WORKSHOP PRACTICES i.

Workshop - It is an area where manual work is done either

with hand tools or advanced technology for forming, treating,
CONTACT HOURS 22 assembly and repairs of machine parts or tools.
ii. A garage - It is an area where repairs and storing of vehicles is
COURSE PURPOSE done.
iii. A factory - A building or a group of buildings in which goods
To impart knowledge and practical skills on the use and maintenance of are manufactured.
workshop tools and equipment. iv. A plant: - Are equipments including machinery, tools and
features under a building necessary for manufacturing.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.2 WORKSHOP LAYOUT:
At the end of this course unit learners should be able to:-
It is the arrangement of physical facilities in the workshop for effective,
 Describe safety procedures in a workshop environment. economical and industrial production. Facilities can be arranged in any of
 Use first aid kit appropriately and firefighting appliances. the following ways-:
 Correctly use and maintain workshop tools and equipment.
 Describe measuring instruments, use, care and maintenance. o Straight line
 Describe marking out equipments, use care and maintenance. o Circular
 Describe cutting tools and equipments, use care and o U- Shape
maintenance. o Zigzag pattern.
 Describe various types of workshop hand tools, use care and
These devices or ways to arrange out facilities are also called flow
maintenance.
patterns.
 Explain various type of drilling equipments, their use care and
maintenance.
1.3. CONDITIONS OF A GOOD WORKSHOP
 Describe various types of grinding machines, their use care
and maintenance. 1. Spacious – enough space for man, machine and auxiliary
 Describe various power cutting tools, their use care and services.
maintenance. 2. Ventilated – Aisles, windows and doors to allow enough air to
 Explain manual metal arc welding equipments, their use care circulate.
and maintenance. 3. Lighting – artificial light is used if the natural one is not
 Describe gas welding and flame cutting equipments, their use adequate. Transparent roofing material could be used.
care and maintenance. 4. Firefighting equipments – Provide fire extinguishers, fire
buckets, hosepipes etc.
COURSE CONTENT
5. Safety floors – Floors should not be smooth or slippery.
6. Warnings and instructions – should be written in large
Workshop safety procedures, first aid and firefighting, construction, repair
numbers and displayed where they can be read with ease. e.g.
and maintenance of farm machines and equipments using various
No smoking, slippery floor, moving machines.
workshop tools, arc welding tools and equipments, gas welding tools and
7. Doors and windows - A workshop should have large doors
equipments, grinding, drilling and power cutting tools and equipments.
for the entry of equipments and machines intended. Windows
should be at bench level.
REFERENCE BOOKS AND MATERIALS
8. Workshop layout - should facilitate easy movement of man
and material giving clear paths to escape in case of accidents.
1) LioydPhipps, Mechanics in agriculture.
9. Well equipped.
2) Farmers’ weekly series, farm workshop and maintenance.
10. Manned by trained personnel.
3) Wakeman, modern agriculture mechanics
4) Brian Bell,(1983), Farm Machinery.(A farming book
series),ISBN 0852361319,SportswoodeBallantyneltd,great
1.4 LOCATION OF A WORKSHOP
Britain.
5) William Crouse, Auto body repair.
CONSIDERATIONS:
6) St. JohnsAmbulance, The essentials of first Aid
7) Lye P.A.,metal work theory book1,2,3,4
i.Should be located relatively closer to the work centre of the
8) Thomas G.H.(1973),Metal work technology, metricedition,
farm thus avoiding unnecessary movements. Movements
martins printing works, Great Britain
cause money.
9) Mathangani F.D., (1989), Metal work for secondary schools
ii. Locate the workshop close to the living quarter so that the
form three and four.Heinman Kenya ltd., Nairobi.
farm owner can use it conveniently
10) Nganga Aram, Metal work for primary
iii. Should be on a relative high and flat level ground to provide
schools.heinman,Nairobi-Kenya
good drainage and ease maneuvering of equipment.
11) Chapman W.A.J., (1972).Workshop technology part3, 5rd
iv. Should face the main farm road and near electric power line
edition.Butterworth-HeinmanISBN9780713132694
to avoid unnecessary line construction
12) Gourd L.M., Principles of welding technology, 2rd edition.
v. The water line should be as close as possible.
Assignment:
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.
1. The students to draw a layout of a specific workshop.
1.1 DEFINITIONS
2. Define the term workshop.  Do not remove the sworths or chips from a machine with your
3. State the conditions of a good workshop. hands. Use a rake or another tool meant for this job.
4. State factors considered in locating a farm workshop  Never allow a second operator to manipulate the machine
5. The learner to write cautions and warnings found in a specific control when you are carrying out a certain operation.
workshop. h) Disturbances Do not talk or disrupt the attention of another operator
when carrying out a
CHAPTER TWO: WORKSHOP SAFETY
Machine operation
2.1 SAFETY PRINCIPLES:
i) Cautions and warnings always respect the warnings given in a
A good tradesman has a knowledge and skills to avoid accidents to workshop e.g. No smoking, oily surfaces, moving machines
himself, his workmates, his work and to the equipments he is using. etc.

A machine operated intelligently and with a forth thought will do all 2.3WORKSHOP SAFETY RULES
intended in a safe manner.
1. Never fool or engage in a gossip in a workshop.
Carelessness, negligence, thoughtlessness, over confidence and lack of 2. Never tease a friend or play in a workshop
concentration can cause personal injuries or damage to part of machine. 3. Observe operators manual to operate a certain machine.
4. Wear proper clothing. Do not wear too loose or too tight
2.2 CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS clothes.
5. Use tools that are in good condition and properly adjusted.
 Carelessness -Concentration on work being carried out without Never use a tool with loose handle
diversion eliminates possibility of any accident. Playing about 6. Keep the working area clean. All tools should be kept in their
and learning over the machines while in operation may cause many proper places.
accidents. 7. Always wear an overall, overcoat and gumboots in a
b) Ignorance - you must understand the operation of a tool or machine. workshop. Never wear slippers or rubber shoes.
If in doubt better ask your instructor. 8. A machine should be operated by only one person. Do not
operate a machine when in doubt.
c) Unsuitable Clothing - Loose sleeves, unbuttoned and torn clothes, 9. Safety goggles should be worn when drilling or grinding.
flapping ties or ribbons should not be worn. They are dangerous 10. Spilt oil should be wiped immediately.
when working with machines. 11. Know fire drill procedures, fie regulation, location of
extinguishers and how to use them.
d) Failure to use protective clothing - 12. Know the first aid procedures and keep a first aid kit in the
workshop.
i. Always wear gumboots and foot wears with stout soles to 13. Ensure that all guards on machines are properly positioned
prevent accidents through standing on scrap metal, protruding and in working order.
nails, etc. 14. Never leave a machine running unattended.
ii. Always wear a dust coat or an overall when in a workshop. 15. Never work on electrical equipment with the power on.
This protects your personal clothing against dirt, dust, greases 16. Keep water away from electrical equipment. Never use water
or oils. to put off electrical fires.
iii. Always wear goggles or guards when chipping or grinding. 17. Repair all frayed or broken extension cords, switches, sockets,
e) Untidiness - keep all passage ways clear and clean. Circulars rods if lamps etc.
stepped upon can cause nasty falls. 18. Never over load electrical circuits,
19. Be very careful when using tools with sharp edges e.g.
f) Hand tools Scribers, dividers, Hacksaws etc.
20. Always use common sense.
 Hammers with loose fitting handles or chipped faces should
21. Sweep and arrange the workshop before leaving.
not be used.
 Chisels with burred heads are dangerous as broken pieces from
2.4 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
the edges may fly off and cause injury.
 Files should have tight fitting handles to prevent accidents to 1. State two safety precautions to be observed when:
the hands. a) Using hand tools
 Spanners which fit incorrectly will slip and will result to b) Drilling
damaged fingers.
 When drilling always ensure that the work is tightly held on
the vice. (4marks)
 Do not use pointed tools, scribers, dividers etc. as darts or as 2. List five causes of accidents in a workshop
levers. (5marks)
3. Outline any five precautions that can be taken to prevent fire in an
g) Machinery Agricultural
Engineering workshop
 Do not oil, change the spindle speed or carry out machines (5marks)
adjustment while the machine is in motion. 4. Explain any five safety precautions to be taken when handling
workshop tools (5marks)
 CHAPTER THREE: FIRST AID PROCEDURES v. Determine the level of consciousness.
vi. Consider the possibility of poisoning.
3.1 INTRODUCTIONS TO FIRST AID vii. Give re-assurance to the casualty so as to lessen anxiety.
viii. Guard against shock.
First aid is the skilled application of accepted principles of treatment on ix. Position the casualty correctly
the occurrence of an accident or in the case of sudden illness, using x. Before moving the casualty, immobilize fractures and large
facilities or materials available at the time. wounds.
xi. Arrange without delay for the careful conveyance of the
It is an approved method of treating a casualty until placed, if necessary, casually, if necessary to the care of his doctor or hospital.
in a care of a doctor or removed to hospital. First aid treatment is given to xii. Watch and record any changes in the condition of the
a casualty to: casualty
xiii. Do not allow people to crowd too much around. This hinders
i Sustain life. the first aid and may cause casualty anxiety and
ii Prevent his condition from becoming worse. embarrassment.
iii To promote recovery. xiv. Do not remove clothing unnecessarily.
xv. Do not give anything by the mouth to a casualty who is
unconscious, who has suspected internal injury or who may
REMEMBER: shortly need an aesthetic.

At all times the importance of common sense in first aid is an addition to

the actual knowledge of the subject.First aid is a skill that can be learned Assignments
by proper training and practice. Attendance at one of the courses
organized by Red Cross society or at Saints’ johns’ ambulance brigade is Write brief notes on how to manage the following:
recommended.
a. Minor cuts.
3.2SCOPE OF FIRST AID b. Mouth to mouth resustation.
c. Burns and scalds.
1. Assessing the situation d. First aid kits.
e. Fainting.
 Be calm and take charge.
 Give confidence to the casualty. 3.4 PROCEDURES IN FIRST AID
 Talk to him, listen to him and reassure him
 - Ensure safety of casualty and yourself. 3.4.1First aid kit

2. Diagnosis It is a box which contains basic materials needed to deal with the
casualty to sustain life, prevent his conditions from becoming worse and
 What is wrong with the casualty? promote recovery. It consists of the following:-
 Be guided by history of the case, signs and symptoms.
1. Thermometers – To measure body temperature.
3. Treatment 2. Cotton wool - for cleaning the wound.
3. Bandages – Used to keep the dressing in place.
o Give immediate and appropriate treatments.e.g. 4. Antiseptic solutions – Used to apply on wounds to kill germs
 Apply artificial respiration of casualty if there is breathing e.g. Dettol.
problems. 5. Adhesive tape - used to secure dressing materials.
 Control bleeding by dressing wounds. 6. Scissors – used for cutting adhesive tape and bandages.
 Maintain clear airways by correct positioning of the casualty. 7. Pain killers - Used to relieve pain e.g. Aspirin/ panadol
 Place the casualty in the most comfortable position for 8. Disinfectant – for washing wounds.
treatment. 9. Glucose – For giving energy.
6. Disposing the casualty – To a doctor, hospital or home according 10. Tweezers – used to remove splinters, stings etc.
to the seriousness of his 11. Safety pins - for fastening bandages esp. triangular and creep
condition. bandages.

3.3 SUMMARY OF PRIORITIES IN FIRST AID. 3.4.2Treatments

i. Act quickly and methodically, priority to the most urgent (a) Minor cuts
condition.
ii. Ensure that there are no further danger to the casualty and Could be caused by broken glassware, knifes, pangas, machines, and
yourself. metalpieces. This could result to heavy blood loss, shock, infection and
iii. If breathing has stopped or is failing, clear the airway and if possibly death.
necessary start artificial respiration.
iv. Control bleeding. Procedure-:
  Tie the cut first to stop bleeding.
 Wash the wound with antiseptic e.g. Dettol or salt solution
using a clean piece of cotton wool.
 Oil the wound to reduce pain and cover with clean dressing
material.
 Re-dress the wounds every three days.
 Avoid the dressing getting wet or dirty
 For small cuts and bruises leave them open for quicker
recovery
(b)Wounds
A wound is any abnormal break in the continuity of the tissue of the body
which permits escape of blood. Wounds can either be external or internal.
Classes of wounds;-
i Clean cut/incisions - These are cuts from broken glass, knife,
scalpel, scissors etc.
ii Stabs or puncture – wounds from sharp pointed instruments e.g.
Needles, rods, broken glassware etc.
iii Lacerations – wounds caused by moving machinery ,animal claws,
barbed wire
iv Bruises /contrusions – these are bleedings beneath the surface
(internal bleedings caused by a blow)
An internal bleeding is indicated by a patient spitting or excreting blood, a
swollen tissue which is dark in colour, or blood appearing from the ears,
or nose in a serious head injury.
Treatments
Clean the wound with an antiseptic using a clean cotton wool then cover it
with a protective dressing .the main purpose of dressings are:-
 To prevent infection
 To control bleeding
 To prevent further injury
 To absorb any discharge
 To minimize blood loss and promote clotting
(c) Fracture
A fracture is any broken or cracked bone. Symptoms are;-
 Localized pain which increases if injured part is moved.
 swellings occurs as a result of blood loss into the surrounding
tissue
 An X-ray may be needed to confirm the situation.
Treatment
Keep the casualty still and do not move him unless it is necessary to
separate him from further danger.Immoblise the injured part by means of
body bandages or by use of splint and bandages. do not give anything to
drink and treat for shock.
(d) Burns and scald;
Burns are caused by dry heat or direct contact with a hot surface e.g., fire
or hot liquid. Scalds are caused by steam.
Immerse the injured part in cold water for about 10 minute to remove as
much heat as possible. This prevents further injury by heat. Apply ice
packs in the area.
 Dry the wound with cotton wool and cover with sterile
dressing.
 Do not break the blisters.
 Do not use creams or adhesive dressing.
Where burns or scalds are serious, remove rings, boots bracelets, or
anything that is of restrictive nature before swellings occurs. Cover the
wound with dry sterile dressings. Give cold drinks at frequent intervals to
counteract the effects of liquid loss .reassure him and take him to the
hospital.
Where a person’s clothes get fire, the immediate treatment is to extinguish
the fire by wrapping the casualty with a blanket flat on the floor .The
flame may also be extinguished with cold water.
(e) Mouth to mouth resuscitation (artificial respiration)
This is done when there is oxygen failure to reach the required respiratory
organs. The activity of saving the victim should be very quick. Make the
victim lie on his back and force air through his mouth until the victim
responds. Procedure;-
i Remove any obstructions covering the head or face or any
constrictions around the neck
ii Ensure the air way is free i.e. clear the mouth of any debris, blood
vomit and fallen teeth
iii Tilt the head backwards by pressing on top of the head while
supporting the neck and push the chin upwards (diagram)
iv Seals the casualty nose by pinching the nostrils
v Open your mouth wide after taking a deep breath and inflate the
casualty’s lungs by blowing in air into his mouth (use a clean
handkerchief for mouth contacts).
vi When the casualty chests rises ,remove your mouth
vii Whilst the casualty’s chest falls take the next breath ,turning your
head to one side
viii The general rhythm is 10-12 breaths per minute
(f) Fainting
Fainting is temporarily loss of consciousness. It can be caused by standing
for a long time at one place, during hot weather and severe emotional
shocks resulting to reduction of blood supply to the brain.
 Make the victim lie down facing up with the legs higher than
the head.
 Put the victim under the shade and loosen all the tight clothing.
(g) Poisoning
Poison is any substance, solid, liquid or gas which when taken in
sufficient amount is capable of impairing or destroying life.it can enter the
body through:-
1. Through lungs - gases, motor exhaust, industrious gases etc.
remove the casualty from the dangerous area provided this can
be done without endangering yourself. Loosen the clothing of
the casualty and administer oxygen if it is available. Apply
artificial respiration if breathing has stopped but do not use
mouth to mouth. If the gas responsible is hydrogen cyanideput
the casualty in a recovery position and transports the casualty
to the hospital if the situation warrant.
2. Through mouth – Poisonous fungi, berries, decomposed
food, acid and alkali. Tell the casualty to spit out as much
material as possible and then wash the mouth thoroughly a
number of times with water. If the substance has been
 swallowed, give large drinks of water or milk to dilute the A properly completed accident report should contain the following
chemical in the stomach.Do not induce vomiting as this may information:-
induce further damage to the delicate tissues if the substances
are corrosive If no signs of burns on the lips or mouth from i Date, time and location of the accidents
corrosive acids or alkali make him vomit by the route through ii Name address and age of the casualty
which the poison entered the body. This aims at eliminating or iii Description of the accidents
diluting the poison in the body. iv Names of any witnesses
3. Injection under skin – snake bites, dog bite, insect bite, v Details of any injury suffered or suspected
reptile, accidental injection of chemicals/drugsetc. Use an anti- vi A description of first aid treatment given
dote injection for the specific poison. First tie the area if vii Name of the person who gave first aid
possible to prevent poison spread. viii A description of any further action taken.
4. Absorption through skin – pesticides etc. this produces burns
as result of corrosive nature of the chemical involved. Irrigate CHAPTER FOUR: WORKSHOP FIRES
the area with as much water as possible then treat as burns.
(h) Shock 4.1INTRODUCTIONS

Arises from stress or injury causing an insufficient supply of blood to the Fire is a process of burning or chemical reaction of a substance where
brain, causing lessening of activities and affects vital functions of the heat and smoke are involved. It is a great hazard to life and property.
body.
Agents or factors of fires
 Lay the casualty down with the injury underlying cause of
shock. Keep his head low and turned to one side and raise the i. Fuel - Any agent that is oxidisable.May be found in any of the
lower limb. three state of matter; solid, liquid or gas.
ii. Oxygen- Supports ( burning) fires
(i) Bleeding from nose iii. Heat – Maintains fire.
Heat
Support the casualty in a sitting position with his head slightly forward
and instruct him to breathe through the mouth. Pinch the soft part of the A fire will not take place in the absence of one of the above three agents.
nose firmly for about 10 minutes. Loosen the clothes around the neck and Heat needed to
chest.
start fire does not necessarily have to be having
(j) Fever
the same temperature of maintaining it.
This is a condition that increases body temperatures above normal
ranges. 4.2 COMMON CAUSES OF FIRE

Loosen the clothes and use a wet warm handkerchief to wipe out the
casualty
(k) Electric shock
Electric shock is caused by contacts with live wire and electrical
equipment. The victim stops breathing and heart ceases beating. A check
may be carried out by feeling the pulse rate at the wrist or at the neck. It
can also be detected by looking at the victim with a widely dilated pupil
or grey colour of the skin. If the heart beat could not be detected, place the
casualty on the back on the floor and stuck his chest on the left of the
lower part of the breast bone with your fist.
 Carelessness – Careless smoking and disposal of cigarette
ends
 Negligence - Improper use, storage of flammable liquids.
 Lacks of knowledge-lack of know how.
 Poverty -Poor housekeeping standards.
 Arsonist– Intentional torching of property
 Accidents-unintendedfires
 Constructions – renovation and repairs.

If still it cannot beat, place the palm of your hand at the base of the breast 4.3 TYPES OF FIRES
bone keeping the palm and the fingers at the chest. Cover the hand with
the heel of the other hand and with the arms straight, lock forward and CLASS A: The type of fires caused by ordinary combustible material
backwards pressing down about 4cm and about 60 times per minute. The being the fuel of fire e.g.
heart massage should be continued at the same time as artificial
respiration until the heart beat resumes or medical help is obtained.  Paper
 Wood
3.4.3 ACCIDENTS REPORTS  Plastics etc.
 Clothes
All workshop accidents and first aids treatments should be reported or  Rubber
recorded. In some cases it is a legal requirement because it might be
needed for claims or industrial injury benefits. Reports are useful means CLASS B: This type of fire is caused by burning substances mainly
of alerting staff of dangers which could be averted with suitable petroleum products and combustible liquids beings the fuels e.g.
modifications avert and eliminate possible injury.
 Gases
  Greases and oils Choice of extinguisher
 Petrol
 Paint, varnishes and fats i. The extinguisher must contain the type of extinguishing agent
 Alcohol and methanol. suitable for the fires
ii. It must not be dangerous to the user
CLASS C: caused by the energetic electrical components e.g. iii. The extinguisher must be simple to use
iv. The extinguisher must be efficient and liable.
 Electrical wires
 Electrical Gadgets
 Socket, bulb holders 4.5 CLASS (TYPES) OF EXTINGUISHERS
Reasons
4.5.1 CLASS A FIRES EXTINGUISHERS
i Short circuits.
ii Overloads. They are controlled by cooling agents.
iii Electric charges.
iv Water on wires / accessories i. Water
ii. Dry chemical ( removing oxygen )
CLASS D: The fires caused by combustible metals e.g. iii. Liquid CO2 ( Very poor)
iv. Pressure Water hose.
 Magnesium
 Potassium 4.5.2 CLASS B FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
 Sodium
 Metal dusts Controlled by smothering agents (Removing Oxygen)
 Titanium
 Zirconium i. Wet blanket
ii. Sand
4.4 .1FIRE FIGHTING (CONTROLLING) iii. Co2
iv. Lid
The objective of firefighting is to minimize the loss of life and property
caused by preventable fires. 4.5.3 CLASS C FIRES EXTINGUISHERS

Fire control or extinguishing is accomplished by removing usually one or By use of non – conducting agents usually by smothering
more agents of fire. This is known as first aid firefighting
1. Removing power off the fires and then treat them as in CLASS
4.4.2 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS A OR B
2. Use of :-
Should be installed at convenient places for :- A. CO2
B. Neon ( Inert gas)
(i) Easy handling C. Dry chemical – These chemical usually damages
equipments and therefore should be the last alternative /
(ii) Easy reach. option.
3. Out – doors – dry chemicals (special foams)
The fire extinguishers are classified into two main categories - portable
and fixed 4. Use dry chemicals only because of explosions

1. Portable fire extinguishers: 4.5.4CLASS D FIRES EXTINGUISHERS

The term portable fire extinguisher generally covers first aid firefighting
appliances which can be carried by hand from one place to another and
from which the extinguishing agent can be expelled, usually under
pressure.
These fire extinguishers are quite useful and valuable for extinguishing
first stage fires but are not suitable for use in large fires.
2. fixed extinguisher:
They are used for large quantities of inflammable liquids, industrial
machinery and large electrical fire risks that are beyond the scope of
portable fire extinguishers.
A fixed installation is required which is usually automatic in operation.
This classification may also include fire hydrants.
They are controlled using dry powder.
4.5.5 OTHER FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
1. Fire Buckets: The installation of fire buckets is much cheaper and
their use is generally well understood than water type extinguishers,
however, due to difficulties in throwing water at a high level, their use is
limited to fires at low level.
A fire bucket should be 9 – 14 liters of water and covered to reduce
evaporation.
It may be made from plastic or metal and painted red and hung so that, it
is not higher than 1 meters from the ground level or at a shelve 760mm
above the floor. As a guide, 3 buckets should be provided per 210M3 floor
area.
2. Dry Sand: Dry sand is commonly used for extinguishing small fires Iron, mildsteel, dead mild steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel,
associated with electrical equipments. Sand may also be used for grey cast iron
extinguishing small liquid and metal fires. 2. Non-ferrous metals which contain little or no iron.e.g.aluminium,
copper, lead, silver, tin, zinc.
3. Blankets: Restricted only to small fires due to their sizes. They 3. Alloys. Pure metals are little used in engineering: they rarely possess
extinguish fire by enclosing it and thus excluding oxygen which supports the required properties, and some are difficult to produce in the pure state.
combustion. Hence, metals are more commonly used in the form of alloys. An alloy is
a mixture of two or more metals chemically combined together to alter its
4. Tree Branches: For small fires, they are used to exclude oxygen and properties.e.g.brass, bronze, Steel.
put off fires.
5.2 PROPERTIES OF METALS
4.5.6 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS OPERATION Metals have many physical and chemical properties which affect their
working qualities. Some of them include:
P= Pull out the safety pin 1 Relative density. This is the ratio between the weight of the metal
and the weight of an equal volume of water.
A= Aim at the base of the fire 2 Colour. Besides being a means of distinguishing metals, colour is
useful in decorative work.
A= Squeeze the knob 3 Fusibility. This is the property of becoming liquid when heated.
Different metals have different melting points. Easily melted metals
S= Strike the fire out includes:-lead, tin, solder, zinc.
4 Conductivity of heat and electricity. Copper and silver are the best
Inspection: Should be done every 3 months to check parts and contents.
conductors of both heat and electricity.
5 Magnetic properties. Iron and steel are the most important
Maintenance - should be done every 6 months.
magnetic metals but others are slightly magnetic, e.g. cobalt and
nickel. Some irons and steels become permanently magnetized but
4.5.7 FIRE PLAN (IF YOU DISCOVER FIRE)
other lose their magnetism immediately the magnetic field is
removed. These latter metals are used for electromagnets.
6 Elasticity The ability to regain shape after deformation (ability of
material to return to its original shape after pulling it apart or
(Shout fire, fire, fire, fire)
deforming by force).e.g. Rubber.
A = Alert the workers in the area. 7 Hardness. This is the resistance the metal offers to being scratched,
cut or worn.e.g.diamond, glass.
C= Control the fire (Blankets, sand, water, fire extinguishers found on 8 Malleability. The property which allows a metal to be hammered or
every floor in the building. rolled into sheet without breaking (ability of material to have its
shape permanently changed by hammering).e.g. Lead, aluminum.
E= Evacuate everyone to the assembly point. Help everybody to evacuate 9 Ductility. Ability of the material to be drawn or rolled into wire and
carefully. also ability of the material to be permanently deformed in its cold
state, usually by tension.e.g.copper, aluminum.
4.5.8 ON HEARING THE EVACUATION ALARM. 10 Toughness. The ability of material to withstand sudden heavy blows
or loading without fracture e.g. High carbon steel, medium carbon
 Leave the building in an orderly manner and assemble in steel
assembly point. 11 Tenacity. The measure of tenacity is tensile strength and is the
 Wait at the assembly point until there is a roll call. Do not property of materials to resist fracture when stretched e.g. high
leave unless authorized. tensile steels.
 Do not stop to collect personal belonging. 12 Brittleness. The property of metal to break very easily with little
 Never re-enter the building until declared safe to do so. deformation under sudden
 Use authorized means of escape. Blow e.g. Glass, Cast Iron etc. Brittle materials break easily with a
 After use ensure that extinguishers are serviced and refilled sharp blow, are usually hard,
before being mounted or returned to their respective and neither ductile nor malleable.
mountings.
5.3 METAL PROCESSES
4.6 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1 Work hardening. Is the process carried out to make metals harder,
1. Outline five classes of fires, stating one type of fire extinguisher used wear and scratch resistante.g. Scribers, chisels, and other cutting
for each. (12marks) tools.
2 Forging. The shaping of metal by hammering when red hot.
CHAPTER FIVE: PROPERTIES OF METAL 3 Welding Uniting metals by hammering at white heat (forge
welding) or uniting by fusion (oxy-acetylene or electric arc)
Most engineering materials are metallic. 4 Extrusion. Forcing plastic metals through holes of the desired
5.1CLASSIFICATION OF METALS shape.
5 Drawing. Pulling ductile metals through holes in draw plates to
1. Ferrous Metalswhich contain chiefly iron with small proportions of reduce the size of those metals, e.g. wire drawing.
other metals.e.g.wrought
 6 Spinning. Forcing fast-revolving sheet metal over metal or wood  It is very hard to get the “correct feel ’’ due to the instrument
formers. weight and size.
7 Casting. The pouring of molten metal into previously prepared sand or  It is also very difficult to tell the exact vernier division that
steel moulds. coincides with the main scale
8 Pressing. Stretching and shaping sheet metal by means of a press tool.
9 Annealing. Restoring metal to its softest state to enable further division.
cold working to continue.
10 Normalizing Relieving stresses set up by working. Principles of operation of a vernier caliper.
11 Hardening Producing maximum hardness.
12 Tempering. Relieving some of the brittleness after hardening. The principle of operation of vernier calipers is based on the difference
between a vernier scale division and main scale division. The main scale
Assignments is graduated in millimeters and numbered each centimeter. Alternatively,
i Giving examples describe what is meant by the following terms:- the main scale may be numbered at every 10mm. (one division on main
a. -Alloy scale=1mm)
b. -Ferrous metals
c. -Non-ferrous metals A diagram of vernier caliper (G.H. Thomas page 64, F.D Mathangani
ii Briefly describe what is meant by the following properties of metals page9)
a. Ductility
b. Elasticity Reading a vernier caliper
c. Plasticity
d. Brittleness The main scale is divided into 50 divisions over a distance of
e. Malleability 50mm.Therefore one division on the main scale equals 50/50mm=1mm

iii Briefly explain the following heat treatment processes The vernier scale is divided into 50 divisions over a 49mm distance on the
a. Hardening main scale. Therefore 1 division on the vernier scale equals 49/50 mm
b. Tempering =0.98mm.
c. Annealing
d. Normalizing The difference between a division on the main scale and a division on the
e. Forging vernier scale equals 1mm – 0.98mm-0.02mm.This is the accuracy of the
iv Give the composition of the following;- instrument.
a) Soft solder
b) Silver solder
c) Brazing spelter
0 10 20 30 40 50 mm main
scale.
5.5 SAMLE QUESTIONS

1. Define the following heat treatment processes

0 10 20 30 40 50
i Hardening
vernier scale.
ii Tempering
iii Annealing
Accuracy of a vernier caliper.
iv normalizing
1 small division on vernier scale= 49/50 mm = 0.98 mm

1 small division on main scale =1.00 mm

CHAPTER SIX: WORKSHOP TOOLS
Difference of vernier scale to main scale is 1.00 – 0.98 (The accuracy) =
6.1 MEASURING INSTRUMENT
0.02 mm.
As demand for more accurate work increases, various precision
How to read the metric vernier caliper.
measuring and checking tools are essential. They help to give more
precise and high quality work. Some of these tools include:
1. Read the full mm on main scale up to zero on datum of vernier
scale.
6.1.1. Vernier Caliper
2. Check vernier scale line coinciding with any main scale line.
3. As each line division is 0.02mm, the numbers of division is
Since the accuracy that can be measured with a rule is about 0.5 mm,
multiplied by 0.02mm and added to the main scale reading to get
where more accurate measuring is required a vernier caliper must be used.
the total reading.
The accuracy of a vernier caliper is 0.02 mm.
Answer
A vernier caliper is used for both outside and inside measurements as well I. Full mm up to zero of vernier scale
as the depth of a hole. Capabilities range from 0 – 150 mm to 0- 2000 =92.00mm
mm. The limitations of accuracy of instrument are due to -: II. Vernier line coinciding to main scale=24th x
0.02=0.48mm
 III. Total reading =92mm+0.48mm f) Thimble Accurately graduated with every 5th division
=92.48mm numbered.
g) Ratchet. This is to ensure even pressure.
Using the vernier caliper.
N/B
1. Bring the sliding jaw up to the work.
 Always clean the anvil and spindle faces before using the
(A Diagram G.H. THOMAS page 64) micrometers.
 Never use a micrometer before checking the zero or initial
2. Lock clamp screw. setting.
 Always use the ratchet to ensure even pressure.
3. Exact setting made by fine setting screw.  Micrometers are high precision instruments and should be
handled carefully. They should never be dropped.
4. Lock sliding head and take reading.  Store them in their cases when not in use.
Reading a metric micrometer
N/B
(i) Read the full mm on sleeve scale.
a. For internal measuring the width of the jaws must be
added. (ii) Read half mm on sleeve scale (if any)
b. Use great care when setting the adjustment and never use
force. (iii) Read hundredths of mm on thimble scale indicated by scale line
The jaws can be easily strained and calipers strained. coinciding with the

datum line on the sleeve.

6.1.2. Micrometers
(iii) Total reading is the sum of sleeve scale reading plus thimble scale
The metric micrometer has a higher accuracy than the steel rule or vernier reading.
caliper. It has an accuracy of 0.01mm.
Example 1
The outside micrometer fixed type of 0-25 mm is the most common even (A diagram Mathangani F.D. page 12)
though there are other types.
 Full mm on Barrel/ Sleeve= 10mm
Principles of operation of metric micrometer.  Half mm on barrel / sleeve = 0.00 mm

The metric micrometer is graduated to hundredths of a millimeter Hundreds of mm on thimble =0.36 mm

(0.01mm). It employs a screwed spindle to control the movement of the
spindle. Total Reading 10.36 mm

The spindle screw has a pitch of 0.5 mm and is fixed to a thimble (hence Example 2
rotated by thimble). The beveled edge of the thimble is graduated into 50
divisions round its circumference. (A diagram Mathangani F.D.page13)

One revolution of the thimble moves the spindle 0.5 mm (same as 50  Full mm on Barrel =5.00 mm
divisions movement on the thimble).Therefore 1 small division on the  Half mm Barrel =0.50 mm
thimble is equal to 0.50/50 mm= 0.01mm movement of the spindle.  Hundredths of mm thimble= 0.04mm

The barrels are graduated in full millimeter and have millimeter divisions.
Therefore to make 1 mm movement of the spindle requires 2 complete Total reading = 5.54 mm.
revolutions of the thimble.
6.1.3. Dial Test Indicators / Clock Gauge.
Diagram (G.H.Thomas page 56&F.D.Mathananipage page12)
(Insert a diagram Thomas G.H. PAGE 70)
Parts of a micrometer.
The dial test indicator is a sensitive instrument for comparing or testing
a) Frame -U shaped and of drop forged steel and ismarked with the accuracy of surfaces. It gives no direct reading of size.
micrometer size.
b) Spindle and Anvil-Faces are glass hard and optically flat. The main dial is like a clock face and has a plunger projecting from it.
c) Spindle made from alloy steel hardened throughout and The amount of movement of the plunger is registered by a hand moving
stabilized. around the dial which is graduated to read to 0.01 or 0.002 mm.
d) Locknut /ring for locking spindle to set measurements.
e) Sleeve/ Barrel Is adjustable for zero setting. It is accurately In use the indicator is clamped to the surface gauge spindle in place of the
marked and graduated in full mm and half mm. The finish is scriber or used in a special holder that fixes in the lathe tool post.
pearl chrome plated.
It is used for the following tests;
1. Testing for parallel. (Diagram Thomas G.H. page70) the bubble is at the central position, then the line or surface is horizontally
level.
2. Testing for roundness, (Diagram Thomas G.H. page70)
(Diagram Nganga A. page 56)
3. Testing for true running. (Diagram Thomas G.H. page70)
6.2 GAUGING INSTRUMENTS
4. Testing for accuracy of traverse on a lathe .i.e. testing whether or not
the lathe is cutting parallel. 6.2.1. Feeler gauges.

5. Testing for alignment of centres Feeler or thickness gauges are used to measure small spaces such as
necessary to give clearance when fitting up two parts together or when
6. Testing tail stock set-over when taper turning. settings up work or adjusting machines.

7. Testing for alignment of stroke etc. on a shaper. A set of feeler gauges look like a multi-bladed pen-knives with a set of
leaves or blades of different thicknesses. (Hundredths of mm)
6.1.4 Combination set
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 68)
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 39 Mathangani F.D. Page 26)
6.2.2 Ring gauges.
A set of four instruments in one
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page67)
1) A steel rule grooved at the back along which the other three
instruments known as heads can slide. They are used in conjunction with a male plug gauge of the same nominal
2) The main head (squarehead)has one edge at 90o and the other at size, for testingexternal diameters. They are limited in use because:
450 tothe rule.It is fitted with a spirit level. It is used as a square,
miter square, depth gauge etc.  It does not provide any limits.
3) A protractor head enables the rule to be set at any desired angle.  It has to be tried over the end of a shape and this is often
4) A centre square head is used to find the centres of a circular bar. inconvenient e.g. When working on centres.
 It needs to be worked along the whole length of a shaft in order to
All the heads can be locked at any desired position on the rule by knurled test whether it is parallel.
nuts.
6.2.3 Slip gauges.
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 39 Mathangani F.D. Page 26)
(Diagram) (Diagram Thomas G.H. page67)
Square Head
Slip gauges or block gauges are rectangular pieces of hardened steel with
Has one edge at 90o and the other edge at 45o.Square head is used for very accurate parallel faces. They were invented by Swedish engineer
setting up work. When the spirit level is horizontal, work is vertical. Johannson in 1903 are often called Johannson blocks. They are very
expensive and are sold in sets e.g. From 25.00mm to 25.20 mm in steps
(Diagram) of 0.02mm making 11 slips in all.Metallic faces, when made very
accurately flat can be “wrung” together as by carefully cleaning them,
Square head used as a depth gauge. pressing them together and slightly twisting them.

Centre head The two faces will adhere together and considerable force is necessary to
separate them. in this way it is possible to “wring” a group of slip Gauges
(Diagram)
together and handle them as one gauge block, the overall accuracy being
to within 0.0002 mm used to verify dimensions or, combined in a frame
When fixed on a rule it forms a centresquare and can be used tolocate
as accurate caliper gauge.
centres of ends of round stock.
6.2.4 Plug gauge
A spirit level in the square head enable vertical and horizontal truing up to
be carried out, up to a high degree of accuracy.
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 72)

Protractor head.
When machining a hole in a component to fit a shaft, the hole is usually
0 0
machined first and a shaft afterwards machined to a fit. A standard plug
Is graduated from 0 -180 and can be used as a bevel or depth gauge as
gauge can be used to check the accuracy of the internal machining. The
well as a protractor.
end of the gauge is machined to a standard size to close limits.
6.1.5. Spirit levels

The spirit level is used for leveling machinery and also for setting up
irregular work for marking out when some parts of the work has to be
horizontal. They are bubble tube which contains liquid mercury. When
6.3MARKING OUT EQUIPMENTS
6.3.1Steel rule:
They are obtained in various sizes with a wide choice of graduation. They
are made of carbon steel or stainless steel. In most cases one small
division is equal to one mm
The scriber is used for marking or scribing lines on metal. It is made of
cast steel, hardened and tempered. The points of scriber must be kept
sharp. They are ground on a grinding stone to an angle of 30o to 40o.
Scribers usually have a knurled fingers grip. Some have replaceable
points.
6.3.3 Dividers
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 41)
Used for:
 Stepping off distances. ( Diagram)
 Scribing circles and curves. ( Diagram)
6.3.4 Centre punch.
Centre punches are used for marking centres of a hole for drilling. The
hole is made deeply with a heavy hammer blow. Centre punches are made
of cast steel, hardened and tempered. When round they have a knurled
fingers grip but they are frequently made of octagonal cast steel.
Centre dot punches should be ground on the grindstone to an angle of 600
at the point however heavy duty centre punches are ground to an angle of
900 at the point
(Diagram)
The punch mark must be large enough to take the chisel edge of the drill.
(Diagram)
ii
6.3.5 Calipers.
iii
iv
Calipers are used for transferring measurements from the work piece to
the steel rule or from the rule to the work piece. They are of two patterns,
the spring type or the firm joint caliper. The spring caliper is easy to set
while the firm joint caliper is more difficult to set. There are three types of
calipers
a) Outside Calipers.
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 42, Nganga A. page 45)
The outside calipers are used for transferring external measurements.
b) Inside Caliper.
(Diagram Thomas GH. Page 43, Nganga A. page 46)
Used for checking inside diameters. No force should be used to do the
measuring.
The setting of caliper can then be transferred to a micrometer for taking
readings.
c) Odd leg caliper (jenny or hermaphrodite caliper)
(Diagram Thomas GH. Page 44, Nganga A. page 46)
Used for scribing lines parallel to a given edge and for finding the centre
of a round bar. The body is made of steel with a scriber of high carbon
steel hardened and tempered. The size is set by a steel rule using the
fingers to support the leg.
6.3.6 Surface gauge or scribing block
(Diagram Thomas GH. Page 48, Nganga A. page 52)
There are two types of scribing blocks, the plain type and the universal
type.
Parts of surface gauge or scribing block
a) The base
The base is made of steel, hardened and ground. The bottom part has
a vee groove for use on round bars. It is provided with two
frictionally held pins for use against the edge of the surface plate or
any other datum edge. It is also for marking lines parallel to the
edge.
b) The rocker arm
Provides fine adjustments to the scriber
c) Spindle or stand
d) This is fixed to the base and can be swiveled .The spindle is locked
to the rocker armby means of a collar and a knurled nut.
e) The clamp
This slide up and down on the spindle .It can be locked to the
spindle at any desired position by means of a knurled nut.
f) The scriber
This is made of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered.One end
is straight and the other is curved the curved end is for setting work
on the lathe machine or for testing for parallelism or alignment
while the straight end is for marking out on the surface plate. The
scriber is fully adjustable on the spindle and locked in position by
means of a clamp and nut.
Uses of the scribing block
i Marking out on surface plate or marking out table.
Testing for parallelism or alignment.
Setting or truing work on the lathe machine.
Finding the centre of the end of a round bar.
6.3.7. Vernier height gauge
(Diagram Thomas G.H.page 65)
Base Heavy hardened steel with a ground finish on the underside and
recessed to reduce the bearing surface.
Main Scale A heavy gauge rule graduated like a vernier caliper in
millimeters
 Vernier has a reading to 0.02mm with a lock and fine adjustment screw.
Finger or knife edge made of steel hardened and ground.
ii
The vernier height gauge is made in a range of sizes but those commonly
in use measures to 300 – 450 mm.It is used basically the same range of
work as the surface gauge but where more accuracy is needed.
It is used for-:
I. Accurate marking out to close limits i.e. 0.02mm.
II. Testing components for parallel.
III. Testing components for height alignment etc.
6.3.8. Vee block
(DiagramThomas G.H.Page 45)
They are made in pairs exactly alike in shape and size and often with two
vees. One larger than the others. The sloping faces are at 90owith a groove
at the vase of the vee for clearance.
Small sizes are made of high carbon steel hardened and ground and
provided with a clamp for holding the work. Large sizes are made of
carbon steel and are not provided with a clamp because the weight of the
work is enough to hold it in position.
Uses: For supporting round stock for marking out or for drilling.
(Diagram Thomas G.H.Page 45)
6.3.9. Surface plate.
(Diagram Thomas G.H.Page 46&Nganga page50)
Surface plates are used for:-
 Accurate marking out.
 Checking surfaces for flat
 Checking parts for alignments.
They are made of carbon ironin size from 100x150 mm to 1 meter sq.
various grades are made. Grade “A” of plates being hand scraped and
accurate to les them 0.02mm. Lower grades are left with a machined
surface. Provided with three feet to prevent rock and give stability and
with two handles for carrying. The underside is ribbed to prevent warping
and twisting of the top face.
Precautions in use of surface plate
i Always keep clean and lightly oiled
ii Keep covered when not in use, preferably by means of a felt lined
lid and the felt kept oiled.
iii Avoid, at all times, damage to the surface. Tools and work pieces
must be handled with care and not dropped on the working surface.
iv Never use a surface plate for work not meant for it
6.3.10 Surface table
(Diagram Thomas G.H.Page 46&Nganga page50)
It is made of cast iron in sizes from 300mmx1m to 6mx1m.it is provided
with four stout legs and ribbed in the same way as surface plate.
It is used for:-
i Accurate marking out
Setting up components to be checked for accuracy, parallelism,
alignments etc.
6.3.11 Angle plate
(Diagram Thomas G.H.Page 47&Nganga page49)
This is used for supporting the work for marking out and machining. It is
made of cast iron and machined out accurately on the outer faces and
edges. Angle plates are made in different sizes ranging from 75mm to
300mm long
6.4 HAND CUTTING TOOLS
 Chisel
 Taps and dies.
 Reamers.
 Scrappers
 Hacksaws.
 Strips.
 files
 Pipe cutters.
6.4.1Files
A file is a hand tool used for removing waste material when producing
flat, straight or curved surfaces on a work piece.
(Diagram Thomas GH page 18 Nganga A. Page14)
The following are the different parts of a file.
Blade made of high carbon steel, hardened and tempered.
Tang Made of high carbon steel. Left soft for strength.
Handle made of wood
Ferrule made of steel or brass to prevent handle splitting.
Terms describing files.
Cut Particular way into which the teeth are cut i.e. Single cut, double cut
or rasp cut.
Single cut files are used for cutting hard metals .They have unbroken
series of cuts parallel with each other but running at an angle to the length
of the file.
Double cut filesare used for general purposes .They have two series of
cuts running across each other ,one series being finer than the other .One
cut runs at an angle of 45o to the length of the file, the other at 70o
Rasp cut files are used for relatively coarse work on soft materials. Each
tooth is cut separately by means of a single pointed tool or punch.
(Insert diagrams, Nganga page 15)
Grade Indicate the degree of coarseness of teeth. The grades being rough,
bastard second cut, smooth and dead smooth. The dead smooth is the
finest
 - Cutting grooves in flat surface before using flat chisel.
- Cutting slots in a circular rod.
Uses of files
(c) Half round chisels.
a. Cross Filing Use for generalwork, roughing down, squaring. Etc. it
uses slow full length file stroke across the work with pressure on the (Diagram Thomas G.H. page 22)
forward stroke and relieving the pressure on back stroke. Make about
45 to 60 strokes per minute. The shape of the end is approximately semicircular. Mainly used for
b. Draw filing. Is used for finishing most surfaces after being cross cutting grooves and pulling
filled flat .The drawing filing removes all filling marks .The file is
held at right angles to the length of metal and pushed back and forth off-set drilled holes.
along its length.
c. Pinning. Is the clogging of the file teeth with particles of metals 6.4.3 Hammers
causing the file to lose its cutting efficiency and badly score the work.
Soft metals are more apt to pin than hard metals. The pins can be (Diagram Thomas GH page 26 Nganga A. Page28)
removed if not too stubbornwith a file card.Failing this, they will
have to be pricked out with a sharp point. Chalking the surface of Hammers are specified by weight from 0.1 to 1.35 kgs. For general bench
files helps to prevent pinning. work, a head of about 0.4kg is the most common. They are mainly used
for riveting and with chisels.
Types of files based on their shapes.
Parts of a hammer
 Flat Round
Headmade of high carbon steel
 Square Half round
 Triangle Knife
Face and pein tempered to a straw
Care of files.
Eye left soft for increased strength. The eye is thin walled and weak and if
left hard would fracture under the continued shock of impact
a. Work fitted loosely in the vice allows the files to chatter, thereby
Distorting or chipping the teeth.
Shaft or handle made of wood, usually hard wood that is straight grained
b. The file teeth are brittle and easily broken so care should be taken
and free from knots. The handle is fitted to the head by means of a metal
both in their use and in their storage.
or wooden wedge.
c. Never use a new file on a welded joint, brazed joints, casting or
soldered bit
Types of hammers
d. Use new files on brittle metals like brass and soft cast iron and when
slightly worn use on steels.
Ball pein or pane this is a general purpose hammer and the ball pein end
e. Never allow the file to slip over the work. It dulls the teeth. is used for riveting
f. Clean the teeth as soon as they become pinned.
g. Never use a file without a handle. It is dangerous to your hands. Straight pein hammer this has a tampered and flat pein that is in line
with the handle .It is used for riveting in awkward places and is also used
6.4.2 Chisels
for awkward bending of sheet metal.

They usually made of octagonal high carbon steel, Hardened and
tampered to a degree of a hardness. The head is left soft to prevent
cracking under the impacts of the hammer when in use.
Alloy steels are better for chisels than High carbon steel but are more
expensive and more difficult to recondition if the temper becomes drawn.
Sometimes they are called cold chisels because they work in the cold
state.
Cross pein has pein at right an angle to the shaft. It is used for drawing
down and riveting in awkward places.
Planishing hammer often with one face flat and the other convex .It is
used for finishing beaten work.
Others blocking hammers, repousehammers, raising hammers, mallets
etc.

There are various types namely:- 6.4.4 Hacksaws

(a) Flat Chisels They are used for cutting metal. It consists of a replacement blade held in
tension in an adjustable frame. The frame may be adjusted to take blades
Used for:-
of different lengths. They may be made of rectangular section steel or
tube.
- Cutting off metals when held on a bench vice.
- Chipping a surface.
The blade is held in two studs. The one at the handle end isfixed; the other
- Cutting sheet on a cutting block. may be tightened by means of a wing nut which holds the blade in
tension.
(b) Crosscut Chisel.
Hacksaw blades:
Uses:-
The length of blade is measured from centre points of fixing the holes.
Blades for hand use are 250 to 300 mm. Long and 13mm wide. Blades for
power cutting are 300 to 750 mm long and 25 to 33mm wide.
Precaution in the use of hand hacksaw
i. Choose a blade of right type.
ii. Choose a blade of the right length.
iii. Fit the blade in the frame with the teeth pointing away from
the handle.
iv. Correctly tension the blade.
v. Ensure that the work is secured rigidly.
vi. Arrange the work in the vice so that the sewing if possible is
vertical.
vii. If the work is irregular in shape arrange it in the sizes that
sowing does not start across a corner.
6.4.5 Taps and dies.
Internal threads
Taps are used for making threads on an already drilled hole. The hole is
normally smaller than the size of the tap being used.Taps are made of
high carbon steel hardened and tempered. They are very brittle and need
care in their use. Taps are supplied in sets of three:-
1. Taper tap- used for starting the thread. It taper for two thirds of
their length and is used first; to start the cutting of the threads. No
other tap is necessary for tapping thin plates because the taper tap
will cut a full thread at the top end.
2. Second tap or intermediate tap-follows the taper tap. Tapers one
third of its length and follow the taper taps in use .Some sets have
these taps omitted.
3. Bottoming or plug taps-used for finishing the thread. Are parallel
for the complete length except for a chamfer lead. They are used
last of the set and are always necessary when blind hole has to be
tapped.
Tap Holders (Tap Wrench)
A tap holder or tap wrench is used to hold taps when cutting internal
threads by hand. Tap holders are made in many different patterns. A
good tap holder should have a firm grip on the tap and at the same time
allow easy and rapid interchange of taps which is frequently necessary.
In use, the square shank at the top of the tap should fit in the centre hole
of the tap holder by means of an adjustable screw. This screw must not be
allowed to work loose while the tap is in use.
When cutting on internal thread with the tap, the tap holder should be
given a half turn backwards (anti-clockwise for every turn forwards.
(Clockwise). This is necessary to clear the swarf away from the cutting
edges. If this is not done, the thread may tear in places.
Precautions when tapping
These precautions are a must to avoid broken taps
i. Always tap the hole first before threading the external threads
.This is because the dies are adjustable while the taps are not
ii. Enter the taps squarely in the hole and use them in the correct
sequence.
iii. Use the correct tapping drill size.
iv. Always turn tap half a turn backward to break the chips as you tap
v. Where necessary use the cutting fluid.
vi. Balance the tapping wrench and avoid vertical leverage.
External threads. (Diestocks)
They are cut by means of dies which fit in a die stock. Dies have the size,
kind of thread and pitch marked on the leading face. This face has a
camper lead to enable the cutting to start more easily. It is important that
the die be placed the right way round in the stock so that the correct face
starts the cutting.
Types of dies.
1. Circular dies or split dies.
Have a limited adjustment for size provided by three adjusting screws.
They are most often used in sizes below 12 mm
2. Rectangular dies or 2- piece dies
Have two parts to each size numbered 1 and 2. A wide range of
adjustment for size is possible. They are often used for cutting fairly large
diameter threads.
3 Die nuts or solid dies.
They are not intended for cutting threads from the solid but for rectifying
damages to existing threads or running on existing thread down to size.
Die nuts are obtainable for use with spanners.
Precautions when cutting external threads
i. See to it that the die is located properly in the die stock so as to
avoid a drunken or crooked thread
ii. The rod to be threaded must be chamfered to give the die a lead in
iii. Check for squareness of die and stock once threading has
commenced
iv. Avoid any vertical leverage on stock.
v. Take a roughing cut with a die first before finishing final cut.
6.4.6 Reamers
A reamer will enlarge an existing hole making itround, smooth and
accurate in size. A reamer will only follow a previously drilled hole and
will not alter that hole in relation to accuracy of position or directions.
Types of reamers
(a) Machine reamer.
Have a Morse taper shank and fit directly into the machine spindle e.g.
The lathetailstocks. Some have straight flutes but more often the flutes
form a left hand helix or spiral. (If the helix were right hand, as twist drill,
the reamer would try to screw itself into the metal.
(b) Hand reamers.
They are used by hand in a tap wrench. They may have straight or helical
flutes like machine reamers and thy have the extreme end tapered slightly
to give it a lead into the hole.
Reamers are used with a clockwise or right hand rotation and no
backward turns are necessary as with taps. Cutting solutions must be used
as for drilling.
 The amount of metal removed by a reamer is small for holes up to 12mm b) pinning (4marks)
the allowance should be around 0.1mm. 7. outline any four care and maintenance practices observed when
using files (8marks)
8. with the aid of diagrams, describe the following filing techniques:
i cross filing
Care of reamers ii draw filing (10marks)
9. a) illustrate :
Reamers are expensive, high precision cutting tools and need to be treated i the parts of an external micrometer
with extreme care when blunted they can be sharpened only by grinding ii a reading of 13.65 mm on an external micrometer whose
in the flutes. For this a special tool and cutter grinder is needed and the scale is 1 / 100 mm (10marks)
number of regrinds possible before the reamer becomes under size is
limited. Hence, always ensure the reamer is used correctly and that the b) State any five care and maintenance practices observed when
drilled hole gives the correct allowance for reaming. using micrometers (5marks)

6.4.7 Scrapers 10. describe the following workshop tools giving two applications for
Scrapers are used to make a surface more accurate than is possible by each:
filing. Only a very small amount of metal is removed and it is useless to i dial test indicators
scrape a surface before it has been worked as accurately as possible by ii feeler gauges
other methods. They are made of high carbon steel hardened and (8marks)
tempered to a straw. Worn files can be made into very good scrapers. 11. a) state any three precautions to be observed when using files
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 35, Mathangani page 44) (3marks)
b) Describe the following types of files giving applications for
Parts of a scraper each
The handle is usually similar to a file handle but is sometimes of metal,
round and knurled. i hand file
The blade is made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered to a straw. ii flat file
The end may be forged out or left parallel. The cutting edge may be left iii round file (9marks)
straight but is more often curved to prevent the corners digging in. 12. a) list any five types of fire extinguishers used in a workshop
Types of scrapers (5marks)
Flat scrapers, draw scrapers, half round scrapers, three squire scrapers etc.
b) Sketch the following workshop tools:

i hacksaw
6.5 OTHER WORKSHOP TOOLS ii long nose spanner
Spanners, pliers, screwdrivers, anvil, etc. iii ball pen hammer (6marks)
6.6 FASTENERS 13. Outline any three safety measures to observe when working with the
Fasteners are items used to join or assemble machine or structural following
components. They includes:rivets,bolts& workshop tools:
nuts,screws,nails,glue,welds,seams welts,clamps,binding i hand tools
wire,adhesives,pins,staples etc. ii power tools
iii gas weld (9marks)
6.7 SAMPLE QUESTIONS 14. a) list any six types of fasteners used in an agricultural engineering
1. Sketch and label parts of the following workshop measuring workshop (3marks)
instruments
a) outside micrometer screw gauge CHAPTER SEVEN: DRILLING
b) vernier caliper (10 marks)
2. using diagrams illustrate the following measuring instruments 7.1Introduction
readings:
a) micrometer reading of 15.65 mm The drilling machine or drill press is essential in any metal working shop.
b) vernier caliper reading of 25.40 mm (6marks) A drilling machine consists of a spindle which turns the drill and which
3. sketch the following workshop tools can be advanced into the work either automatically or by hand and work
a) angle plate table (which hold the work pieces rigidly in position as the hole is
b) surface plate drilled).
c) try squire
d) odd leg calipers (8marks) A drilling machine is used primarily to produce holes in metals however;
4. a) sketch and label parts of a hand file (4marks) operations such as tapping, reaming, counter boring, and countersinking,
b) Sketch a combination set (4marks) boring and spot facing can also be performed.
c) State three applications of the combination set sketched in 4b)
above (6marks) 7.2 Standard Operations
5. outline the procedure of marking out a work piece in a workshop
for filing (5marks) Drilling machines may be used for performing a variety of operations
6. explain the following terms in reference to files: besides drilling a round hole. These includes:-
a) cut
(i) Drilling-May be defined as the operation of producing a hole by
removing metal from a solid mass using a cutting tool called a twist drill.
(ii) Countersinking- Is an operation that produces a tapered or cone
shaped enlargement to end surface of a hole.
(iii) Reaming Is the operation of sizing and producing a smooth round
hole from a previously drilled or bored hole with the use of cutting tool
having several cutting edges.
(iv) Boring Is the operation of truing and enlarging a hole by means of a
single point cutting tool, which is usually held in a boring bar.
(V) Spot- facing- Is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface
around a hole to provide a seat for the head of a cap screw or nut. A
boring bar with a pilot section on the end to fit into the existing hole is
generally fitted with a double edged cutting tool. The pilot on the bar
provides rigidity for the cutting tool and keeps it concentric with the hole.
For the spot facing operation, the work being machined should be
securely clamped and the machine set to approximately one – quarter of
the drilling speed.
(vi) Tapping- Is the operation of cutting internal threads in a hole with a
cutting tool called a tap. Special machines or gun taps are used with a
tapping attachment when this operation is performed by power in a
machine.
(vii) Counter boring- Is the operation of enlarging the top of a
previously drilled hole to a given depth to provide a square shoulders for
the head of bolt or cap screw.
7.3 DRILLING MACHINES
A wide variety of drilling presses are available, ranging from the simple
sensitive drill to highly complex automatic and numerically controlled
machines. They include:-
Sensitive drill press
Is the simplest type of drilling machine. This type of machine has only a
hand feed mechanism which enables operator to “feel” how the drill is
cutting and to control the down feed pressures accordingly. Sensitive drill
presses are generally light high speed machines and are manufactured in
bench and floor models/pillar type.
Other types of drilling machines are essential for special uses e.g. hand
drills, the chest drills, portable drills, radial drills, upright drilling
machines, gang drills, numeric control drilling machines,e.t.c
Major Parts
The main parts on the bench and floor models are the base, column, and
table and a drilling head. The floor model is larger and has a longer
column than the bench type.
(i) Base -The base is usually made of cast iron and provides stability for
the machine and also rigid mounting for the column. The base is usually
provided with holes so that it may be bolted to a table or bench.
The slots or ribs in the base allow the works holding device or the work
piece to be fastened to the base.
(ii) Column-The column is an accurate cylindrical post which fits into
the base. The table which is fitted to the column may be adjusted to any
point between the base and head. The drill press head is mounted near the
top of the column.
(iii) Table-The table, either round or rectangular in shape is used to
support the work piece to be machined. The table whose surface is at
900to the column may be raised, lowered and swiveledaround the column.
On some models it is possible to tilt the table in either direction for
drilling holes at an angle.
Slots are provided in most tables to allow jigs, fixtures or large work
pieces to be clamped directly to the table.
(iv) Drilling head.
The head mounted close to the top of the column contains the mechanism
needed to revolve the cutting tool and advance it into the work piece. The
spindle which is a round shaft that holds and drives the cutting tool is
housed in the spindle sleeve or quill. The spindle sleeve does not revolve
but slides up and down inside the head to provide a down feed for the
cutting tool. The end of the spindle may have a tapered hole to hold taper
shanks tool or may be threaded or tapered forattaching a drill chuck.
The hand feed lever is used to control the vertical movement of the
spindle sleeve and the cutting tool. A depth stop attached to the spindle
sleeve can be set to control the depth that a cutting toolenters the work
piece.
7.4 DRILLING MACHINE ACCESSORIES
Drill press accessories fall into two:-
1) Tool- holding devices which are used to hold or drive the
cutting tool.
2) Work- holding devices which are used to clamp or hold the
work piece.
7.4.1Tool –Holding Devices
The drill press spindle provides a means of holding and driving the
cuttingtool.It may have a tapered hole to accommodate taper shank tools
or its end may be tapered or threaded for mounting a drill chuck.
Although there are a variety of tool holding devicesand accessories, the
most common found in a machine shop are drill chucks, drills sleeves
and drillsockets.
1. Drill Chucks
They are the most common devices used on a drill press for holding
straight shank cutting tools. Most drill chucks contain three jaws that
move simultaneously when the outer sleeves is turned or on some types of
chucks when the outer collar is raised.
The three jaws hold the straight shankof a cutting tool securely and cause
it to run accurately. There are generally two common types of drill
chucks: - the key type and key less type including:-
a) Key- type drill chucks: - Are the most common. They have three jaws
that move in or out simultaneously when the outer sleeve isturned. The
drill bit is spaced in the chuck and the outer sleeve turned by hand until
the jaws re held on the drill bit shank. The sleeve is then tightened with
the key causing the drill to be held securely and accurately.
N/B The chuck may be mounted on the drill press spindle by means of
taper or threads. Chucks used in larger pressesare usually held in the
spindle by means of self – holding taper.
b) Keyless drill chucks
They are used more in production work since the chuck may be loosened
or tightened by hand without a key. They are used for relatively light
work. They are tightened by hand. Three jaws slide up and down a
conical seating in the chuck body. They are held in contacts with the
seating by three coiled springs which fit in the holes in the faces of the
jaws
C) Precision keyless chuck - Is designed to hold smaller drill bits
accurately. The drill is changed by turning the outer knurled sleeves.
d) The Jacobs impact keyless chuck – Will hold smaller or larger drills
securely and accurately by means of rubber flex collets. The drill is
gripped or released quickly and easily by means of a built-in impact
device in the chuck.
2. Drill sleeve s and sockets
The size of the tapered hole in the drill press spindle is generally in
proportion to the size of the machine.The larger the machine the larger
the spindle hole. The size of the tapered shank on cutting tools is
manufactured in proportion to the size of the tool.
(a) Drill Sleeves.
Are used to adopt the cutting tool shank to the machine spindle if the
taper on the cutting tool is smaller than tapered hole in the spindle
(b) A drill socket
It is used when the hole in the spindle of the drill press is too small for the
taper shank of the drill.The drill is first mounted in the socket and then the
socket is inserted into the drill presses spindles. Drill sockets may also be
used as extension sockets to provide extra length.
7.4.2 Work holding devices
All work pieces must be fastened securely before cutting operations are
performed on a drilling machine. If the work moves or springs during
drilling the drill usually breaks. Serious accidents can be caused by work
during drilling operations. Some of the commonly used work holding
devices used on drill presses are:-
a) A drill vice (machine vice)
May be used to hold round, rectangular, square and odd- shaped pieces
for any operation that can be performed on a drill press. It is a good
practice to clamp or bolt the vice to the drill clamp or bolt the vice
to the drill table when drilling holes over 9.5 mm in a diameter to
provide to a table stop to prevent the vice from swinging during the
drilling operations.
b) Hand vice-used for holding small work for drilling, riveting etc. It
is tightened on work by means of the wing nut. (Diagram Thomas
G.H. page 54, Mathangani page 69)
c) Tool markers clamp-used for holding small pieces of metals where
small diameter drills are used or for assembling, riveting or
screwing
d) Angle vice - Has an angular adjustment on its base to allow
operator drill holes at an angle without tilling the drill press table
e) A Contour vice - has special movable jaws consisting of several
free – moving inter – locking segments which automatically adjust to
the shape of odd shaped work pieces when the vice is tightened . These
vices are valuable when one operation must be performed on many
similar odd- shaped work pieces.
f) Vee – blocks - Made out of cast iron or hardened steel are generally
used in pairsto support round work for drilling. A Vee- shaped
strap may be used to fasten the work in a Vee- block or may be
held with a T- bolt and a strap clamp
g) Step blocks - Are used to provide support for the outer end of the
strap clamps when work is being fastened for drilling or other machines
operations. They are made in various sizes and steps to accommodate
different work height.
h) Angle plate – Is an L - shaped piece of cast iron or hardened steel
machined to an accurate 900 angle. It ismade in a variety of sizes and
has slots or holes which provide a means for fastening work for
drilling. The angle plate may be bolted or clamped to the table.
g) Drill jigs- Are used in production for drilling holes in a large number
of identical parts. They eliminate the need of laying out a hole location,
avoid in correctly located holes and allow holes to be drilled quickly and
accurately.
i) Clamps and straps - Are used to fasten work to the drill table or an
angle plate for drilling. They are made in various sizes. They are usually
supported at the end by a step block and bolted to a table by a T- bolt that
fits into the table T- Slot.
It is a good practice to place the T- bolt in the clamp or strap as
close to the work as possible so that pressure will be exerted on the
work piece. Modifications of these clamps are the double – fingers and
goose neck clamps.
7.5 TWIST DRILLS
Twist drillsare endcutting tools used to produce holes in most types of
materials. On standard drills two helical grooves or flutes are cut length
wise around the body of the drill .They provide the cutting edge and space
for the cuttings to escape during the drilling process.
Since drills areamong the most efficient cutting tools, it is necessary
toknow the main parts, how to sharpen the cutting edges and how to
calculate the correct speeds and feeds for the drilling various metals in
order to use them most efficiently and prolong their life.
7.5.1Twist drill parts
Most twist drills are made of high speed steel (H.S or H.S.S). A drill may
be divided into three main parts namely: - shank, body and point.
a) Shank -Generally drills up to 13 mm in diameter, have straight shanks
while those over this diameter usually have tapered shanks.
Straight shanks drills are held in a drill chuck while tapered shank drills
fit into the internal taper of the drill press spindle.
The tang is used for ejection of the drill.
b) Body-The body is the position of the drill between the shanks and the  Saw - type hole cutter.
point. It consists of a number ofparts important to the efficiency ofcutting
actions. N/B Read and make brief notes

i) Flutes are two or more helical grooves cut around the body of the
drill. They form the cutting edge,admit cutting fluid (coolant) and allow
the chips to escape from the hole.
ii) Land- Is the narrow part of the body left at its full diameter. The
metal behind the land is ground away to give body clearance.
Marking out for drilling
A centre punch mark must be made in order to position the drill. This
mark must be accurate in position and large enough to take the chisel edge
of the drill.

iii) Body clearance- Is the undercut position of the body between the
land(margin) and the flute. It is made smaller to reduce friction between
the drills and reduce friction between the drill and the hole during the
drilling operations.
iv)Web Is the thin partition in the centre of drill which extend the
fuel length of the flutes. This part forms the chisel edge at the cutting
end of the drill. The web gradually increases in thickness towards the
shank to give the drill strength.
c) Point
The point of a twist drill consists of the chisels of the chisels edge, lips,
lip clearance and heel.
DRILLING
Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in the work-piece
by using a rotating cutter called DRILL.
The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine. The drilling
operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which the drill is held
in tailstock and the work is held by the chuck. The most common drill
used is the twist drill.
Drilling Machine
It is the simplest and accurate machine used in production shop.

i) Chisel edge- Is the chisel - shaped portion of the drill point. The work piece is held stationary i.e. Clamped in position and the drill
rotates to make a hole.
ii) The lips-Cutting edgesare formed by the intersection ofthe flutes. The
lips must be of equal length andhave the same angle so that the drill Types
willrun true and will not cut a hole longer than the size of the drill.
1) Based on construction:
iii) Lip clearance -Is the relief ground on the point of the drillextending
from the cutting lip back to the heel. Average lip clearance is from 8o -  Portable
12 0 depending on the hardness or softness of the material to be drilled.  Sensitive,
 Radial,
7.5.2Types of drills  up-right,
 Gang,
A variety of twist drills styles are manufactured to suit specific drilling  Multi-spindle
operation, types and sizes of materials, high production rates and special 2) Based on Feed:
application.
Hand driven
The design of drills may vary in the number and width of the flutes, the
amount of the helix or rake angle of the flutes or the shape of the land/ Power driven
margin

The flutes may be straight or helical and helix may be a right hand or left
hand. Components of drilling machine

Twist drills are manufactured from carbon tool steel, high speed steel and  Spindle-
cemented carbides The spindle holds the drill or cutting tools and revolves in a fixed
position in a sleeve.
The most commonly used drills are:-
 Sleeve
 General purpose drill The sleeve or quill assembly does not revolve but may slide in its
 High helix drills bearing in a direction parallel to its axis. When the sleeve carrying the
 Core drills spindle with a cutting tool is lowered, the cutting tool is fed into the
 Oil hole drills work: and when it’s moved upward, the cutting tool is withdrawn
 Straight fluted dills from the work. Feed pressure applied to the sleeve by hand or power
causes the revolving drill to cut its way into the work a fraction of an
 Deep hole or gun drill
mm per revolution.
 Spade drills
 Hand - steel drills
 Column
 Step - drills
The column is cylindrical in shape and built rugged and solid. The
column supports the head and the sleeve or quill assembly.

 Head
The head of the drilling machine is composed of the sleeve, a spindle,
an electric motor and feed mechanism. The head is bolted to the
column.

 Worktable
The worktable is supported on an arm mounted to the column. The
worktable can be adjusted vertically to accommodate different
heights of work or it can be swung completely out of the way. It may
be tilted up to 90 degree in either direction, to allow long pieces to be
end or angle drilled.

 Base
The base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine and
when bolted to the floor, provides for vibration-free operation and
best machining accuracy. The top of the base is similar to the
2. Up-Right Drilling Machine
worktable and may be equipped with t- slot for mounting work too These are medium heavy duty machines. It specifically differs from
larger for the table. sensitive drill in its weight, rigidity, application of power feed and
wider range of spindle speed.
 Hand Feed
The hand- feed drilling machines are the simplest and most common This machine usually has a gear driven mechanism for different
type of drilling machines in use today. These are light duty machine spindle speed and an automatic or power feed device.
that are operated by the operator, using a feed handled, so that the
operator is able to “feel” the action of the cutting tool as it cuts  Table can move vertically and radially.
through the work piece. These drilling machines can be bench or floor  Drill holes up to 50mm
mounted.

 Power feed
The power feed drilling machine are usually larger and heavier than
the hand feed ones they are equipped with the ability to feed the
cutting tool in to the work automatically, at preset depth of cut per
revolution of the spindle these machines are used in maintenance for
medium duty work or the work that uses large drills that require
power feed larger work pieces are usually clamped directly to the
table or base using t –bolts and clamps by a small work places are
held in a vise. A depth –stop mechanism is located on the head, near
the spindle, to aid in drilling to a precise depth.

1. Sensitive or Bench Drilling Machine

This type is used for very light works. The vertical column carries a
swiveling table the height of which can be adjusted according to the
work piece height.

The table can also be swung to any desired position. At the top of the
column there are two pulleys connected by a belt, one pulley is
mounted on the motor shaft and other on the machine spindle. Fig.2 Up-Right Drilling Machine

Vertical movement to the spindle is given by the feed handle by the 3. Radial Drilling Machine
operator. Operator senses the cutting action so sensitive drilling
machine.
It the largest and most versatile used for drilling medium to large and
heavy work pieces.
 Drill holes from 1.5 to 15mm

Radial drilling machine belong to power feed type.

The column and radial drilling machine supports the radial arm, drill
head and motor.
 Drill fixed to the spindle

Fig. 3 Radial Drilling Machine

Fig. 5 Drill fixed to a spindle

The radial arm slides up and down on the column with the help of
elevating screw provided on the side of the column, which is driven
by a motor.

The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and moves on the guide
ways provided the radial arm can also be swiveled around the
column.

The drill head is equipped with a separate motor to drive the spindle, Tool Nomenclature
which carries the drill bit. A drill head may be moved on the arm
manually or by power.

Feed can be either manual or automatic with reversal mechanism.

Drill Materials

The two most common types are

1. HSS drill

- Low cost

2. Carbide- tipped drills

Fig. 6 Nomenclature of twist drill
- high production and in CNC machines
Tool holding devices

Drilling And Drills The different methods used for holding drill in a drill spindle are:

 By directly fitting in the spindle hole.

Types of drills  By using drill sleeve
– Twist drill: most  By using drill socket
common drill  By using drill chuck
– Step drill:
produces holes
of two or more
different
diameters
– Core drill: used
to make an
existing hole
bigger
 .

Counter Bore

This operation uses a pilot to guide the cutting action to

accommodate the heads of bolts. Fig. 10 illustrates the counter
boring, countersunk and spot facing processes.

Countersink
Drilling operations
Special angled cone shaped enlargement at the end of the hole to
accommodate the screws. Cone angles of 60°, 82°, 90°, 100°, 110°,
Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are
120°

 Drilling
 Reaming
 Boring
 Counter boring
 Countersinking
 Tapping

Drilling: It is an operation by which holes are produced in solid metal

by means of revolving tool called ‘Drill’.
Fig. 10 Counter boring, countersunk and spot facing

Reaming:

Reaming is accurate way of sizing and finishing the pre-existing hole.

Multi tooth cutting tool. Accuracy of ±0.005mm can be achieved Tapping:

Tapping is the process by which internal threads are formed. It is

performed either by hand or by machine. Minor diameter of the
Boring: thread is drilled and then tapping is done.

Boring is a process of enlarging an existing hole by a single point

cutting tool. Boring operation is often preferred because we can
correct hole size, or alignment and can produce smooth finish. Boring
tool is held in the boring bar which has the shank. Accuracy of
±0.005mm can be achieved.
 5. Angles
Angle plates are made in a 90°angle with slots and bolt holes for
securing work to the table.

6. Jigs
The jig guides the drill through a bushing to locate and drill holes
accurately.

7. T- Slots Bolt
These are special bolts which has a T shaped head, which slides into
the T slots of drilling machine work table.

Definitions

1. Cutting Speed (v):-

Fig. 11 Hand taps and tapping process using tap wrench
It’s the peripheral speed of the drill. The cutting speed depends upon
Work Holding Devices the properties of the material being drilled, drill material, drill
diameter, rate of speed, coolant used etc…
1. Machine Table Vice
The machine vice is equipped with jaws which clamps the work piece.
v = P*D*N where
The vice can be bolted to the drilling table or the tail can be swung
around swung around. The swivel vice is a machine wise that can be D = dia of the drill in m
swivel through 360° on a horizontal plane.
N = Speed of rotation in rpm

2. Feed Rate (f):-

It’s the movement of drill along the axis (rpm)

3. Depth of Cut (d):-

The distance from the machined surface to the drill axis .

d=D/2

As the depth of hole increases, the chip ejection becomes more

2. Step Blocks difficult and the fresh cutting fluid is not able to cutting zone. Hence
These are built to allow height adjustment for mounting the drilling
for machining the lengthy hole special type of drill called ‘gun drill’ is
jobs and are used with strap clamps and long T-slot bolts.
used.
3. Clamps
4. Material Removal Rate:-
These are small, portable vices , which bears against the work piece
and holding devices. Common types of clamps are C-clamp, Parallel
It’s the volume of material removed by the drill per unit time
clamp, machine strap clamp, U-clamp etc..

MRR = (P D2 / 4) * f * N mm3 / min

Fig. 14 shows the correct and incorrect methods of mounting the
work piece.
5. Machining Time (T)

It depends upon the length (l) of the hole to be drilled, to the Speed
(N) and feed (f) of the drill

t = L / f N min

Precautions for Drilling machine

 Lubrication is important to remove heat and friction.

 Machines should be cleaned after use
 Chips should be removed using brush.
 T-slots, grooves, spindles sleeves, belts, and pulley
should be cleaned.
 Machines should be lightly oiled to prevent from
4. V-Blocks rusting
These are designed to hold round work pieces.
Safety Precautions 13. What is countersinking?
14. What is the purpose of tapping operation?
 Do not support the work piece by hand – use work 15. Name some work holding devices?
holding device. Part – B
 Use brush to clean the chip
 No adjustments while the machine is operating 1. Explain with neat sketch the salient features of radial
 Ensure for the cutting tools running straight before drilling machine?
starting the operation. 2. Draw and explain the working principle of upright drilling
 Never place tools on the drilling table machine?
 Avoid loose clothing and protect the eyes. 3. With neat sketch describe the nomenclature of twist drill?
 Ease the feed if drill breaks inside the work piece. 4. Discuss is detail with diagram the various operations that
Problems can be performed in drilling machine

1. Calculate the speed of the drill bit to drill a hole of dia

7.3 SAFE WORKING HABITS IN DRILLING
20mm where the cutting speed is 25mts/min.

Safety Precautions
N [rpm] = (π * D *N)/1000
i. Use goggles whendrilling and when grinding drills
= (25 * 1000) / (π * 20) ii. Do not use excessive pressure when feeding the drill
iii. Make sure the work is clamped securely
= 397.8rpm iv. Make sure the drill bit is held squarely
v. When about to break through reducefeed pressure.
2. The dia of one end of a taper plug is 150mm and dia of the
other end is 80mm and the length is 300mm. Calculate its 7.4 LUBRICANTS AND COOLANTS
taper.
Taper per mm = (D-d)/L They cool the work, reduce expansion and hence permit higher cutting
speeds. They help washing away the swarf from the cutting point. They
= (150-80)/ 300 lubricate the surface between the toolface and work and between the
chip and tool and this improve the work finish and this increases life of
= 0.233mm the cutting edges and reduces power consumption. They can prevent
corrosion of the finished work.
3. The dia of one end of a taper plug is 150mm and dia of the
other end is 80mm and the length is 300mm. Calculate its Soluble oils or suds are common cutting fluidswhich combine good
taper angle. cooling and lubrication qualities. There are however some metals that can
Tan α/2= (D-d)/2 L be drilled dry and these are copper, brass and cast iron. Care should be
taken to prevent the drills overheating. Intermittent withdrawal when
= (150-80)/ 2*300 working on these metals will help in cooling the drills.

= 6.65° 7.5 CUTTING SPEED:

4. Calculate the spindle speed of a drilling machine when The speed of twist drill is generally referred to as cutting speed, surface
given the following information:
speed or peripheral speed. Itis the distance that a point on the
 Drilling cast iron at a cutting speed of 60 m/min
 Drill size being 15mm diameter circumference of a drill will travel in one minute. A wide range of drills
 π =3.142 and drill sizes is used to cut various metals: an equally wide range of
Solution speeds is required for the drill to cut efficiency. For every job, there is a
N = (1000×60) / (3.142×15) problem of choosing the drill speed which will results in the best
production rates and the least amount of down time forregrinding the drill.
= 1273 revs/min
The most economical drilling speeds depend upon many variables such
Review Questions: as:-

Part – A 1. Type and hardness of the material

2. Diameter and material of the drill
1. What is meant by drilling? 3. Depth of the hole
2. Which tool is commonly used for drilling? 4. Type and condition of drip press
3. Name the different types of drilling machine? 5. Efficiency ofthe cutting fluid employed
4. What is meant by hand feed? 6. The accuracy andquality of the hole required
5. What is meant by power feed?
7. The rigidity of work setup.
6. What are the salient features of radial drilling machine?
7. What are the different ways to mount the drilling tool?
8. Name the different types of drilling operations? N/ B Type of work materials and diameter of the drill are the most
9. What is meant by reaming? important.
10. What is boring?
11. What is the difference between reaming and boring?
12. What is counter boring?
The number of revolutions of the drill necessary to attain the 1. a) State four safety precautions to be observed when drilling
propercutting speedfor metalbeing machined is called the revolutions per (4mark)
minute (r/ min)
b) Illustrate the features of a twist drill
To determine the correct number of r/min of a drill press spindle for a (4marks)
given size drill, the following should be known.
c) Describe any two work holding devices used when drilling
1. Type of material to be drilled. (4marks)
2. The recommend cutting speed of materials.
3. The type of materials from which the drill is made. 2. a) list five types of drilling machines
(5marks)
Formula (Metric) b) A through hole of diameter 15mm is to be drilled on a work
piece of
R/min= C S (metres) thickness of 20 mm.Given that the drill bit rotates at 2100
r.p.m.Calculate:
D (mm) i the cutting speed
ii time taken to drill the hole if the feed rate is 0.02mm per
Where C S = recommended cutting speed in meters per minute for second (10marks)
material being drilled.
CHAPTER EIGHT: GRINDING:
D= Diameter of drill being used
Grinders are used for the removal of waste metal and the sharpening of
= 3.1416=22/ 7 small tools. Some are electronic while others are power grinders. Others
are pneumatic.
It is necessary to convert the meters in the numerator to millimeters so
that both parts of equation are in the same unit. To accomplish this 8.1Types of grinders
multiply the C S in meters per minute by 1000 to bring it to millimeter per
minute.  of hand grinders
 Bench model
r/m = CS x 1000  Pedestal (or floor) models.

D 8.2 Grinding wheels

Example 1 The following details have to be specified when ordering grinding wheels

Calculate the r/m required to drill a 7mm hole in cast iron at a cutting - Shape
speed of 80m with a high speed drill. - Diameter
- Width
Answer - Arbor hole size
- Abrasive materials
R/m = CS x 1000 =80x1000mm - Grain or grit size
- Grade
22
D /7 x 7mm - Bond
a) Shape -for ordinary tool grinding purposes, a plain wheel is
=3636.4r/m used but if much grinding is to be done on the side of the
wheel then a plain cup wheel is better. A wide range of shaped
Example2
wheels is available for special work.
b) Diameter-refers to the outside diameter of the wheel which for
A hole of diameter 15mmis to be drilled on work piece with a drill bit
ordinary off- hand grinding may be from 150 to300mm.
rotating at 2800 revolutions per minutes.
c) Width is the measure of the thickness of the wheel.
22 d) Arbor holesize-Isthe diameter of the hole thatruns throughthe lead
Taking as /7 Calculate the drill cutting speed.
bush. For some sizes ofthe wheel two or more arbor hole diameters
are offered.
Answer

For one particular grinder no change must be made from theoriginal

R/m= CS x 1000Therefore CS=RM xD
design. The lead bush inthe centre must not be turned out to suit a larger
D 1000 arbor neither must a wheel be mounted which has an arborhole larger than
the spindle diameter. If this were done, it would be quite easy for the
=2800x22x15 =132 metres. balance to move andbecome out of balance with the possibility of
subsequent breakage.
1000x7
e) Abrasive material or grit- is the element in the stone that does the
7.6 SAMPLE QUESTIONS actual cutting. The sharp particles of the abrasive project beyond the
face of the bond producing a series of cutting edges. An examination
 with a magnifying glass of the small cuttings of metal taken off by
the wheel will show that they differ very little from cuttings
produced by edge tools
When a stone becomes glazed, the abrasive projections becomeblunted.
When the stone is used for grindingunsuitable material, the small spaces
between the particles of abrasive becomefilled up with materials being
ground. (Compare file pinning)
The stone then needs to be dressed. There are two kinds of abrasive in
common use:-
1. Aluminum oxide- used for grinding high tensile materials e.g. tool
steels
2. Silicon carbide – Used forgrinding low tensile and non- ferrous
metals for grinding cementedcarbide tools a special grit is used
with vitrified bond.
(Diagram Thomas G.H. page 152)
f) Grain or grit size-The size of the abrasive grains determines the
coarseness or fineness of the grinding wheel. The grain is graded
by means of screens or sieves and the grain size is denoted by a
number, which is equal to the number of the holes per 252 mm of
sieve e.g. 10= very coarse and 150 = very fine. The size of the holes
in sieve is measured in microns.
c) Grade-denotes the strength with which the bond holds the
grit in place. The grade is indicated by the letters of the
alphabet, soft wheels having letters at the beginning of the
alphabet and very hard wheel at the end of the alphabet.
d) Bond- Is the material or matrix that holds the grit together. It
may be one of thefollowing types:-
-Vitrified
- Silicate
-Rubber
-Shellac
- Synthetics resin.
A vitrified bond is the one commonly used for wheels for tool sharpening
Soft Wheels i.e. softbond - The grit readily breaks away under grinding
pressure, thus exposing fresh grit. Used for grinding hard materials.
Hard wheels i.e.hard bond – The grit is retained under grinding soft
materials.
The combination of bond and grit should be such that the grit breaks away
when blunted under the pressure of cutting,thus exposing afresh layerof
sharp grit. If a stone is used for cutting the wrong material, it will either
become blunt i.e. the grit loses itsharpness, or become
glazed.i.e.Particlesof the ground metal stick between the grit of the wheel.
If either of thesethings happens or if the wheel becomes worn out of the
shape, then dressing of the wheel is necessary.
8.3 Dressing
For efficient cutting the wheel must be free of glaze, run true and have a
flat face. To maintain this condition frequent dressing is necessary with a
wheel dresser, which may be one of the three types:-
 Huntington or star wheel dressers. Itconsists of a set of star
shaped wheels and washers which are replaceable when worn.
The complete unit is relatively cheap.
 The diamond – dresser consists of an industrial diamond
brazed into a steel body. This tool is comparatively expensive
but long lasting. It is usually used for truing the wheels of
precision grinders.
 The coarse abrasive stick is a cheap method.
In use dressers are held firmly on the toolrest and in contact with the
wheel while it is rotating. Goggles must be worn and preferably some
nose and mouth covering as well. Cuts are taken over the wheel face of
the wheelrestored or a fresh layer of sharp grit exposed. Mounting of the
Huntington dresser is as shown with the tool restmoved away from the
stone to allow the step of the dresser to move in contact with it.
(Diagram, THOMAS G.H. page 154)
8.4 MOUNTING A WHEEL
Several precautions are necessary before mounting:-
1. Examine for any obvious surface defects.
2. Test the wheel for cracks by suspending by its centre and
tapping with a light bar. A clear ring (sound) indicates a
flawless wheel, whilst a dull sound indicates a flaw. The wheel
will have been factory tested but damage is always possible
during delivery.
3. Examine the lead bush for burrs and for fit on the machine
spindle. It should be an easy sliding fit. Do not force it on if
too tight but ease the bush to a fit with a bearing (half round)
scraper.
4. After mounting, run the wheel for some minutes withoutload
5. and without standing near. If the wheel has an undetected
flaw it will disintegrate during the early stages of running.
 Wheel: Thickness, diameter, grit and bond varying
according to the type of the work.
 Collars or Flanges: should be of equal diameter machines
true and on outside diameter equal to half the diameter of
the wheel. The inside surface are slightly recessed to reduce
thebearing surfaces. The inner flange is keyed to the
spindle.
 Washers: of the cord or paper. Usually supplied attached to
the wheel reduces the harshness of grip between flanges and
wheel.
 Lead bush: Integral with the wheel and on easy fit on the
spindle.
 Spindle:Screwed with a right hand thread on the right of the
machine and a left –hand thread on the left in order to
prevent the tendency to unscrew under rotation.
(DIAGRAM Thomas G.H.page 155)
8.5 AIDS TO CORRECT GRINDING
Because of the abrasive nature of the dust thrown off by grinding, the
machines should be fitted well away from other machine tools. If possible
the whole face of the wheel should be used in order to maintain its
flatness and prevent uneven wear.
The face and not the side of the wheel should be used because the wheel
is best able to withstand the cutting stresses on its face rather than its side.
If the curvature produced by the face of the wheel is too great and reduces
 the efficiency of the tool, then a light finish grinding on the side of the vii.
wheel is permissible.
Dipping the tool in water to cool it should be avoided. The alternate
heating and cooling causes fine hair cracks to develop on the surface of
the tool. Break down of the tool follows.
Goggles should be worn unless the machine is provided with an eyeviii.
shield or fixed visor.
The tool rest must be adjusted so that it is close enough to the wheel to
prevent work being trapped between wheel and the tool rest. ix.
The rest should be used to support tools when possible, the rest being
tilted at an angle for full support if necessary. For off-hand grinding the x.
tool is held firmly in contact with the rest in such a position that the stone
runs away from the cutting edge, thus giving maximum tool strength. xi.
(Diagrams, Thomas page 156)
8.6 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. a) State any five specifications considered when purchasing a
grinding wheel (5marks)
b) With the aid of a diagram ,explain the mounting procedure of a
grinding wheel
On a machine spindle
(15 marks)
2. State any five safety precautions to be observed when using a bench
grinder (5marks)
CHAPTER NINE: POWER CUTTING TOOLS
9.1THE CENTRE LATHE
9.1.1 Introduction
A lathe is a machine tool used for turning, the metal being held and
rotated while a cutter is moved across or along it.It is general purpose
lathe. It can vary in size and complexity but the most useful kind is the
sliding, surfacing and screw cuttinglathe. The English lathe was specified
by the height of the centre from the bed. A lathe specified as
150mmx1metre has a bed one metre long and the centre is 150mm above
the bed.
(Diagram, Thomas page 163)
9.1.2Parts of the lathe
(Diagram, Thomas G.H.page 164)
i. Bed-is a casting, supported on rigid legs and very accurately
machined on top faces.
ii. Gap bed-many lathes are provided with a gap in the bed at the
headstock end to accommodate work that is short in length and larger
in diameter that can be swung over the bed.
iii. The rack-is fitted to the underside of the bed front. The carriage
handle and spindle are linked to the rack by gears so that when the
handle is turned the carriage moves along the bed.
iv. The head stock-is the casting fixed to the left hand end of the bed.
Through it passes a hollow spindle supported on substantial bearings.
The spindle is hollow so that long bars can be passed right through it
for machining.
v. The carriage-is a casting machined on the underside to fit the bed
and along with it slides. Fixed to the front of the carriage is the apron,
behind which lies the mechanism for controlling the movement of the
carriage and the cross slide.
vi. The cross slide-is mounted on the carriage and can be moved at right
angles to the bed by means of a handle wheel at the front. The hand
wheel may be graduated on its rim, a movement of one graduation
giving a tool advance of 0.02mm.
Compound slide or top slide-mounted on the cross slide. It is
located by a heavy dowel pin, on which it swivels. The top of the
cross slide is marked in degrees so that the compound slide can be
turned and locked at any desired angle. The cutting tool, when fed by
the compound slide handle will then move at a corresponding angle,
thus allowing short tapers to be machined.
Tailstock or headstock-this is a casting that can be moved along the
bed and locked in any desired position by means of a locking nut or
lever.
Lead screw and feed shaft-running the length of bed is the lead
screw, a threaded rod which can be turned at different speeds by
means of a gear box or gear train.
Change wheels-the circular movement of the headstock spindle is
transmitted to the lead screw through a set of gear wheels.
Tumbler gears-enable the direction of rotation of the lead screw
andfeed shaft to be altered, this in turn will, change the direction of
travel of the carriage when working on automatic feed.
9.1.3 Lathe tools
a. Solid tools-are made throughout in one material, either high
carbon steel or H.S.S
b. Butt brazed or butt welded tools-made by brazing or welding a
piece of H.S.S to a high tensile steel shank.
c. Tipped tools-have a tip of cemented carbide etc. brazed to a
blank of high tensile steel. They are very economical.
d. Tool bits-fit in special holder that grips the tool at an angle of
150.this provides easy height adjustment.
9.1.4 Tool angles
The angles ground on a lathe tool to give the necessary shape for efficient
cutting will depend on:-
1) Hardness of metal being cut
2) The rigidity of lathe
3) The amount of metal to be removed
4) The quality of finish required.
A large tool angle
1) Gives maximum strength
2) Helps heat dissipation
3) Increase the power needed to force the tool into the work
A small tool angle
1) Weakens the cutting edge
2) Gives a good finish
3) Gives little tearing
4) Gives easy cutting.
The harder and tougher the material to be turned, the more difficult it will
be for the cutting edge of the tool to penetrate the metal and, at the same
time, retain its sharpness. Consequently, the harder the metal, the greater
the tool angle must be.
The tool angle –is formed by the top and front faces of the tool. It is fixed
by the size of the rake and the clearance angles.
Top or front rake –is the angle between a horizontal line and the top face
of the tool.
Side rake –is the side slope given to the top face of the tool. The size of
the angle is dependent on the hardness of metals, the depth of cut, feed
used and finish needed. In general the angle will be small for hard metals
and will increase as the hardness of metals decreases.
Front clearance-is the angle formed by the front of the tool and the line
at right angles to the base. The front clearance is reduced to a minimum
for hard materials and large diameters. For soft metals and small
diameters the clearance is increased.
Side clearance-is the angle at the cutting side or leading face of the tool.
Coarse feeds needs more clearance than fine feeds, but at the same time,
the tool becomes weaker.
9.2 Shaper (a) Welding machine- Is an electrical machine that steps up voltage
N/b Read and makes notes needed for welding. Positive current is connected to an electrode holder.
A standard AC or DC welding machine can be used to supply current to
the weld. The choice of a DC or an AC machine depends on the weld
characteristics that may be required.
9.3 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Electrode holder = an arrangement that enables the welder to hold the
1. Explain the functions of the following cutting tool angle: electrode when welding. It has an insulated handle which prevents the
a) Clearance hands from getting hot due to conducting heat and also prevents any
b) Rake (4marks) likelihood of electric shock. Especially when working in damp places.
2. With the aid of a sketch describe the lathe tool cutting angles
(4marks) Diagram

CHAPTER TEN: WORKSHOP PROCESSES On the name plate there is:-

10. ELECTRICAL ARC WELDING
i Name of the welder
10.1 Introduction ii Manufacturers of the welder
iii Information on inputs and outputs
Welding - is defined as a technique of joining metals by heat with or (b) Wire brush – For cleaning the work from stains, rusts etc.
without application of pressure and with or without filler materials. Filler
materials are also called electrodes. (c) Chipping Hammer - For removing slugs

Arc Welding i.e. welding with the use of electricity as the source of (d) Tongs – for manipulating hot pieces of metal
heat. Electricity is:-
(e) Welding table - working surface sometimes filled with sand.
i Flow of electrons
ii Flow of Current (f) Fire extinguishers - To put off the fire when the need arises.
iii Form of energy heat, light etc.
The force or pressure of electricity can be measured by the Volts. (g) Welding rods /electrodes - Metallic electrodes are made in various
(Units of electricity) The instrument that measures volts is called lengths from 200mm to 400 mm and ranges in sizes from 2mm to 8mm in
Voltmeter. diameter. Their composition depends entirely upon the work upon which
they are required e.g. mild steel, cast iron, bronze, hard surfacing etc.
The movement of these electrons is called Current. This is measured in
Amperes and the instrument used to measure electric current is called B) PERSONAL EQUIPMENTS
an ammeter.
1. Apron - Made of leather that will prevent you from burning.
These current moves through good conductors of electricity. Materials 2. Hand shield and helmet –Hand shield is held in hand and head
that do not conduct electricity are called insulators e.g. Rubbers, Wood. helmet is worn on the head. They have lenses that prevent bright
Etc. light from damaging your eyes or preventing you seeing the work.
NB: Occasional accidental exposure to thedirect rays may result in a
Metals that conduct electricity give resistance to the flow of current. condition known as Arc flash. This causes no permanent damage
Insulator gives more resistance. The resistance to flow of current is but is painful with a feeling of sand in the eye accompanied by
measured in ohms. The meters used to measure resistance is called watering. Bathing the eye with eye lotion and wearing dark glasses
ohmmeters. reduces the discomfort and the condition passes with no adverse
effects in 12 to 24 hours. If it persists, consult a doctor.
A Circuit - Is the path taken by the flow of electrons. The source is a 3. Gloves and Apron – made of leather and protect your hands from
generator and flows through the wires. heat and infra-redlight. Also prevents personal clothes against
sparks and molten metal.
Generator - Is a machine that converts mechanical energy into 4. Goggles – Prevent the chips entering your eyes when chipping or
electrical energy. grinding
5. Welding box - contains necessary tools for welding.
Types of circuits 6. Sturdy Boots, Leggers and leather boots –protects your legs and
feet from heat and sharp objects in the workshop.
i. Open Circuits - When switches is opened.
ii. Close circuits – When switches is closed 10.3 PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING
iii. Short circuits – If the positive and negative wires are
connected before reaching an appliance. To keep the Electric arc welding method is based on the fact that as electricity passes
application safe from short circuit we have a Fuse or through a gap from one electric conductor to another a very intense and
Contact breakers. concentrated heat is produced .The temperature of the arc is usually about
10.2WELDING EQUIPMENT 3750 0 Celsius. Both the alternating current and direct currents are used in
arc welding.
a) Shop equipment
b) Personal equipment Electric arc welding can therefore be defined as a group of welding
A) SHOP EQUIPMENT processes where fusion is produced by electric heating with an electric arc
 with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of Have a heavy coating of several chemical coating bonded together with
filler rod. To make a good weld the welder must be concerned with the sodium silicates. Each coating serves a particular function but in general
following:- they:-
Functions of electrode coatings
i Welding machine and circuits i Provides a protective shield of gas around the arc and the molten
ii Electrode types and diameters metal thereby preventing oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere
iii Arc and manipulations entering the weld.
ii Make the arc stable and easy to control (stabilize the work)
10.4 SAFETY IN ARC WELDING iii Provide protective slag which also reduces the cooling rate of the
weld metal and thus reducing brittleness due to chilling.
A) Individual safety in arc welding iv Help to control the size and frequency of the droplets of the weld
metal.
 The arc holder is well insulated v It enables different positions to be welded.
 Use of hand shield and head helmet vi The coatings supplies salts which provides ionized particles to assist
 Use of apron, gloves and leggers in re-ignition of the A.C. arc.
 Use of leather boots with stout soles vii The slag formed float out impurities out of the molten metal.
viii To replenish any deficiency caused by oxidation of certain elements
B) Safety of other people in arc welding from the weld poolduring welding and to ensure the weld has
satisfactory mechanical properties.
 Use of welding booths
 Use a well-ventilated room MATERIALS USED FOR ELECTRODE COATING
 Label hot pieces or cool them immediately Materials used in electrode coating includes: - rutile, calcium carbonates,
 Follow warnings and precautions fluorspar, solca-floc, felsper, ball clay, iron powder, ferro-
manganeese,micaand sodium alginate.
10.5WELDING ELECTRODE
Storage of electrodes
An electrode is a metal rod having approximated the same composition as
the metal to be welded referred to as base metal or parent metal. The coating of the electrode is somewhat porous and absorbsmoisture.
The moisture could be excludedby providing a non-porous covering when
When a current is produced by a generator or from a transformer and the storing electrodes because any moisture entrapped could be liable to cause
current flows to the electrode an arc is formed between the end of rupture of the coating when moisture is turned into steam by the heating
electrode and the work. The molten metal of the electrode flows into effects of the current through the electrode.
molten crater of base metal and forms a bonding between the two pieces
of metal being joined. Current is normally set depending on the diameters Low hydrogen or hydrogen controlled electrodes should be stored
of the electrodes as follows:- whenever possible in an oven in order to exclude any moisture and
absorption of hydrogen into the metal weld.
Diameter of electrode current setting
ELECTRODES CLASSICATION AND COATING.
1.5 mm 30 – 50 Amperes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2.0 50 - 65 A
E 5133 B 160 2 0 H
2.5 65 – 80 A
E = covered electrode for manual metal arc electrode
3.5 80 – 120 A
51 = tensile strength and yield stress
4.0 120 – 150 A
33 = elongation – how much the electrode can withstand stress while
6.1 150 – 300 A elongating

We have two types of electrodes:- B = electrode covering e.g. rutile, iron powder, etc.

i. Bare electrodes 160 = efficiency of electrode

ii. Coated electrode
2 = welding position e.g. flat, horizontal, vertical, overhead.
i Bare electrodes:
0 = current and voltage indicating whether A.C.or D.C.
Have no coating and sticks on work. Their use on welding is limited
because such electrodes are difficult to deal with and produce brittle H = hydrogen controlled or not
welds with low tensile strength. Tensile strength – It is the ability of
metals to bend without breaking. 10.6 WELDING PRACTICES:

ii Coated electrode: 1) Select the electrodes depending on:-

 Diameter of work to be done
  Composition of work e.g. stainless steel, cast iron etc.
2) Set the current depending on the size of electrode chosen
3) Strike the arc. In welding you start by striking the arc. There are
several methods:-
i. Tapping method – Tap the work and raise
ii. Scratching - like striking the matchbox
metal as the electrode or filler rod melts.
7. Crater - depressing in the base metal laid by the arc/ or pressure / as
the electrode comes in contact with base metal.
8. Penetration – depth of fusion with the base metal.

The gap between the work and position you raise is known as Arc gap 9. Joints – position of two or more members to be joined.
and will depend on the diameter of electrode used.

4) The electrode should be tilted about 100 from the vertical along the
distance you travel 10.8 WELD JOINT DESIGN
5) The welding speed depends on practices but you should weld until
the metal start becoming molten and then move a distance of about Joint design is greatly influenced by the:-
2mm.this procedure is repeated until you reach the end. The angle
and arc length must be maintained. a) Accessibility of the weld
b) Adaptability of the products being designed or welded
N/B Make sure the metal is molten and slag formed. c) Type of loading a weld is supposed to withstand.
The five basic type of welding joint designs are butt (fillet), lap, Edge
Diagram and Corner

The current is well set so that we can avoid and overlap. If overlap 10.9 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
occurs, there would be no good penetration of heat.
1. a)Explain the meaning of the following markings on an arc welding
Diagram electrode:E6013 (4marks)

If the current is too high, there would be an undercutting and the bead b) State four factors that determine the quality of an arc welded joint
would be flattish. (4marks)

Diagram c) Outline any five functions of the coating on an arc welding electrode
(4marks)
6) Running the bead. A beginner should start welding by running a
series of beads until a sense of fusion and bead control is achieved. 2. With the aid of a diagrams describe the four arc welding positions
This exercise is done on a plain plate before picking a joint to (12marks)
weld. 3. Illustrate the following arc welded joints:
7) Testing the weld: Pick the metal up with a pair of pliers and clamp a) Tack
it in a vice with the weld parallel to the top of the jaws. Strike the b) Lap
joint with the hammer bending against the weld. This test should c) Fillet
be made so that the underside of bottom of weld is put in tensile d) Single V-butt (8marks)
and the top in compression. Hammer the metal until the joint has 4. With the aid of a diagram, explain the principle of manual metal arc
been bent to an angle of 900 – 1800. If the fusion has been correct, welding (15marks)
no cracks will show in the welded point. 5. a) State any five factors to be considered when selecting an arc
welding electrode (5marks)
10.7BASIC WELDING TERMS:
b) Outline any five techniques of controlling metal distortion in
1. Welding position – Location of pieces to be welded. The four main manual metal arc welding (5marks)
positions are:-
c) State any five safety precautions to be observed in manual metal arc
 Horizontal welding shop (5marks)
 Flat
 Overhead 6. a) illustrate any five types of fusion welded joint
 vertical (5marks)
2. Thin Metal rod – Electrode coated with special substances and used as b) Illustrate the layout of manual arc welding equipment
filler to join the metals to be welded. (5marks)
c) Describe the process of welding using the equipments in 6b) above
3.Base metal or parent metal– Metals to be welded. (5marks)
7. a) State any four causes of arc blow in electric arc welding
4. Bead – Narrow layer or layers of metal deposited on base metal as the (4marks)
electrode or filler rod melts.
b) Describe two types of electric welding arcs (6marks)
5. Ripple – Shape of deposited bead caused by movement of the rod.
c) Explain four types of costs incurred in arc welding (10marks)
6. Pass – Each layer or layers of metal deposited on base
8. a) Explain the meaning of the following coding on an arc welding reduced to about 0.06N/mm2 or under according to the work done.
electrode E7010 (3marks) Oxygen will be utilized faster than acetylene because of higher operating
pressures.
b) With the aid of a diagram, describe the principle of shielding
metal arc in a welding process. (4marks) Since grease and oils can catch fire spontaneously when in contact with
pure oxygen under pressures, they must never be used upon any account
on any part of the apparatus.

Since pressure of the gas will vary with temperature all oxygen cylinders
are equipped with a safety nut that permits the oxygen to drain slowly in
the event of temperature increase beyond that of the cylinder to avoid
explosion.

CHAPTER ELEVEN:GAS WELDING

Differences between acetylene and oxygen gases and apparatus
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
Acetylene
11.1 INTRODUCTION oxygen

Principles of gas welding i Fuel for combustion -

supports combustion
Gas welding is normally done by a mixture of oxygen and acetylene ii Colorless gas with a nauseating odour -colourless and
(02+C2H2). When the two gases are mixed in appropriate proportions and ordourless gas
ignited, a frame with a temperature of about 32000celcius is produced iii Cylinder maroon (dark red) in colour -cylinder blue or
.This heat is sufficient to melt steel and cast iron up to 7mm thickness. black in colour
With a cutting attachment assembled, this mixture of gases is also suitable iv Cylinder short in height -
for cutting steel up to 50 mm thickness. The gas is also suitable for cylinder tall and smaller in diameter
soldering and brazing. v Threads made anticlockwise -threads made
clockwise
11.2 OXY-ACETYLENE ACCESSORIES vi The gauges works at lower pressures -the gauges works
at higher pressures
1. ACETYLENE CYLINDERS vii They have a safety plug in case of burning -have no safety
pressures
Acetylene gas is colorless gas with a very distinctive nauseating oduors Or increased pressures
and is highly combustible when mixed with oxygen.it is packed in a
cylinder that isalways dark red (maroon) in colour with threads cut 3. THE REGULATORS –they control the amount of gases to that
leftwards (anticlockwise).the cylinder is short and stout compared with required at the welding torch.
oxygen cylinder. 4. FLASHBACK ARRESTERS –devices used to avoid fire from
2
going through the hoses to the cylinder. Mainly used on acetylene
The acetylene cylinders have pressures of about 1.5 N/MM or 15 bars. A
pipes. They may not be found on portable systems.
typical capacity being 5700 litres. The acetylene gas however is unstable
5. HOSES –they convey gases from the cylinders to the welding
when compressed to high pressures and because of these, it is combined
torch.
in bottles dissolved in a chemical called acetone hence the name dissolved
6. WELDING TORCH (BLOW PIPE)
acetylene. The acetone is contained in a porous spongy material such as
charcoal, asbestos, kapok or other such materials. Acetone can absorb 25 The torch is simply a mixing device to supply approximately equal
times it own volume of acetylene at normal temperatures and pressures. volumes of oxygen and acetylene to the nozzles and is fitted with control
valves to vary the pressures of the gas required.
The cylinder is equipped with a regulator to reduce the pressure to 0.013-
0.015 or 0.13-0.15 bars as required at the torch or blowpipe. Another very useful type of the torch is the combined welding blowpipe
and a metal cutting torch. The shank is arranged so that a full range of
The cylinder valve is operated by means of a T-wrench or spindle key.
nozzles or a cutting head can be fitted.
This valve should not be opened more than11/2 times. Slight opening is
always advisable since it permits closing the valve in case of an 7. WELDING TIPS (NOZZLES)
emergency.
The welding tips are fitted in the torch.in the tips the oxygen and
2. OXYGEN CYLINDER: acetylene gases are already mixed. The tips are in different sizes with
different bores .the capacity of the tip is measured in litres per minute or
The oxygen gas is supplied in solid drawn steel cylinders at a pressure of
cubic feet per hour.
17.2N/mm2 or 172 bars.The cylinders are rated according to the amount
of gas they contain, 8500 Littres 8.5m3 being the usual size. The oxygen Factors for selection of the welding tips
cylinder is provided with a valve threaded right hand (clockwise) and is
painted blue or black in colour.it has a regulator to adjust the pressures to i Amount of heat required
that required at the torch or blowpipe. During welding the pressures are
 ii Gauge /thickness of material to be welded. The smaller the gauge the v Avoid sharp bends to ensure free flow of gases from cylinder
smaller the nozzle because less gas and less heat is needed and vice to torch.
versa. vi Ensure the hoses are leak free.
iii Operating speed C. PERSONAL SAFETY
iv Melting point of the material welded i Wear safety boots or leather shoes with stout soles
v Welding technique i.e. rightward technique requires more heat than ii Use a welding goggle for eye protection
leftward technique. iii Use hand gloves for hand protection
iv Use a head helmet for head protection
If a big sized diameter of a nozzle is used for a thin piece of metal, the v Use jigs and fixtures to hold the work piece in position
following problems may occur:- vi Make sure the floor is free from oils and greases
vii Avoid welding near inflammable materials or liquids
i The material may melt viii Fire extinguishers should be within reach for use in case of
ii Un uniform weld joint accidental fires
iii Excessive us of filler rod ix Use protective clothing such as overalls and dust coats
iv Wastage of gas x When lighting the torch, make sure it points away from you or
v Poor joint due to undercutting from any other person near you.
vi Low pressure giving flashbacks(explosions) xi When welding the spindle key should always be left on the
acetylene cylinder valve for ease of closing down the acetylene
Alternatively the use of too large a nozzle while cutting down the supply gas in case of fires.
of gas at the needle valve instead of changing the nozzle for a smaller one xii Place hot metals in a safe place preferably labeled with a
is noticed because of explosions that occurs at the nozzle when welding. warning or cool it immediately
xiii Have a controlled flame to avoid excessive sparks. This will
These explosions indicates too low a pressure for the nozzle in use also avoid backfiring.
.attempts to weld too great a thickness of metal with a certain nozzle will xiv Switch of the flame when not in use.
be indicated as one attempts to increase the pressure of the gases beyond a
certain point to obtain a sufficiently powerful flame. The flame leaves the 11.4 LIGHTING THE GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT
end of the nozzle at high pressure and results in a hard noisy flame.
i. Crack the cylinders by opening the cylinder valve and closing it
11.3 SAFETY REGULATIONS FOR OXY-ACETYLENE GAS suddenly
WELD ii. Connect the regulators. The oxygen regulator and the acetylene
A. HANDLING CYLINDERS regulators together with their hoses
i. Never use the valve protector cap far lifting the cylinders. iii. Select the correct welding tips suitable for the work and connect the
ii. Do not allow the cylinders to lie in an horizontal position tip on the torch
iii. Never permit grease or oil to come into contact with oxygen iv. Slowly open the spindle valve on the cylinders. Acetylene spindle
valves. Although oxygen in itself is non-flammable, if it’s allowed valve opened about 11/2times
to come into contact with any flammable material it will quickly v. Slowly open the acetylene needle valve on the torch and turn the
aid combustion. acetylene regulators until the low pressure gauge registers the
iv. Avoid exposing cylinders to furnace heat radiators, open fires as correct welding pressure.
sparks from a torch. vi. Slowly open the oxygen needle valve on the torch and turn the
v. Never transport a cylinder by dragging, sliding as rolling it on its oxygen regulators until the low pressure gauge registers the correct
side. Avoid striking it against any object that might create a spark. welding pressure.
These may be ruling enough gas escaping to cause explosion. vii. Open the acetylene gas on the needle valve and ignite the gas using
vi. If cylinders have to be moved, be sure that the cylinder valves are a spark lighter or a match box.
shut off. viii. Turn on the oxygen valve and adjust it for the neutral flame.
vii. Never tamper with or repair the cylinder valves ix. Observe the nature of the flame.
viii. If the valves do not function properly or if they leak notify the
supplies immediately. 11.5 SHUTTING OFF THE OXY-ACETYLENE EQUIPMENTS
B. SAFETY FOR REDUCING VALVES PROCEDURE:
i Ensure that the nut on the reducing valve is tightened to the right
tension with appropriate tool 1. Close the acetylene needle valve on the torch. These immediately
ii The working pressure gauges is only open to cylinder pressure only extinguish the flame.
when in operation.it should always be closed after work. If subjected to
maximum pressure of the cylinder, it will be damaged. N/B If Oxygen valve is closed first, acetylene will continue burning through a great
iii The valves should always be handled with maximum care deal of smoke the acetylene may not completely close and may explode inside.
iv Oils and greases should be kept away from these valves especially
oxygen valves. 2. Close the Oxygen needle valve on the torch
C. SAFETY FOR THE HOSES 3. Close the spindle valve on the acetylene cylinder
i No sharp objects should be allowed to come close to the hoses. 4. Close the spindle valve on the oxygen cylinder
ii They should be far away from hot surfaces to avoid them from 5. Open the acetylene needle valve on the torch and drain the line
burning 6. Open the oxygen needle valve on the torch and drain the line
iii Should be flexible enough 7. Close both the needle valves for oxygen and acetylene gases on the
iv Should be free from greases and oils torch
8. Remove the pressure on working gauges by releasing the adjusting
screws on pressure regulators.
11.6 OXYACETYLENE FLAMES Another reason for popping is the overheating of the molten pull by
lingering or keeping the flame too long on one position and not melting
When oxygen and acetylene are mixed in approximately equal enough electrodes on the pool.
proportions, a blue non-luminous flame is produced .the most brilliant
part being the blue cone at the centre with the temperature of the flame 11.7 FLASHBACK AND BACK FIRES
being 3200 0 c.
BACKFIRES:
Adjusting the flame involves the following three stages namely:-
It is the appearance of the gas flame in the neck or body of the
1. carbonizing/carburizing flame– it has more acetylene gas than torch/blowpipe and which rapidly extinguishes itself in a loud pop sound.
oxygen.it increases carbon in the metal being welded. Mainly used for It may be caused by:-
hard facing of metals.
1. Operating the torch at a lower pressure than required for the tip
2. Neutral flame use.
2. By torching the tip against the work
It has the same amount of acetylene and oxygen burning. It is used for 3. By overheating the tip
most welding purposes.Mainly for welding steel and aluminum. 4. By obstruction in the tip or metal particles adhering to the
nozzle tip
3. Oxidizing flame –it has more oxygen than acetylene. Mainly used If a backfire should occur shut the needle valves and after remedying the
for welding brass. situation relight the torch.

FLAME CHARACTERISTICS FLASH BACKS

A flame may be harsh or quiet It is the appearance of the gas flame beyond the torch body into the horses
and even the gauges. It’s a condition that results when the flame moves
Harsh flame back and burns inside with a Shrilling, hissing and squiring noise.

This is induced by forcing too much pressure of both gases to the tip. This If this should happen, close the needle valve immediately starting with
flame is undesirable since it has a tendency to depress the molten surface acetylene valve in order to completely eliminate fuel gas. A flashback
and cause the metal to splatter around the edges of the puddle. Such a generally is an indication that something is wrong. Perhaps it is:-
flame is noisy and its use makes it extremely difficult to bring about a
perfect fusion with smooth uniform ripples. i Clogged tip.
ii improper functioning of the needle valve
Quiet flame iii incorrect oxygen, acetylene pressure
In any case, investigate the cause before relighting the torch. It can be
Opposite of harsh flame and is achieved by the correct pressure of gases prevented by fitting a flashback arrester in each pipe at the blowpipe end.
flowing to the tip. The flame is not a forcing noisy flame but one that
permits a continuous flows of the molten puddle without any undue of Difference between flash backs and backfires
splatter.
Backfires
To ensure a soft neutral flame see that:- flashbacks

i. The tip is absolutely clean i Fire extinguishers at blowpipe end -does not extinguish itself
ii. The mixture is correct. ii Happens at the tip end -goes beyond the blowpipe
Even if the proportions of oxygen and acetylene are right, a good weld is iii Does not spoil the torch -can spoil the torch
difficult to achieve unless the opening of the tip permit a free flow of
gases. Any foreign matter in the tip will simply restrict the source of heat 11.8 WELDING SKILLS AND PRACTICES:
necessary to melt the metal.
11.8.1 GAS WELDING PRINCIPLES
FLAME CONTROL
Gas welding is possible because of the principle that when acetylene gas
Once the flame has been properly set, it does not mean that further is mixed with oxygen in appropriate proportions and ignited the resulting
adjustment are unnecessary from time to time as the welding progresses, frame which reach a temperature of about 3200oc melts all commercial
it is necessary to observe the flame cone to be certain that the mixture has metals so completely that metals to be joined actually flow together
not altered .Changes in the flame will occur as a result of slight to form complete bond without application of a mechanical pressure or
fluctuation in the flow of gases from the regulator. hammering.

Slight turn of one needle valve or the other will quickly readjust the
flame. In the course of welding, a torch may occasionally start
“popping”. This noise is an indication that there is an insufficient amount
of gas flowing to the tip. Such popping can be stopped by opening both
oxygen and acetylene needle valve on the torch to a greater extent.
In most instants, some extra metal in the form of wire rod(electrode) is
added to the molten metal in order to build a seam to slightly increase
the strength on very thin materials. The edges thus melting together in
either case if the weld is performed correctly. The section where the bond
is made will be as strong as the base metal itself.
With oxyacetylene flame such metals as iron, steel, cast iron, copper, 5. Insufficient penetration - Caused by moving the torch
bras, Aluminum, bronze and other alloys may be welded in many forward too rapidly, when the penetration is correct, the
instances to dissimilar metals. underside of the seam should show that fusion has taken
place clear to the bottom edges.
11.8.2 GAS WELDING PRACTICE 6. Holes in the end of the point caused by not lifting the torch
when the end of the weld was reached.
 Light the equipment 7. Very often the joint appears to have when tested. This may be
 Adjust the flames caused by a number of reasons such as :-
 Control the torch a. Improper space allowance between the edges of plates.
 Manipulate the filler rod
b. Filling the space between the metal plates with molten rod
Before attempting any actual welding operations a beginner should without sufficiently melting the edges of plates to ensure good bond
acquire a sense of fusion and knowledge of blowpipe control. This can be between the parent metal and rod or holding the torch too flat
obtained by running lines of fusion on thin gauge steel plates. causing the molten puddle to rap over an area that has not been
properly melted.
11.8.3 GAS WELDING PROCEDURE
11.9 WELDING POSITION
Gas equipment is lighted and the flame adjusted to neutral conditions.
Strips of steel plates are placed on the table .holding the torch at There are four major welding positions namely:-
approximately 60 0to the table and with the inner blue cone near the metal
surface begin a littlefrom the right hand edge of the metal plate and bring 1) Vertical welding = the base metal is held on a vertical
it to melting point and the puddle formed with a rotational movement of plane and the welding is performed as vertical up or
the torch. Before the metal plate melt through into a hole the torch is vertical down.
moved steadily forward still keeping the steady rotation motion and a line 2) Horizontal welding = the base metal is held on a vertical
of fusion is made in a straight line. plane and welding is done from left to right or vice versa.
3) Overhead welding = the welding is done above the
This exercise should be continued on various thicknesses of thin gauge welders head
plates until an even line is obtained and the underside shows a regular 4) Flat welding = the welding is done downwards below the
continuous bead indicating good penetration, the learner thus acquiring a welders head.
sense of fusion and torch control
11.10 WELDING TECHNIQUES
11.8.3 FEATURES OF A GOOD FUSION WELD
There are two major welding techniques namely:-
i Good fusion over the whole side surface of the vee glove
ii Penetration of the weld metal to the underside of the parent i Left ward welding technique
metal is good and uniform. ii Rightward welding techniques.
iii Slight reinforcement of the weld above the parent plate.
iv No entrapped slug, oxides or blowholes Leftward welding techniques

11.8 4 FEATURES OF A POOR WELD Key points

i Bad flame manipulations and too large a flame may cause i The torch follows the filler rod
metal to flow into unfused plate giving no fusion. ii Welding proceeds from right to left
ii Wrong position of work, incorrect temperatures of the molten iii The filler rod moves in a straight line
metal and bad flame manipulations has caused slag and oxides iv The torch moves in a circular motion
to be entrapped and channels may be formed on each line of v The filler rod is melted by dipping into the molten pool and not
fusion causing undercutting. directly by the flame.
iii The blowpipe flame may have been too small or the speed of vi The cooling of the weld is faster as because the weld is directed
welding too rapid and this with lack of skill in blowpipe away from the weld area
manipulations may cause poor penetrations. vii Rapid cooling may result to annealing and cracking of the joint.

11.8.5 CHECKING THE DEFECTS: The flame is first played on the joint until a molten pool is obtained and
the weld proceeds, the rod being fed into the molten pool and not
The following are some of the common defects that you may expect to melted off by the flame itself. If the flame is used to melt the rod itself
find in your first few welds: into the pool, it becomes easy to melt too much and thus reduce the
temperature of the molten pool in the parent metal to such an extent
1. Uneven weld – caused by moving the torch too slowly or too that good fusion cannot be achieved.
rapidly.
2. Holes in the point - caused by holding the torch fame too As the plate to be welded increases in thickness, a large nozzle is required
long in the spot on the torch and the control of the molten pool becomes more difficult.
3. A brittle weld - due to improper flame adjustments. The volume of the metal required to fill the vee becomes increasingly
4. Excessive metal hanging underneath the weld – showing too greater and the size of the nozzle which can be used does not increase
much penetration. in proportion to the thickness of the plate and thus the welding speed
decreases.
Also with thicker plates the side to side motion of the torch over a wider v It has a better rate of metal deposition
vee makes it difficult to obtain even fusion on the sides and penetration vi Thicker sections can be well welded than in leftward welding
on the bottom while large volume of molten metal present causes technique
considerable expansion .as a result it is necessary to weld thicker plates
with two or more layers if this method is used. Disadvantages

Advantages and disadvantages of leftward welding technique i The filler rod is likely to melt earlier than the base metal if care is
not taken. This may result to poor fusion on the joint.
Disadvantages ii A bigger nozzle size is usually required so as to achieve a greater
flame.
i Very good fusion - too much melting of parent metal may affects
it Differences between leftward welding technique and rightward
ii Consumption of filler rod is controlled - the metal from the filler welding technique
rod may cool the molten pool of the base metal
Leftward
Rightward welding technique rightward

Key points i The torch and the filler rod moves from right to left = the torch
and the filler rod moves from left to right
i Welding from left to right ii The torch following after the filler rod =the torch proceeds the
ii Filler rod following the torch filler rod
iii Good fusion achieved without a vee up to 8mm thickness iii The filler rod melted by the molten pool = filler rod melted by the
iv Torch pointing backwards towards part welded torch
v Larger nozzle tip required for given plate compared to leftward iv The torch moves from side to side = the torch moves in a straight
welding technique line
vi It has greater welding speed. v The filler rod moves in a straight line = the filler rod moves from
vii Filler rod moves on a circular motion side to side
viii The torch moves on a straight line.
The choice of the welding technique will depend on:-
This method competes with electric arc welding in the welding of the
plates over 4.8 mm thick.it has definite advantage over the left ward a) Welding position
method on thicker sections.in this method the weld progresses along the b) Thickness of the section
seam from left to right ,the rod following the torch. The filler rod is given c) Speed in welding
a rotational or circular motion while the torch moves in practically d) Conductivity of the material
straight line.
11.11 AN OXY ACETYLENE CUTTING TORCH AND ITS
When using this method, good fusion can be achieved without a vee up to OPERATION
8mm.above 8mm the plates are prepared with a 60 0vee and since the
torch has no side to side motion the heat is all concentrated in the narrow Diagram: Waithakas book.
vee giving a good fusion.
The oxy-acetylene cutter brings the metal to be cut into red hot then a jet
The torch is pointing backwards towards the part that has been welded of oxygen is used to blow the molten pool away to form a hole or slot in
and there is no likelihood of the molten metal being pushed over to any of metal.in order to achieve this a higher working pressure of oxygen supply
the unheated surface giving poor fusion. A larger torch nozzle is required is required .in this operation the blowpipe has two valves one for oxygen
for a given plate than in leftward welding technique because the molten and the other for acetylene then there is the third lever which is used to
pool is controlled by the torch and the filler rod but the torch has no side release the jet of oxygen through the centre of the cutting nozzle once the
to side motion. metal has been heated.

This larger flame gives greater welding speed and less filler rod is used in 11.12 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
the narrow vee. The metal is under good control and plate up to 16mm
thick can be welded in one pass. The flame playing on the metal just 1. Illustrate the three frames used in oxyacetylene gas welding and state
deposited helps to anneal it while the smaller volume of the molten metal the application for each
in the vee reduces the amount of expansion. Inaddition a better view of (9marks)
the molten pool, resulting in better penetration. 2. a) Describe the closing down procedure for the oxyacetylene welding
equipment (7marks)
Advantages and disadvantages of rightward welding techniques
b) Describe the following gas welding terms:
Advantages
i Flash back
i It has better fusion and penetrations ii Back firing (4marks)
ii Base metal and filler rod melted by the torch and therefore no 3. With the aid of diagrams, explain the following oxy-acetylene welding
cooling effects experienced techniques:
iii It has better control of filler rod i Left ward
iv It has a better welding speed ii Right ward (12marks)
4. a) Explain the process of oxyacetylene gas welding (4marks) They will only prevent the formation of oxides during the process e.g.
b) Illustrate an oxyacetylene gas cutting torch and explain its Vegetables oils, resins, Tallow.
function (10marks)
c) Illustrate any three types of welded joints (6marks)
5. a) illustrate the main features of: 12.1.3 MEANS OF APPLYING HEAT TO THE JOINT
i a poor weld
ii a good weld a) Heat to the point is applied by means of soldering iron. The
soldering iron can either be electrically or open fire heated.
b) Illustrate any three welding positions (6marks) b) Soldering irons are made of copper, copper being a good conductor
of heat and is said to have an infirmity for solder.
CHAPTER 12: SOLDERING TYPES OF SOLDERING IRON

There are two types of soldering namely: 1. Straight iron bit.

a) Soft soldering 2. Hatchet iron bit.

b) Hard soldering
12.1.1SOFT SOLDERING Diagram

The process of joining or sealing metals by use of a suitable alloy having 12.1.4 TINNING:
a lower melting point than the base metal
Before the soldering iron bit is used to heat the point area, it must be
Soft solder is applied to small parts where strength is not important e.g. tinned first. Tinning is coating a soldering iron bit with a thin layer of
Soldered wire and terminals in radio, television and other electrical work solder.
also applied in joining or repairing such metals as cast iron malleable iron, 1) Clean the bit using either a wire brush every cloth or a file.
copper, brass etc. 2) Heat it until a green flame appears.
3) Clean it with emery cloth
This type of welding should never be used in joining metals that will later 4) Dip the bit quickly in the flux
be subjected to higher temperatures since soft solder loses strength at 5) Smear some solder on it
temperature above 500 0F (2600 c).Never use solder on joints that will 6) Apply flux
withstand unusually high stresses. The bit is covered with a thin layer of solder.

COMPOSITION: Sweated joints:

Soft solder is an alloy of Lead and tin and sometimes antimony is added A sweated point is made by first tinning the two pieces being joined. The
to increase strength. pieces are then overtopped. Heat is applied on the point until the solder
melts.
12.1.2 FLUXES:
This is only done when large pieces are to be joined.
Solder will not penetrate rusts, paints, greases, oils or oxides. The surface
of metals being joined when soldering must be clean before and during Burnt iron:
the process.
A burnt iron is an overheated bit with scales of oxides which makes the
Fluxes are necessary for:- soldering difficult.

i. Cleaning the surface 12.2 HARD SOLDERING

ii. Dissolve any metallic oxides present
iii. Prevent oxidation during the process Include: i) Silver soldering
iv. Lower the surface tension of the solder.
ii) Brazing.
TYPES OF FLUXES
12.2.1 SILVER SOLDERING
Fluxes are grouped into two:
This is a process of joining metals by means of an alloy of silver, copper
1. Active and zinc without the parent metal melting. There is only a surface bonding
2. Passive between the alloy and the two metals. Silver soldering has a higher
melting point than that of soft solder and the points are usually strangers

Active fluxes Metals Melting points

Dissolve the oxides which are the foundation of oxides during the Silver 960oc
processes e.g. Skilled spirits, zinc chloride, Sal – ammonic
( Ammonium Chloride) Copper 10830c

Passive fluxes: Zinc 4200c

12.2.2 FLUXES
The fluxes for silver soldering have the same function as that of soft
solder. There is a special flux for silver solder called Tenacity
12.3 BRAZING
It is a metal joining process which uses a non-ferrous metal with a
melting point below that of the base metal but above 5000c. No fusion
between the filler metal and base metal. There is no surface alloying of
the base and the filler metals. The molten metal flows between the closely
fitting metals because of the capillary forces.
It can also be defined as a process of joining metals which during and
after heating, a non-ferrous molten filler metal is drawn by capillary
attraction into the space between the closely adjacent surfaces of the parts
to be joined.
Brazing can be performed on many metals including copper, steel,
aluminum, and in all cases cleanliness and freedom from greases is
essential. Wetting action and attraction are involved in the brazing process
.the flux which melts at a lower temperature than the brazing alloys wet
the surface to be brazed and removes the oxides film and gives clean
surface which promote wetting by a reduction of the contact angle
between the molten filler alloy and the parent metal at the joint.
The molten filler alloy flows into the narrow space or joint between the
surfaces by capillary attraction and the narrower the joint the further will
be the capillary flow.
12.3.1 GRADES OF BRAZING ALLOY
The alloy for brazing is forward by Copper and Zinc called a Smelter.
Solder B.s grade copper zinc m .p.
A 54 46 8850C
AA 60 40 8900C
B 50 50 8800C
Brazing is carried out as in fusion welding except that the base metal is
not melted. The base metal is simply brought up to tinning temperature.
(Dull red colour) and a bead deposited over the seam with the filler red.
Brazing could be performed on many metals including copper, steel,
Aluminum etc. In all cases cleanliness and freedom from greases, rust,
paints is essential.
12.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF BRAZING:
1. The base metal is not heated to melting point and therefore does not
destroy the main characteristics of base metal.
2. It eliminates stored up stresses unlike fusion welding.
3. There is less need for extensive reheating on thick sections.
4. No rusting.
12.3.3 CHARACTERISTIC OF BRAZING FILLER ROD
The main element of a brazing filler rod is copper and zinc which
produces high tensile.
It contains no quantities of tin, iron, manganese and silicon which help
to:--
c) Deoxidize the weld metal
d) Decrease tendency to fume
e) Increase free flowing action of molten metal.
12.3.4 BRAZING PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the surface thoroughly with a stiff wire brush. Remove all
scales, dirt or grease otherwise the solder will not stick.
2. On thick sections, bevel the edges to form a 960 v glove. It can be done
by chipping, machining filling or grinding.
3. Arrange the work so that you work in an incline or upward. In this
position the molten bronze cannot flow ahead of heated welding area.
4. Adjust the flame so that if slightly oxidizing.
5. Heat the filler rod and dip it into the flux.
6. Concentrate the flame on the starting head until the metal start
turning red melt a little filler rod on the surface and allow it to
spread along the entire seem.
7. Once the base metal is thinned sufficiently start depositing the
prophesized bead on the metal use a slight circular torch motion.
8. On grooved surfaces us several passes to make sure that turning action
takes place along the entire bottom.
12.3.5 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the differences between soldering and fusion welding
(5marks)
2. State the advantages of brazing over oxyacetylene welding
(5marks)
3. Outline the procedure of brazing (5marks)