expression

(II)
| €
vƒ F
ž
òG
ž
Q
€ F
ž
QG
ž

Expand | as a series in G
as far as the second nonzero
Figure 10.15 term.
u


27. The electric potential, , at a distance along the axis

ž
þ K 0òG

Ž
¢ ¤ perpendicular to the center of a charged disc with radius
22. Consider the functions ‚Uƒá and ‚Uƒ„ L
F
and constant charge density , is given by
(a) Write the Taylor expansions for the two functions
€ u u
about Gƒ[Š . What is similar about the two series?
 ƒ;  €
Ž K
ž
òF
ž
Q L

u
What is different?
(b) Looking at the series, which function do you predict
K
will be greater over the interval Qs ‘uL ? Graph both U Show that, for large ,
and see.

  u Ž
ž
(c) Are these functions even or odd? How might you see € F

this by looking at the series expansions?

(d) By looking at the coefficients, explain why it is rea-
sonable that the series for ‚ƒá
¢ ¤
converges for
ž

‚ƒ™ þ K {òG

G L
all values of , but the series for
K

converges only on Qs ‘?L .
23. The hyperbolic sine and cosine are differentiable and sat-
isfy the conditions …‘†pˆ Švƒ„ and ˆbÐÒÑ Švƒ Š , and
‹ ‹
~
28. One of Einstein’s most amazing predictions was that light
traveling from distant stars would bend around the sun on
the way to earth. His calculations involved solving for

! !
in the equation

!
aG
K
…‘†pˆ
‹ GVLƒ ‚‹
ˆbÐÒÑ G
! ‚‹
aG
K
ˆbÐÒÑ GVLƒ …‘†pˆ
‹ 
G
ˆbÐÒÑ
~ òÿ K —ò …‘†pˆ
ž ~ ò …‘†pˆ
~ Lƒ Š

(a) Using only this information, find the Taylor approx-

J4K
where ÿ is a very small positive constant.

‹
imation of degree ð ƒ ô about GŽƒŠ for G9Lsƒ
~

‹
…‘†pˆ G
. (a) Explain why the equation could have a solution for
(b) Estimate the value of …‘†pˆ  .
~ ~
which is near 0.
(c) Use the result from part (a) to find a Taylor polyno-
~
(b) Expand the left-hand side of the equation in Taylor
mž
mial approximation of degree ð ƒ ö about G⃛Š
K

for G9L=ƒ ˆbÐÒÑ G . ‹ series about ƒEŠ , disregarding terms of order
and higher. Solve for . (Your answer will involve
ÿ
24. Padé approximants are rational functions used to approx- .)
imate more complicated functions. In this problem, you
will derive the Padé approximant to the exponential func- 29. The Michelson-Morley experiment, which contributed to
tion. the formulation of the Theory of Relativity, involved the
¥ ž  
 <
J4K K K difference between the two times and that light took
(a) Let G9L6ƒ `òâFœGVL þ 0òâÿ‡G9L
, where F and ÿ are
constants. Write J4down the first three terms of the  
to travel between two points. If is the velocity of light;
ž
 6 

¥ ¥
K , , and are constants; and , then the times
Taylor series for G9L about G‰ƒ Š . ž
and are given by
   
(b) By equating the first three terms of the Taylor se-
J4K
ries about G˜ƒŠ for GVL and for á ¢ , find F and ÿ
J4K G9L
   ž
€   ¥
 €   ž   ¥

 
¥ ž
approximates á ¢ as closely as possible
 
ƒ ž ž Q ž ž ƒ ž ž Q ž ž
so that K Q þ L K Q þ L
G‰ƒ Š 6Q þ `Q þ
near .
w ‘  
25. An electric dipole on the G -axis consists of a charge at
u w u ƒ ƒ Q ¥ ž

Œ 
Gƒš (a) Find an expression for ž ž , and give its
and a charge Q at G˜ƒšQs . The electric field,
G‰ƒ Taylor expansion in terms of þ up to the second
, at the point on the G -axis is given (for  )
  ‘
nonzero term.
by
Œ ƒ
K
u Mw QâuL
ž Q
K
u Mw ò?L
ž
(b) For small , to what power of is
What is the constant of proportionality?
proportional?
 10.4 THE ERROR IN TAYLOR POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS 467

’
“ ’
30. A hydrogen atom consists of an electron, of mass , or- 32. When a body is near the surface of the earth, we usually

“ ” ’˜ ’ 
biting a proton, of mass , where is much smaller assume that the force due to gravity on it is a constant
than . The reduced mass, , of the hydrogen atom is , where is the mass of the body and is the accel-
defined by
•’ “ 
eration due to gravity at sea level. For a body at a distance
” ’ “  –
ƒ above the surface of the earth, a more accurate expres-
ò
u
(a) Show that ”  ’ .
sion for the force is
u ’„ 
ž

(b) To get a more accurate approximation for ” , express – ƒ ž

u
K

” as ’ times a series in ’ “ .
ò L

(c) The approximation ”  ’ is obtained by disregard-

þ

ing all but the constant term in the series. The first-
where is the radius of the earth. We will consider the

situation in which the body is close to the surface of the u
’  “
earth so that is much smaller than .
–  ˜’ 
order correction is obtained by including the linear

 u
þ  í
term but no higher terms. If ô ó , by what

– ’˜
(a) Show that .
”  ’ – 
percentage does including the first-order correction (b) Express as multiplied by a series in þ .
change the estimate ?
’˜
(c) The first-order correction to the approximation
31. A thin disk of radius F and mass
’
lies horizontally; a
 “ is obtained by taking the linear term in the se-
ries but no higher terms. How far above the surface
–
particle of mass is at a height directly above the cen-
–  ˜’  u
of the earth can you go before the first-order correc-
’
ter of the disk. The gravitational force, , exerted by the
disk on the mass is given by uŠ ™
tion changes the estimate
? (Assume ƒ ó ÞpŠpŠ km.)
by more than

– “ ’  e
U— 4 ƒ
 

F
ž

Q
K F
ž
ò

 ‰ˆ f ž
L
¥ ž 33. (a) Estimate the value of   ! using Riemann à
¥
á ¢ ¤ aG

sums for both left-hand and right-hand sums with

Assume H<
 and think of –
F
as a function of F , with
ð
ƒ
õ subdivisions.
J4K
(b) Approximate the function GVLƒ á ¢u¤ with a Tay- 

the other quantities constant. lor polynomial of degree 6.
(a) Expand –
as a series in F þ . Give the first two
(c) Estimate the integral in part (a) by integrating the
Taylor polynomial from part (b).
–
nonzero terms.
(d) Indicate briefly how you could improve the results
(b) Show that the approximation for obtained by us-
in each case.
ing only the first nonzero term in the series is inde-

 
pendent of the radius, F . 34. Use Taylor series to explain how the following patterns
(c) If F$ƒŠ Šy  , by what percentage does the approx-
Q  S
arise:  ž

imation in part (a) differ from the approximation in (a)

 ƒ„

 Šy oŠtÞyŠ  íy  Þ
#1 (b) ƒ

 #$
Š ô ó ó Š
part (b)? üpô ütü
 Šp tŠpítŠtÞpŠ Š Š
õ ó ö

10.4 THE ERROR IN TAYLOR POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS

In order to use an approximation intelligently, we need to be able to estimate the size of the error,
which is the difference between the exact answer (which we do not know) and the approximate
value. ]—¨/2143 .0/@143
When we use , the §=²2³ degree Taylor polynomial, to approximate , the error is the
difference ¨”/@143‹D^.0/@1=30A]—¨/2143?C
s
If s ¨
is positive, the approximation is smaller than the true value. If is negative, the approxima- s ¨

tion is too large. Often we are only interested

] ¨ /@143
in the magnitude of the error,
¨
. šs š
Recall that we constructed so that its first § derivatives equal¨ ® the corresponding deriva-
tives of
.0/@1=3
. Therefore,
¨ /2XN3D X
,
<¨ /2XN3D X
,
¨ < < /2XN3DãX
s
–o–t–
, ä _z® ,
¨œ
¨­ />XM3DãX
¨œä _z® . Since
] ¨ /@1=3
iss` s s
an §=²2³ degree.—polynomial, its
/ :›hy3
² derivative is 0, so
¨­ /@143ÃDZ.—­ /2143
. In addition, s
›
¨œä _z® §
­ /@1=3 1 X
supposeX´thatê(1˜ê VV VV
is bounded by a positive constant , for all positive values of near ,
say for , so that
g
¨nä _x®
A
› ê£. ­ /2143{ê
› for
X´ê„1ê

g
C

This means that ¨œä

› s ›
_z®
A ê ¨­ /@1=3{ê X$ê;1ê C
for
g
468 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

œ
Writing for the variable, we integrate this inequality from to , giving
X 1

Ok › œ k s
A
Ö
ê
Ö
¨­
¨œä _x®
/
œ g œ žk › g œ
3 ê
Ö
X´ê„1ê k

g    for
g
so ¨ ®

› s A 1ê ¨­ /@143sê

X
› for
1
1 X´ê(1˜ê

g
C

We integrate this inequality again from to , giving

Hk l
A
› œ g œ žk s
Ö
ê
Ö
¨­
¨ ®
/
œ g œ k l
3
› œgœ ê
Ö
X´ê(1˜ê k
   for
g
so h Œ ¨}© h Œ

› s ›
_z®
A 1 ê ¨­ /@1=3sê 1 X´ê(1Žê C
~ ~ for
g
By repeated integration, we obtain the following estimate:
h ¨œä _ h ¨œä _
A
/
§
:^hp3?¯ › 1 ê
s ¨/@1=3{ê
/
§
:hy3u¯ › 1
for
X´ê„1ê

g
k

which means that

h ¨nä _

šs ¨ /@143
š š D .0/21430A] ¨ /@1=3
š ê
/ :^hp3u¯ › 1
for
Xûê„1ê

g
C

 Ÿ
§
1 A êj1£êiX 8 DØX
When is to the left of 0, so
similar calculations lead to the following result:
, and when the Taylor series is centered at
g ,

Theorem 10.1: Bounding the Error in ¡

!
$#


]—¨”/@143 .0/2143 8
If is the §=²2³ Taylor approximation to about , then

šs ¨/@1=3
š š D .0/@1=30AB]'¨/@1=3
š ê
/
› :^hp3?¯ š 1\A8
š
¨œä _
k

›
¨nä _x®
D .—­ 8 1
where max on the interval between and .

Using the Error Bound for Taylor Polynomials

Example 1 Give a bound on the error,

AvXVC lûê;1ê£XVC l
s ¬
, when
ÕyÖ
is approximated by its fourth-degree Taylor polynomial for
.
®
.0/2143D[ÕyÖ .—­wº /@1=36DÕyÖ ÕyÖ
Solution Let . Then the fifth derivative is
® ¢

5
. Since is increasing,
š . ­º /2143
š ê„Õ º D Í Õ ~
for
AvXVC lûê(1˜ê£XVC l}C

Thus ~

šs š š ¬ D .0/@1=30AB]—¬}/@143
š ê
l9¯ š š
1 º C

AvXVC lûê;1ê£XVC l
This means, for example, that on , the approximation
Œ « ¬
1 1 1
Õ Ö 5h‹:1$: : :
~V¯ ªV¯ |m¯

has an error of at most

_ Œ 
Œ
/2XmC lM3xº A5 „XVC XnXnX Ê C
 10.4 THE ERROR IN TAYLOR POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS 469

The error formula for Taylor polynomials can be used to bound the error in a particular numer-
`
1
ical approximation, or to see how the accuracy of the approximation depends on the value /
of
:^hp3
or
the value of
1
§ . Observe that the error for a Taylor polynomial of degree § depends on the § ²

power of 1 . That means, for example, with a Taylor polynomial of~ degree
¨œä _ § centered at 0, if we
decrease by a factor of 2, the error bound decreases by a factor of .

Example 2 Compare the errors in the approximations

Õ
¢
 _
5jh‹:XmCwh‹:
h
/2XVChp3
Œ
Õ
¢
 
º 5jh‹:[/2XmC XNln3:
h
/>XVC XMlM3
Œ
C
~9¯ and ~V¯

ÕyÖ 1jD¦XmCwh
Solution We are approximating
1RD^XVC XMl
by its second-degree
1
Taylor polynomial, first at , and then at
~
«
D[r
. Since we have decreased by a factor of 2, the error bound decreases by a factor of about
. To see what actually happens to the errors, we compute them:
¢ £e Õ
 _
A h‹:XmCwh6:
h
/2XmCwhy3
Œ
f
[DihnChtXNl9h Ë h6A„hnChtXNlœXnXMXUD^XVC XnXnXmh Ë h
~9¯

Õ
¢ e
 
º A h‹:(XVC XMls:
h
/>XVC XMlM3
Œ
f DihnC XMlVhp~ Ë h6A„hnC XMlVhp~nlnXUD^XVC XnXnXMXM~Vh
~9¯

/2XmC XMXnXmh Ë hy3-·V/2XVC XnXMXnXN~9hp3D[rVCh

Since , the error has also decreased by a factor of about 8.

Convergence of Taylor Series for cos )

1%D[X doeMf91
We have already
1
seen that the Taylor polynomials centered at 1 for are good approxima-
tions for 1near
D[X
0. (See Figure 10.16.) In fact, for any value of , if we take a Taylor polynomial
centered at of high enough degree, its graph is nearly indistinguishable from the graph of the
cosine near that point.

¡ Ô K GVL ¡ Ô K GVL

…‘†pˆ G  …‘†pˆ G

G
Q € €
Qs

¡ ž K GVL ¡ ž K GVL

G
Figure 10.16: Graph of …‘†pˆ and two Taylor polynomials for G near Š

1˜D7¶—·œ~
Let’s see what happens numerically.
d?eNfo/@¶—·n~n3D[X 1D[X
Let . The successive Taylor polynomial approxi-
mations to about are
Œ
]—ŒN/@¶—·n~n3D hsA„/2¶—·œ~M3 ·n~9¯ DjAvXmC ~nªnª Ë XsCoCtC
Œ ¬
]”¬}/@¶—·n~n3DihsA„/2¶—·œ~n3 ·n~9¯t:[/@¶—·œ~M3 ·y|±¯MD XVC XVhpqnq Ë CoCtC

] /@¶—·n~n3D –o–o– DjAvXmC XMXnXnrMqsCoCtC

»
] /@¶—·n~n3D –o–o– D XVC XnXMXnXN~{CoCtC‡C
Ì
470 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS
d?eNfo/@¶—·n~n3D[X
It appears that
1
the approximations converge
X
to the true value,d?eNf9¶˜DjA•h , very rapidly. Now take
1RD^¶
a value of somewhat farther away from , say , then and
Œ
] Œ /2¶”36DihsA„/2¶”3 ·œ~9¯}D AvªmC qMªœ|NrnXsCtCoC

]—¬M/2¶”36D –o–t– D XmCwhy~œªMqVhCtCoC

] /2¶”36D –o–t– D A•hMC ~VhnhpªMl{CtCoC

»
] /2¶”36D –o–t– D AvXmC q Ë Ê XM~{CtCoC
Ì
]0_xM/2¶”36D –o–t– D A•hMC XMXVhprnªsCtCoC

] _ Œn/2¶”36D –o–t– D AvXmC qMqnqMqnXsCtCoC

] _x¬ /2¶”36D –o–t– DjA•hMC XMXnXnXMXœ|vCtCoC

ho|
We seedoeMthat
f9¶
the rate of convergencer
is somewhat slower; it takes a ²2³ d?degree polynomial
eNfo/@¶—·n~n3 1
to approx-
imate as accurately
X
as an ²>³ degree polynomial approximates . If were taken still
farther
d?eNf91
away from , then we would need still more terms to obtain as accurate an approximation of
. d?eMfV1 1
Using the ratio test, we can show the Taylor doeMf91
series for converges for all values of . In
addition, we will prove that it converges to using Theorem 10.1. Thus, we are justified in
writing the equality: Œ ¬
1 1 1±» 1±Ì
doeMf91DihsA : A : A;–t–o– 1
~V¯ |m¯ Ê ¯ rV¯ for all .

Showing the Taylor Series for cos å Converges to cos å

The error bound in Theorem 10.1 d?eMfV1
allows us to see if the Taylor series for a function converges to

that function. In the series for
o
, the odd powers are missing, so we assume §¨ is even and write
e f
Œ
1 ¨ Œ 1

s ¨ /@143‹D^doeMf91\A] ¨ /@143‹D^doeMf91\A hsA

~9¯
:^–o–t–p:[/xA•hp3
/
§
3u¯
k

giving 1
Œ
¨ o Œ 1
¨

d?eMfV1Djh‹:1$:
~9¯
:^–o–t–p:^/zA•hp3
/
§
3?¯
:
s ¨/@1=3uC

Thus, for the Taylor series to converge to

doeMf91
, we must have s ¨ /21436Ú X
as §
Ú Û
.
Showing ¤¥C¦ L§=¨ 0 as ©ª¨¬« `
­ ­
xå ¨œä _z®
.0/@143vDid?eNf91 / :[hy3 .—­ /@143 doeMf}1 f-’“1
Proof Since , the ² derivative is or1 , no matter what § is.
š š
¨nä § _x®
.—­ /2143 êEh X
So for all § , we have on the interval between and .
By the error bound formula in Theorem 10.1, we have
š š
¨œä _
1

šs ¨ /2143
š š D d?eMfV1\AB] ¨ /2143
š ê
/
§
:^hp3?¯ for every §
C

1
To show that the errors go to zero, we must show that for a fixed ,
š š
¨œä _
1
Ú X Ú ÛC
/ :hy3u¯ as §
§
1
To see why this is true, think about what happens when § is much larger than . Suppose, for
1RDh Ë C ª
example, that
Dª Ê Dª Ë
. Let’sD^
look
ªMr
at the value of the sequence for § more than twice as big as 17.3,
say § , or § , or § :
h «
Dª Ê /xh Ë C ªM3 ¼
For § : ª Ë ¯
h « h Ë Cª h «
Dª Ë /xh Ë C ªM3 Ì D – /xh Ë C ªN3 ¼ k
For § : ªnrm¯ ªMr ª Ë ¯

For §
Dªnr
:
h

ªnqm¯
/xh Ë C ªM3
«
. D
h Ë Cª

ªMq
–
h Ë C ª

ªnr
–
ª Ë ¯
h
/xh Ë C ªM3
«
¼ k CtCoC
 10.4 THE ERROR IN TAYLOR POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS 471
_
h Ë C ªN·aª Ê Œ
Since_ is less than , each time _ we increase § by 1, the term is multiplied by a number less

1®
«
Œ « /zh Ë C ªN3 ¼
than . No matter what_ the/zvalue of is, if we keep on dividing it by two, the result gets
®
¨œ ä _ ¼
h Ë C ªM3

: š š
¨nä _x®
closer to zero. Thus ­ goes to 0 as § goes to infinity.
We can generalize this by replacing
h Ë C ª 1
by an arbitrary . For §
~ 1
, the following š š
sequence converges _ to 0 because each term is obtained from its predecessor by multiplying by a
Œ
number less than : ¨nä _ ¨näŒ ¨œä «
1 1 1
k k koCtCoCoC
/ :hy3u¯ / :(~M3u¯ / :ªN3u¯
§ § §
Œ ¬
hsAB1 ·œ~V¯p: 1 ·a|m¯œA„–o–t– d?eNf91
Therefore, the Taylor series does converge to .

fz’“s1 ÕpÖ
Problems 16 and 151 ask you to show that the Taylor series for and converge to the
original function for all . In each case, you again need the following limit:

±³°¯ ²
¨
1
é’ D^XmC
¨ ¯
§

Exercises and Problems for Section 10.4

Exercises

Use the methods of this section to show how you can estimate

 ‰ˆ
the magnitude of the error in approximating the quantities in

¥ Î
Š î Ñ K  L  þ Ÿ í 
Problems 1–4 using a third-degree Taylor polynomial about ù Ñ
1. õ 2. õ 3. 4. ÷
G‰ƒ Š
.

Problems
J4K
  ¥ à K

 ´   1µ
Lƒ á L ¡
5. Suppose you approximate by a Taylor polyno- (a) The error in approximating …‘†pˆ õ by õ and by
Š ƒ Š ¡ ž à K L
mial of degree about on the interval Š zŠ õ . õ .

¶ ¶>
(a) Is the approximation an overestimate or an underes- (b) The maximum error in approximating …‘†tˆ G by
¡ ž à K GVL
timate? for G (‘Š .
¡—¥ à K G9L
(b) Estimate the magnitude of the largest possible error. (c) If we want to approximate …‘†pˆ G by to an ac-
Check your answer graphically on a computer or cal- curacy of within 0.2, what is the largest interval of
G
culator. -values on which we can work? Give your answer
to the nearest integer.
¡ ž L 
, to á . 
6. Repeat ProblemK 5 using the second-degree Taylor ap-

LJ  J
proximation, ¡ ž à K GVL ¡ ž à K GVL

´  µ
ˆbÐÒÑ
7. Consider the error in using the approximation
on the interval Qs u . í

(a) Where is the approximation an overestimate, and

where is it an underestimate? G
(b) Estimate the magnitude of the largest possible error. Qsu  Q
ó
Q6í í
ó
? 
Check your answer graphically on a computer or cal-
culator.
LJ  J
Q6í

J 
ˆbÐÒÑ Q
8. Repeat
Î Problem 7 for the approximation ¡ ¥ à K G9L ¡ ¥ à K GVL
þ í
.
9. Use the graphs of ‚⃠…‘†tˆ G and its Taylor polynomi-
¡ ¥ à K GVL ¡ ž à K GVL Figure 10.17
als, and , in Figure 10.17 to estimate the
following quantities.
472 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

10. Give a bound for the maximum possible error for the ð ¸·º¹ What shape is the graph of
Œ ¥
? Use the graph to

´  µ
degree Taylor polynomial about G„ƒYŠ approximating confirm that

 {> ?>   ¶Œ ¶ >

…‘†tˆ G
on the interval Š u . What is the bound for ˆbÐÓÑ G ? ¥ ŽG
ž
QRŠ  ŽG ⊠
for
Œ ž
11. What degree Taylor polynomial about GƒŠ do you
Œ for  ¼> Y. Choose
ž ž K GVLƒá ¢ Q K tòvG±òsG

> .
ƒ á ¢ Q ¡ þ  pL
(b) Let
need to calculate …‘†tˆ  to four decimal places? To six
Œ
‹ž Q6Š  BG Š 
a suitable range and graph
ž
decimal places? Justify your answer using the results of What shape is the graph of ? Use the graph to
Problem 10. confirm that

 {> ?>   ¶Œ ¶ >

Î
12. (a) Using a calculator, make a table of the values to four ž ŽG QRŠ  ŽG ⊠
decimal places of ˆbÐÒÑ G for for
G‰ƒ„Q6Š
 , # # ,  ,   , Q6Š
 , $ # , 
Þ Q6Š 
,Š ,Š  Š Þ Š
. (c) Explain why the graphs of
Œ and Œ have the ¥ ž

Œ
õ õ
shapes they do.
¶ ¶> 
¥ ƒ
(b) Add to your table the values of the error
GQG G ⊠
ˆbÐÓÑ
for these G -values. 14. For , graph the error

¥ ƒ ˆbÐÒÑ G•QG Œ
(c) Using a calculator or computer, draw a graph of the Œ à ƒ …‘†pˆ GQ ¡=à K G9Lƒ …‡†pˆ GQŽ 
quantity showing that

¶Œ ¶ <  ¥ âŠ

¶Œ ¶ ¶ ¶ > 
Špí
for Q%Š
 > ->  
õ
ŽG BŠ
õ
Explain the shape of the graph, using the Taylor expan-
sion of …‘†tˆ G . Find a bound for
à
for G ⊠ .
13. In this problem, you will investigate the error in the ·º¹
for every . Do this by showing that the error 2
Œ '½
15. Show that the Taylor series about 0 for converges to ð
á ¢
K GVL
á ¢

y
½ ¾
á ¢ G YŠ
degree Taylor approximation to for various values of

Œ
. ð as . ð

Œ for  ». Using
¥ K GVLƒ á ¢ K ò"GVL

> •> a cal- . 16. toShow thatfortheeveryTaylor. series about 0 for converges
¥ ƒá ¢ Q ¡ Q ˆbÐÒÑ G
(a) Let
¥ Q6Š  âG ⊠ ˆbÐÓÑ G G
culator or computer, graph

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER TEN

Exercises

For Problems 1–4, find the second-degree Taylor polynomial

6. J ž
…‘†pˆ KJ ž
7. ˆbÐÒÑ ¿ ž
8. Ÿ ÞsQRG

9. QÞ


| ž
about the given point.
 î Ñ /
/
á ¢ G ƒ G G;ƒ
1. 2. 3.
   ˆbÐÒÑ G G‰ƒ
Q €4þ Þ

4. ù
÷
Ñ LJ , J ƒ
For Problems 10–11, expand the quantity in a Taylor series
around the origin in terms of the variable given. Give the first
€ þ Þ
4
four nonzero terms.
5. Find thež third-degree Taylor polynomial for
J4K GVL„ƒ

u v v
u
Î
G ò G Q Gò  F ÿ
ö õ at G•ƒ . Ÿ Q
10. Fsòÿ in terms of F 11. in terms of
In Problems 6–9, find the first four nonzero terms of the Taylor
series about the origin of the given functions.

Problems

12. Find an exact value for each of the following sums. 18.

  
Î ž


K  Šp pL ò K  Šp pL ò K  Šp pL6ò ò ö ò
(a) ö ö ö ö K  Šy tL      

010#0 010#0
mQ ò Q ò Q ò‰Þ=ò´ mò"}ò ò ò
13. í    14. ô   Þ

  0#010
ö ö

"  40$0#0 
ž ò ?ò ¥ àbà ü ö ô 
K  Š  tL
y K  p
Š  pL .

 
?ò ¥ à
ß


ž K Š ?L K Š ?L  
ò K Š ?L ò ö ò ö ò
(b) ö ö   í

"   A0$0#0    -0;010

Þ  íp  ? 
yQ yò Q ô ò ó ò  mQ ô ò Q ô ò
15.   í Þ 16. í
Find the exact value of the sums of the series in Problems 13– õ ö
 REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER TEN 473

" 
ß

 
ž K Š

"  
í í í ?L
K Š
(b) The force on the particle at the point G is given by

í”ò"í”ò ò ò ò ?L Q ò
17. 18. S2K GVL

   ž0$0#0
  í Þ í

 P0$010
Q
í K Š uL K Š uL
Ô . For small G , show that the force on the par-
ò Q ò ticle is proportional to its distance from the origin.
õ õ ö What is the sign of the proportionality constant? De-
scribe the direction in which the force points.
J J4K JNS>K JNS STK ípLƒ
19. A function has ípLûƒY , íyLƒ


õ and 28. The theory of relativity predicts that when an object
QsuŠ J4K
. Find the best estimate you can for í uL .
’
moves at speeds close to the speed of light, the object
20. Suppose G is positive but very small. Arrange the follow-

appears heavier. The apparent, or relativistic, mass, ,
ing expressions in increasing order: of the object when it is moving at speed is given by the
/
G ˆbÐÓÑ /
G î Ñ K ?òGVL ; pQ …‘†tˆ G / ¦á ¢ Qs U …‡ù Ñ /
G G
formula
Ÿ `QG
 à
’ € ’

÷?ø ÷ ƒ ž ž
`Q þ

21. By plotting several of its Taylor polynomials and the

where is the speed of light and ’ à
is the mass of the
J4K K object when it is at rest.
function GVLRƒ  þ ò£GVL , estimate graphically the
interval of convergence of the series expansions for this (a) Use the formula for to decide what values of are ’ 
function about Gƒ Š . Compute the radius of conver-
’ 
possible.
gence analytically. ž
(b) Sketch a rough graph of against , labeling inter-

  
î Ñ K —òGòG L=QG
î Ð ž
cepts and asymptotes.
22. Use Taylor series to evaluate à

’ 
(c) Write the first three nonzero terms of the Taylor se-
J
ˆbÐÓÑ G
¢

\   
K   ries for in terms of .
J
ˆbÐÒÑ L
î Ð

J
23. (a) Find à . Explain your reasoning. (d) For what values of do you expect the series to con-
L$ƒ J4K
J ˆbÐÓÑ

J
K   L verge?

J v 
(b) Use series to explain why looks
ƒ^Š 29. The potential energy, , of two gas molecules separated
like a parabola near . What is the equation of
by a distance is given by
    v  v f
the parabola?

e
J4K

¼ Q v S Q v S 
L”ƒ á ¥ ž
about ƒ Š .
 
24. (a) Find the Taylor series for à à
ƒ„Q à   Q
(b) Using your answer to part (a), find a Taylor series
expansion about G‰ƒŠ for
v
k  !   ¢
á where  à
and
à

v
are positive constants.
v
à
(a) Show that if ƒ
à

 v v
, then takes on its minimum
à
value, Q

(c) Using your answer to part (b), show that .
K Q à L

 40$010 v v
(b) Write as a series in up through the
 

ò
í

ò
Þ K  


" L
ò
K í


" L
ò

K Þ L
ò aƒ„
 quadratic term.
à


õ ó

v v
(c) For near , show that the difference between
and its minimum ž value is approximately pro-
K Q à L
25. (a) Find the first two nonzero terms of the Taylor series
 v v  
ž portional to . In other words, show that
J4K
for G9L”ƒ Ÿ Þ{QG about G‰ƒ Š Q K Q à Lƒ
ž
ò à
is approximately proportional
K à L
(b) Use your answer to part (a) and the Fundamental to Q
–!v v v v
.

k € – v ¿! 
Theorem of ¥ Calculus to calculate an approximate
! –
(d) The force, , between the molecules is given by
ž ƒ¦Q à
þ
when ƒ
v v –
value for Þ{QG aG
. . What is ? For

à à
near , show that is approximately proportional
K
(c) Use the substitution G\ƒ^  ˆbÐÒÑ to calculate the ex- to Q
à L
.
act value of the integral in part (b).
26. (a) Find the Taylor series expansion of ÷oø …‡ˆbÐÓÑ G
. 30. The gravitational field at a point in space is the gravita-
tional force that would be exerted on a unit mass placed
„½ 
(b) Use Taylor series to find the limit
G
÷oø

÷oø
…‡ù
÷
…‡ˆbÐÓÑ
Ñ

G as G Š
at a distance away from a mass is !
there. We will assume that the gravitational field strength
“
27. A particle moving along the -axis has potential energy

G
—“
!
K GVL
at the point G given by . The potential energy has a ž

minimum at G‰ƒŠ .
 —
–
(a) Write the Taylor polynomial of degree 2 for about where is constant. In this problem you will investigate
G\ƒ£Š

v “ ’
. What can you say about the signs of the co- the gravitational field strength, , exerted by a system
efficients of each of the terms of the Taylor polyno- consisting of a large mass and a small mass , with a
mial? distance between them. (See Figure 10.18.)
474 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

¡
P u O
“ P v O
’ 34. (Continuation of Problem 33) You may remember that
the Second Derivative test tells us nothing when the sec-
ond derivative is zero at the critical point. In this problem
you will investigate that special case.
Figure 10.18


Assume has the same properties as in Problem 33,
S S K ŠyLɃjŠ


and that, in addition, . What does the Taylor
polynomial tell you about whether has a local maxi-
–
(a) Write an expression for the gravitational field
mum or minimum at G‰ƒ Š ?
u
¡

v u
strength, , at the point .

v – 35. Use the Fourier polynomials for the square wave

< ?>
v u ÁÀ
(b) Assuming is small in comparison to , expand
=< ?>
Qs Q € ŽG âŠ
in a series in þ . ž
J4K GVLƒ
 Š ŽG €
K
(c) By discarding terms in þ L and higher powers,

“ ’ ½y¾
explain why you can view the field as resulting from to explain why the following sum must approach €=þ Þ
as
ò
a single particle of mass , plus a correction ð :

“ ò
’
term. What is the position of the particle of mass
? Explain the sign of the correction term. `Q

ò

Q


0#010
ò ?ò K Qs?L
ž
2UT ¥ 

31. Expand and
J4K Gvò 
in Taylor series and take L
 K Gsò  L
í
õ ö
 
ð
ò

a limit to confirm the product rule: J4K GVL$ƒ

! 36. Find
ž
¼> ?<
a Fourier polynomial of degree three for

   
á  ¢
, for Š ŽG ( .
!
aG
K2J4K GVL K GVLbL4ƒ J S K GVL K GVL9ò J4K GVL S K GVL
J4K
37. Suppose that G9L is a differentiable periodic function
J
of period   € . Assume the Fourier series of is differen-

32. Use Taylor expansions for

J4K ‚”ò
M L
and  K Gò  L
to con-
tiable term by term.
J Â 1Â
(a) If the Fourier coefficients of are F and ÿ , show
firm the chain rule: J S

! M #Â M Â
that the Fourier coefficients of its derivative are

  /0  
ÿ Q F

!
aG
K2J4K K GVLbLbLƒ J S K K GVLbL S K GVL and .
(b) How are the amplitudes of the harmonics of and
JNS
J

related?
J J S
(c) How are the energy spectra of and related?
33. Suppose all the derivatives of  exist at GûƒŠ and that   1 J

 1Â ! Â
38. If the Fourier coefficients of are F and ÿ , and the
has a critical point at G‰ƒ Š .
% &
% »& 
Fourier coefficients of are and , and if and
·º¹  J ò

% Â & #Â % 1Â & ! Â
(a) Write the ð Taylor polynomial for at G‰ƒ Š . are real, show that the Fourier coefficients of
F `ò ÿ `ò
(b) What does the Second Derivative test for local max- are and .
J

Pand.
ima and minima say?   €

that  is a horizontal shift of , say 

39. Suppose that is a periodic function of period
J K GVLvƒ J4K Gûò uL
(c) Use the Taylor polynomial to explain why the Sec-
Show that and  have the same energy.
J
ond Derivative test works.

PROJECTS

Exercises

1. Machin’s Formula and the Value of

¶ A
h i j hd
to show that
“/zhy·n~œªnqN3

h"i 1j h 9e f h i j h 9e f h"i 1j h
(a) Use the tangent addition formula hp~nX h
d “ A d “ [D d “hnC

j h »Ã Pj h »Å
hnhpq ~nªnq

j h ÄÃ GÅ
“”/ „: $3D
hsA
“

Nj h CÃ9j h »Å
„:

“
“

“
à Å h"i 1j h
ED ›D d “/xha·œln3
(b) Use to show that

h i j h e f h"i 1j h e f
h l

with
à D
h"i 1j h
d “/xhy~œX}·}hnhpqM3
and
Å D
~ d “
l
D d “
hp~
C
 PROJECTS 475

Use a similar method to show that Notice that as , the error also goes to zero, Æ Ú X

›
h"i 1j h 7e f h"i 1j h }e f
h hp~œX provided is bounded. .0/@143DšÕ Ö 1  D
| d “ [D d “ C
l hnhtq
X
As an example, we take
. < /21  3´D¦h
and
, so . The error for various values of
Æ are given in Table 10.2. We see that decreasing Æ
h"i 1j h h"i 1j h
¶—·y| D
(c) Obtain Machin’s d formula: by a factor of 10 decreases the error by a factor of
| d “/xhy·nln3'A
.
“/xha·œ~œªMqM3
about 10, as predicted by the error bound
·œ~
. ›ÊÆ
(d) Use the Taylor polynomial approximation of
degree 5 to the arctangent ¶
function to ap-
proximate the value of . (Note: In 1873 Table 10.2
William
¶
Shanks used this approach to calculate  K2J4K G à ò  L=Q J4K G à LbL þ 
"  ÎÍ 
to 707 decimal places. Unfortunately, inlM1946 Error

~œr ¥ ž
it was found that he made an error in the uŠ  Š     "uŠ

  =Í 
²>³ õ ö õ ö


ž Î
place.) uŠ  ŠtŠ Šy  Šy  ‘Š

  AÍ 
õ õ


Î ß
(e) Why do the two series for arctangent converge

uŠ  ŠtŠpŠ Š Š ‘Š

  AÍ
õ õ
so rapidly here while the series used in Exam-
ple 5 on page 462 converges so slowly?
uŠ
ß

 ŠtŠpŠtŠ
õ õ
Š ‘Š

3
2. Approximating the Derivative .0/@1=3
In applications,
the values of a function 1  1 are frequently known
only at discrete values ,

,
1  ~
,
CoCtC?C
­ÇÆ ­ Æ (a) Using Taylor series, suggest an error bound for
Suppose we are interested in approximating the
. < /@1  3 each of the following finite-difference approxi-
derivative . The definition mations.
Æ
É È± ¯ Æ
.0/21mp3`A.0/21mvA 3
.0/@1±: 30A .0/@1±p3 . < /21  35

Æ
.=<>/21ma36D™éw’

Æ
 (i)

Æ .=<>/21ma35
.0/21  :
Æ 3'A .0/@1  A
Æ 3

Æ
. < /@1=3
suggests that for small we can approximate (ii) ~

as follows: AÉ.0/21m‹:;~
Æ 3:rN.0/@1m{:
Æ 3'ABrN.0/@1±vA
Æ 3:„.0/@1±

Æ
. < /21ma35

Æ
.0/21m: 3'A.0/21ma3
. < /21ma35 C
(iii) hp~

Æ (iv) Use each of the formulas in part (a) ÕyÖ

to
approximate the first
© _ derivative © of © at

Æ
©=Œ « ¬
Such finite-difference approximations are used fre- 1èD¹X DihtX kohpX kohpX kohtX
for .
quently in programming a computer to solve differ-
ential equations. Æ
As is decreased by a factor of 10, how
Taylor series can be used to analyze the error does the error decrease? Does this agree
in this approximation. Substituting with the error bounds found in part (a)?
. < < /21ma3 Œ
Which is the most accurate formula?
.0/@1m{:
Æ 36D^.0/21ma3”:;. < /@1±y3
Æ :
~ Æ :–t–o–
(v) Repeat
1mBD
part
htX
©
º
(b) using and
.0/@1=3^D ha·y1

. Why are these formulas not

. < /21  3
into the approximation for , we find good approximations anymore? Continue
Æ
Æ
to decrease by factors of 10. How small
Æ
.0/21m: 3`A.0/21mp3 . < < /21ma3

Æ
D7. < /@1ma3”:
~ Æ :^–o–t– does have to be before formula (iii) is
the best approximation? At these smaller
This suggests (and it can be proved) that the error values of , what changed to make the for- Æ
in the approximation is bounded as follows: mulas accurate again?

Æ VV ›ÊÆ
]`_xN/2143
.0/@1  : 30A .0/@1  3 3. (a) Use a computer algebra system to find
VV Æ
A .=<>/21  3 ê
~
k
and
_bM/@143
, the Taylor qΠpolynomials Πof degree
VV VV 10 about
1RD[X
for
fz’“ 1
and
doeMf 1
.
where (b) What similarities do you observe between the
two poynomials? Explain your observation in
š . < < /2143
š › ê
Ë i
e
š 1\AB1m
š š Æ̚ ê C
terms of properties of sine and cosine.
3 From Mark Kunka
476 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS
1âD
4. (a) Use your computer algebra system to find the Taylor polynomial of degree 10 about
]
¼
/2143
q
and ¼ 1›, D¦
/@1=3
theX Taylor polynomials
.0/@1=3%D fz’“s1
of
X .
for .
degree 7 about
/@1=3D^f-’“s1Éd?eNf91
for and (b) What do you notice about the degrees of the .
c . 1
« terms in the polynomial? What property of
(b) Find the ratio between the coefficient of in does this suggest?
.
the two polynomials. 14º 1±¼
Do the same for the coef- (c) Prove that has the property suggested by part
ficients of and . (b).
n  œ gœ
Œ
Ö
(c) Describe the pattern in the ratios that you com- /@143‹D
 f-’w“—/ 3
6. Let .
puted in part (b). Explain it using the identity
f-’“”/>~œ143D7~`fz’“{1Éd?eNf91
]`_-_n/@1=3
. (a) Use a computer algebra system to find 1âD
,
5. Let
.0/2143D
ÏpÐ Ö© _ :

1D7X
֌
. Although the formula.
for
. the
X
Taylor
, for
/@1=3
polynomial
n
.
of degree 11 about
is not defined at , we can make . continuous
.0/2XN3D h (b) What is the percentage error in the approxima-
by setting 1D[X
. If we do this, has Taylor
tion of
/xhy3
n ]0_‡_a/zhp3
by />~M3 ? What about the ap-
series around .
(a) Use a computer algebra system to find
] _b /@1=3
,
proximation of by n
] _-_ />~M3
?