Module 2 - General Biochemistry (Chem.2)

Republic of the Philippines
Surigao Del Sur State University

TAGBINA CAMPUS
Tagbina, Surigao del Sur 8300
Email address: sdssutc2010@yahoo.com
Website: www.sdssu.edu.ph
MODULE 2
in
GENERAL
BIOCHEMISTRY
(CHEM. 2)
NAME : ————————————————
PROGRAM/YEAR LEVEL : ————————————————
INSTRUCTOR : ————————————————
SEMESTER : ————————————————
SCHOOL YEAR : ————————————————
Compiled by:
DEMEIAPE V. BAGALAY
Course Instructor
Republic of the Philippines
Surigao Del Sur State University

TAGBINA CAMPUS
Tagbina, Surigao del Sur 8300
Email address: sdsstc2010@yahoo.com
Website: www.sdssu.edu.ph
VISION
A leading ―Glocal‖ University with widened academic perspectives that focus on attaining
food security, supporting poverty alleviation, developing renewable energy, and conserving
natural environment
MISSION
SDSSU shall provide competency based higher education and training driven by relevant
and responsive instruction, research, extension and sustainable resource management.
PROGRAM GOALS:
The College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology aims to:

1. Produce quality and relevant education and training within the reach of the low-income
members of society
2. Provide students with entrepreneurial skills and trainings in the agri-business, commer-
cial sciences, information technology and
3. Produce graduates equipped with the necessary values, attitudes, knowledge and skills.
PROGRAM INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Specific Program Outcomes - Bachelor in Agricultural Technology (BAT) Program:

1. Exhibit comprehensive knowledge of various learning areas in Bachelor of Agricultural
Technology curriculum
2. Execute techniques, skills and utilize modern tools necessary for agricultural activities
3. Create and implement assessment tools and procedures to measure learning outcomes
for technical expertise and production.
DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY ii

Chem.2- General Biochemistry. January 2021
GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY
CHEM. 2
Course Overview
Hello and welcome to Biochemistry! This course covers the fundamental aspects
of biochemistry and the structure and dynamics of important cellular components. It
deals with the properties and metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and other im-
portant biochemical compounds. This course is also designed to develop techniques and
skills in qualitative and quantitative tests on carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.
Biochemistry is an intensive, challenging course as it encompasses many areas
of chemistry and biology. Hence, you are assumed to have prior knowledge in biology,
general chemistry and organic chemistry to better grasp the concepts presented in the
following four (4) modules covered in this course, namely;
Module 1: Fundamentals of Biochemistry
Module 2: Carbohydrates
Module 3: Lipids
Module 4: Proteins and Nucleic acids
The lessons in each module are brief but packed with figures, short activities
and assessments to supplement and evaluate learning. Each lesson has the following
parts and corresponding icons:
This will give you an idea of what you need to acquire
after completing each lesson.
This task is given before starting each lesson. It aims
to test what you knew about the topic.
This can be a question or two that serves as motivation
to build up your interest on the lesson.
This section provides the discussion of the lessons
and aims to help you discover and comprehend the
concepts you have to learn.
This provides you the link to additional readings or
video clips to learn more about the topics.
This task will help you transfer or apply your new
knowledge or skill.
This is an assessment of your level of mastery in
achieving the intended learning outcomes
This provides the list of references used in the module.
At the end of this course, students must be able to:

 demonstrate comprehensive knowledge on the cellular structures and
biochemical compounds by constructing three dimensional models.
 exhibit skills in performing qualitative and quantitative tests on biomolecules.
Students, the more effort you put into this learning material, the more rewarding your
effort will be. Yes, this course is indeed challenging, but definitely interesting and worth the
challenge!
Enjoy and have fun. Happy learning!
DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY iii

Module 2 CARBOHYDRATES
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to your second module in General Biochemistry, the

CARBOHYDRATES!
What are carbohydrates? Where do these biomolecules originated from?

Why are these molecules essential to life?
Carbohydrates, popularly known as carbs or sugars, are the most abundant
class of bioorganic substances on earth. Its various types exist in different forms and
structures, from simplest to very complex ones. They are produced through
photosynthesis. They are present in the body of different organisms and are very
essential for their life processes not only because they are good sources of energy
but also because they perform many other functions.
The lessons that will be discussed in this learning module are intended to
reinforce your basic knowledge about carbohydrates. We dig deeper on properties,
structures and functions of different types of sugars. You will also learn what will
happen to these sugars inside an organism. Hence, the following lessons are elabo-
rated;
Lesson 1 What are carbohydrates?
1.1 Structure and functions of carbohydrates
1.2 Classification of carbohydrates
Lesson 2 Carbohydrate Metabolism
2.1 Glycolysis
2.2 Pentose phosphate pathway
2.3 Gluconeogenesis and Cori cycle
2.4 Glycogen synthesis and degradation
Upon completing this module, you are expected to;

 characterize carbohydrates based on its physical and chemical
properties;
 make a three-dimensional model of simple sugars; and
 explain the importance of carbohydrates in biochemical processes.
Together, let’s take the sweet challenge in learning more about

Carbohydrates!
DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY iv

Lesson 1 What are carbohydrates? Module 2
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to :

a. demonstrate knowledge on the structural, chemical and biochemical properties,
and types of carbohydrates;
b. sketch the structure and name common simple sugars;
c. isolate starch from plant extract; and
d. recognize the importance of carbohydrates.
From the given figure, encircle all the foods which you think contain carbohydrates. Then,
list down in the table provided on the right the 10 foods which are very rich in carbohydrates.
Foods that are rich in carbohydrates:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
7.
8.
9.
Figure 1. Carbohydrates from variety of foods. © 2017 Denniston, 10.
et al. McGraw-Hill Education.
It is possible for any organism not to need carbohydrates? Why or why not?
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1.1. Structure and functions of carbohydrates

The word carbohydrate means ― hydrate of carbon‖ as indicated in the empirical formula
(CH2O)n of many, but not all carbohydrates, in which n ≥ 3. They are also called glycans. But, the
most appropriate definition of carbohydrates is based on its striking structural feature. Hence,
carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones, or substances that
yield such compounds on hydrolysis. .
Carbohydrates are polymers of monosaccharides, linked together by glycosidic bonds
through condensation (dehydration synthesis), a process when two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom are lost from the two monosaccharides' hydroxyl group forming water molecule.
DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 1

Chem. 2 - General Biochemistry. January 2021
In general, carbohydrates serve the following vital functions:

• storehouse of chemical energy (eg. Glucose, starch and glycogen);
• supportive structural components in plants and some animals (eg. Cellulose and chitin);
• essential component of the genetic material (eg. D-ribose, 2-D-deoxyribose); and
• ligands and receptors in cellular communication (eg. Lectins).
1.2. Classification of carbohydrates
Based on structures, carbohydrates are classified into three major groups (figure 2.)
Figure 2. Major groups of carbohydrates. NAc = N-acetyl. © 2017

Meisfeld, et al. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
A. Simple sugars: often function as metabolic intermediates in energy conversion pathways

1. Monosaccharides “mon-oh-SACK-uh-rides”: Consist of one (mono-) sugar (saccharide)
unit. They are simple sugars with 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 carbons (glucose, fructose, galactose,
ribose, etc.).
2. Disaccharides; consist of two sugar units (sucrose, lactose, maltose)
3. Oligosaccharides “oL-ee-go-SACK-uh-rides”: consist of short chains of
monosaccharide units, or residues, linked by glycosidic bonds.
**In cells, most oligosaccharides consisting of three or more units do not occur as free
entities but are joined to non-sugar molecules like lipids or proteins, as in glycoconjugates.
B. Polysaccharides: made of 20 to thousands of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
(starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin).
C. Glycoconjugates : proteins or lipids with covalently attached glycans. They play a critical role
in cellular communication.
Physical properties, structure and nomenclature of monosaccharides
All monosaccharides are colorless, crystalline solids. They are all soluble in water because
hydrogen bonding is possible between their polar -OH groups and water. They are slightly soluble in
ethanol and insoluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene, diethyl ether, and dichloromethane.
Monosaccharides are the simplest type of carbohydrates. They are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 as shown the generalized formula C nH2nOn,
where n is at least 3. Each monosaccharide contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy
ketone unit (figure 3).
A monosaccharide can be an aldose or a
ketose on the basis of functional group it contains.
Aldoses are families of monosaccharides that
contain aldehyde functional group, where carbonyl
(C=O) is at carbon-1, while ketoses are mono-
saccharides that contain ketone functional group
where carbonyl (C=O) is at carbon-2 (figure 3). Figure 3. The carbonyl group in aldose and ketose.
© 2017 Denniston, et al. McGraw-Hill Education.

Monosaccharides are also classified and named using the suffix -ose to indicate that a
molecule is carbohydrate, and the prefixes tri-, tetr-, pent, and so forth to indicate the number of
carbon atoms in the chain (table 1).
Table 1. Some monosaccharides based on number of carbon atoms
Number of carbons Generic name examples
3 triose glyceraldehyde, dihydroxyacetone
4 tetrose erythrose, threose
5 pentose ribose, deoxyribose
6 hexose glucose, fructose, galactose
7 heptose sedoheptulose
9 nanose Numaminic acid
These simple sugars are also classified and named based on configuration using the D, L
system proposed by the German Chemist Hermann Emil Fischer in 1891. When written in Fischer
projection, D – monosaccharide has the -OH group on the right side of the penultimate carbon,
while L – monosaccharide has the -OH group on the left side of the penultimate carbon or the
carbon that is next to the last carbon on the chain.
Combining the three systems of classifying and naming gives even more information about
the structure and composition of a sugar especially monosaccharides that often have
stereoisomers (figure 4).
Figure 4. Naming sugar. (a) D-glyceraldehyde is
an aldotriose, a three-carbon sugar that contains
an aldehyde group, and with D- configuration
because the -OH is on the right side of the
penultimate carbon. (b). D-glucose is an
aldohexose, meaning it is an aldose with 6 carbon
penultimate carbon atoms. The name also indicates that it has an -OH
on the right of its penultimate carbon. (c) D- fruc-
tose is a ketohexose because it is a six-carbon
(a) (b) (c) sugar with ketone group and -OH on the right side
of its penultimate carbon. © 2017 Denniston, et
al. McGraw-Hill Education.
How to write Fischer Projection formulas?

Chemists commonly used Fischer projections to show the two-dimensional configuration
of carbohydrates. In Fischer projections, horizontal lines represent bonds projecting forward from
the chiral center, and the vertical lines represent bonds projecting toward the rear. To write Fischer
projections, draw first a three-dimensional representation (perspective formula) of the molecule
oriented so that the vertical bonds from the chiral center are directed away from you and the hori-
zontal bonds from it are directed toward you (figure 5b). Then, write the molecule as a across, with
the chiral center indicated by the point at which the bonds cross (figure 5c). In figure 5,
D-Glyceraldehyde and L-Glyceraldehyde are called enantiomers of glyceraldehyde.
convert to
Fischer projection
(a) Ball -and-stick models (b) Perspective formulas (c) Fischer Projection formulas
Figure 5. Writing Fischer projections. © 2013 W.H. Freeman Company. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 6th ed.
In aqueous solution, monosaccharides with five or more carbons occur as cyclic

structures. Let us find out why and how.

What are the cyclic structures of monosaccharides?

Monosaccharides, whether
aldoses or ketoses have hydroxyl
(-OH) and carbonyl (C=O) groups in
the same molecule. As a result, they
often exist as five- and six-
membered hemiacetals. Cyclic
hemiacetals form readily when
hydroxyl and carbonyl groups are
part of the same molecule and that
their interaction produces a ring
(figure 6).
α means the
What are Haworth projections? -OH on
anomeric
carbon lies
Cyclic structures of on the ring
opposite the
monosaccharides is commonly terminal
--CH2OH
represented by Haworth projection, a
two-dimensional structural notation
that specifies the three-dimensional
structure of a cyclic form of a β means the
monosaccharide. It is named after -OH on
anomeric Cyclic formation results
the English Chemist Sir Walter carbon lies
on the same
into stereoisomers that
differ in configuration,
N. Haworth, who won the Nobel side of the
ring as the
the α (alpha) and β
Prize in Chemistry in 1937. In a terminal
Haworth projection, the ring is

drawn flat and viewed through its Figure 6. Formation of monosaccharides cyclic structures. © 2015
Stoker, S. H. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 6th ed.
edge, with the anomeric carbon Cengage Learning, Inc.
(carbonyl carbon atom) on the right
and the oxygen atom to the rear. For example, a five- or six-membered cyclic hemiacetal is
represented as a planar pentagon or hexagon, respectively, lying roughly perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. Groups bonded to the carbons of the ring then lie either above or below the
plane of the ring. The new chiral center created in the forming of cyclic structure is now called
anomeric carbon, which can assume either alpha (α) or beta (β) configurations. The
stereoisomers that differ in the configuration only at the anomeric carbon are called anomers. So,
in figure 6, α-D- Glucose and β-D- Glucose are anomers.
Haworth projections of fructose and galactose
Figure 7. Haworth Projections of fructose and galactose. (a) fructose also called levulose and fruit sugar, is the
sweetest of all sugars. It is found in large amounts in honey, corn syrup, and sweet fruits. Unlike glucose, it forms
a five-membered cyclic hemiacetals with anomeric carbon at carbon 2. (b) galactose is a component of lactose,
or milk sugar. This is the principal sugar found in the milk of most mammals. It is diastereomer of glucose and it
forms a six-membered cyclic hemiacetals with anomeric carbon at carbon 1. © 2017 Denniston, et al.
McGraw-Hill Education.
In the linear forms of monosaccharide, which is in equilibrium with the cyclic forms, the
anomeric carbon is easily oxidized, making the compound a reducing sugar.

What are disaccharides and oligosaccharides?
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed by two (2) monosaccharide units joined

together by glycosidic bond through dehydration synthesis (removal of water molecule), Those
carbohydrates that consist of three to twelve monosaccharide units are called oligosaccharides.
Disaccharides and oligosaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharide units by breaking
the glycosidic bond through hydrolysis (addition of water).
In biological systems, monosaccharides exist in the cyclic structure and, as we have seen,
they are actually form hemiacetals. When a hemiacetal reacts with an alcohol, the product is an
acetal. In the case of disaccharides, the alcohol comes from a second monosaccharide. The
acetals formed are given the general name glycosides, and the carbon-oxygen bonds are called
glycosidic bonds. Let’s take a look at the formation of some disaccharides.
(a) Monosaccharide + monosaccharide disaccharide + H2O
(functioning as a hemiacetal) (functioning as an alcohol) (glycoside)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 8. Disaccharide formation. (a) formula for disaccharide (b) Maltose is formed when two glucose molecules
are linked by glycosidic bond. (c) Lactose is formed when galactose is linked to a glucose molecule. (d) A sucrose is
formed when glucose is linked to a fructose . All these three disaccharides are formed through dehydration synthesis/
condensation process where water molecule is removed thus glycosidic bond between the two monosaccharides is
formed. As a result, water molecule is also release when a disaccharide is formed. © 2017 Denniston, et al. McGraw
-Hill Education.
Disaccharides that do not contain a hemiacetal group on carbon 1(C-1) just like sucrose,
are called non-reducing sugars and they do not react with Benedict’s reagent.

es
What are polysaccharides?

A polysaccharide is a polymeric carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharide units
bonded together by glycosidic bonds. They are also called glycans. They differ from each other in
the identity of their repeating monosaccharide units, in the length of their chains, in the types of
bonds linking the units, and in the degree of branching. Based on composition or repeating
monosaccharide units, polysaccharides are classified into homopolysaccharides and
heteropolysaccharides. Homopolysaccharides are polysaccharides composed of one type of
monosaccharide. Heteropolysaccharides are those polysaccharides made up of two or more
different types of monosaccharides. They can be one long linear chain, or branched (figure 9).
Figure 9. Homopolysaccharide and heteopolysaccharide linear and branched structure.© 2015 Stoker, S. H.
General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 6th ed. Cengage Learning, Inc
Homopolysaccharides that serve as storage forms of monosaccharides used as fuels:

Starch is a homopolysaccharide
containing only glucose units. It is the
energy-storage polysaccharide in plants. It
is made up of amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose, a straight-chain glucose polymer A.
is usually 15%–20% of the starch and B. Starch (amylopectin)
amylopectin, a branched glucose polymer is

80%–85% of the remaining starch.
Glycogen is referred to as animal
starch. Its function is thus similar to that of
starch in plants. In humans, it is stored in
liver cells and muscle cells. It is made of
α-D-glucose molecules joined in α(1- 4)
glycosidic linkages. Its structure is similar to
that of amylopectin but differs by having up
to 1,000,000 more glucose units present
and about three times more highly Figure 10. Section of polymeric structures of amylose (linear) and
branched than amylopectin. amylopectin (branched). © 2015 Stoker, S. H. General, Organic and
Biological Chemistry. 6th ed. Cengage Learning, Inc.
Homopolysaccharides that serve as structural elements in plant cell walls and in animal
exoskeletons:
Cellulose is an un-branched A. cellulose
polymer of β-D-glucose units linked by

β(14). It is the structural component of plant
cell walls. It is the most abundant naturally
occurring polysaccharide. This fibrous,
water-insoluble substance constitute the
―woody‖ portions of plants such as stems,
stalks, and trunks. B. Chitin
Figure 11. Sections
Chitin is similar to cellulose in of polymeric struc-
tures of cellulose
both function and structure. It gives rigidity and chitin. ©
to the exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, 2015 Stoker, S. H.
shrimp, insects, and other arthropods. It General, Organic
and Biological
also occurs in the cell walls of fungi. It Chemistry. 6th ed.
differs from cellulose in that it has an N-Acetyl-β -D Cengage Learning,
N-acetyl amino derivative of D-glucose. -glucosamine Inc.

Some representatives of heteropolysaccharides are hyalorunic acid, heparin and peptidoglycan

Hyalorunic acid is an acidic polysaccharide that contains alternating residues of N-acetyl
-β-D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid connected by alternating glycosidic bond types, β(1→3)
and β(1→ 4) as shown in figure 12a. There are approximately 50,000 disaccharide units each
chain. From the Greek word hyalos (―glass‖), hyaluronic acid solutions have a glass-like
appearance that serves as lubricants in the fluid of joints and they are also associated with the jelly
-like consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye.
Heparin is a small polysaccharide with only 15–90 disaccharide residues per chain. Its
disaccharide repeating units are made up of D-glucuronate-2-sulfate and N-sulfo-D-glucosamine-6
-sulfate, both of which contain two negatively charged acidic groups (figure 12b). This heteropoly-
saccharide best functions as anticoagulant by binding strongly to a protein involved in terminating
the process of blood clotting.
The cell walls of bacteria and red algae are strengthened by heteropolysaccharides.
Peptidoglycan in bacteria and agar in red algae . Peptidoglycan is made of recurring disaccha-
rides compost of GlcNAc(β1→4)Mur2Ac. In agar the disaccharide units are made of D-Gal(β1→4)
3,6-anhydro-L-Gal.
Figure 12. Sections of polymeric structures of hylarunic acid (a) and heparin (b).© 2015 Stoker, S. H. General,
Organic and Biological Chemistry. 6th ed. Cengage Learning, Inc.
Glycoconjugates: Proteoglycans, Glycoproteins, and Glycosphingolipids

Glycoconjugates are oligosaccharides covalently joined to a protein or a lipid by glyco-
sidic linkages. These molecules essentially function in cell recognition which generally involves the
interaction between the oligosaccharide marker of one cell and a protein imbedded into the cell
membrane of another cell. These glycoconjugate molecules govern how individual cells of differing
function within a biochemical system recognize each other, and how cells interact with invading
bacteria and viruses.
Glycoproteins are protein glycoconjugates in
which the bulk of the macromolecule are proteins. They
are formed in the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum. These
molecules are transported by vesicles to the plasma
membrane for insertion or secretion, or are sent to
mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes, or secretory
granules. They are also present in extracellular matrix
(ECM) and in the blood. The oligosaccharides components
are so heterogeneous and form specific sites for cell
recognition. Proteoglycans, the major components of the
ECM, are glycoproteins made mostly of carbohydrate units
with only short segments of polypeptide. Aggrecan and
perlecan are proteoglycans in humans which serve as
―gel‖ around tissues and in joints. Peptidoglycans are
proteoglycan in bacterial cell walls.
Glycolipids are lipid glycoconjugates formed in
golgi apparatus. They are also part of plasma membrane
and act as specific sites for cell recognition. One example Figure 13. Glycoconjugates. The
structures of some typical proteoglycans,
is the glycosphingolipids which are sbundant in neurons, glycoproteins, and glycosphingolipids. ©
and help in nerve conduction and myelin formation. These 2017 W.H. Freeman Company. Lehninger
molecules also function in signal transduction in cells. Principles of Biochemistry, 7th ed.
Watch: 1. Simple Sugars and Fischer Projections @ tinyurl.com/3aqofebm
2. Polysaccharides @ tinyurl.com/ypdgv73a
Read: Classification of carbohydrates and their structure @ https://tinyurl.com/1ptpuut6

Activity No. 1
ISOLATION OF STARCH FROM PLANT EXTRACT
Introduction:
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxycarbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones) or their
derivatives with a general formula (CH2O)n. They are most abundant constituents of plants and
animals. In some plants, sugar is usually stored in the roots as polysaccharide starch.
Starch is one of the main ingredients of human food. It consists of two fractions: amylose
and amylopectin. Amylose is a linear unbranched polymer of glucose residues combined with α-1,4
-glycosidic bonds. Amylopectin contains additional branches, where there are α-1,6 bonds.
Objective: This activity aims to isolate and test the presence of starch from different plant extracts.
Materials:
Glass containers stirring rod medicine dropper knife basin
stove spatula cheesecloth grater pan
Cassava or sweet potato (crop root) distilled water IKI / betadine solution
Procedure: (Note: This activity is designed to be done at home)

A. Isolation of starch:
1. Peel the cassava/sweet potato crop root. Wash and grate in a basin.
2. Mix with tap water.
3. Strain using cheesecloth and collect the filtrate into a beaker or glass container.
4. Let it stand for few minutes. Starch will be found suspended in the bottom.
5. Decant or pour out slowly the water. Then add water and mix. Leave the mixture for
another few minutes. Decant the water/ liquid.
6. Strain and air dry the suspended starch.
B. Preparation of the starch gruel
1. Mix approximately 0.3 g (1/3 of a flat teaspoon) of starch with 5 ml of cold distilled water.
2. Transfer the suspension to 25 ml of boiling water stirring constantly. Cook the resulting
starch gruel for 30 seconds, and then cool.
C. Testing the presence of starch
1. Take a portion of the remaining air dried starch and place in a glass container.
2. Add 1-2 drops of Iodine solution (IKI). You can use betadine solution in the absence of IKI.
3. Take note of any change in color. Blue-black color confirms the presence of starch.
4. Document your observation by taking some pictures.
5. Perform procedure C steps 1-4 for the starch gruel (cooked starch).
6. Compare the results.
D. Write all your data and results, analysis and conclusion in the report sheets provided in
the next pages.
Activity No. 2
THREE- DIMENSIONAL MODEL OF A SIMPLE SUGAR
Direction: Form a group of four within your class. With your group mates, construct a three-
dimensional (3D) model (Fischer or Haworth projections) of glucose or fructose. Components of the
sugar must be distinguishable from one another. Show creativity and care to nature by using only
biodegradable materials. Your model will be graded using the following criteria:
Correctness of the model - 50%
Workmanship (beauty, creativity, durability) - 30%
Materials used - 10%
Participation of group members - 10%
100%
Note: Take a two -minute video of your group making the model. Each member must be present in
the video. The video must also include brief description of the model and its make-up. Send the
recorded video to your instructor through FB messenger.

ACTIVITY 1 REPORT SHEET (1/2)
Name: Date performed :

Section: Date submitted :
Lab. Instructor : Rating :
ACTIVITY 1
RESULTS and OBSERVATIONS:
Iodine test Observations Evidence (pictures)

A. For fresh air dried
starch
B. For starch gruel

ACTIVITY 1 REPORT SHEET (2/2)

Lab. Instructor : Rating :
ACTIVITY 1
ANALYSIS:
1. Why do you think starch are abundantly present in the crop roots?
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2. Why does starch turned blue-black/deep blue in iodine test?.

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3. Is starch present in fruits and vegetables? How about in meat? Why or why not?
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CONCLUSION:
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Name: Rating:
Section: Date:
Subject Instructor:
1. Give the complete name of the carbohydrate or sugar in each diagram.
2. Make a Haworth projections of the first and third sugars in item number 1. Then, name the
anomers of each sugar.
3. Identify the following structures if α (alpha) or β (beta) configuration and if D or L configuration.

B. Explain the following questions with at least three sentences.
1. What is the structural difference between an aldose and a ketose?

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2. Describe three functions of carbohydrates that explain why they are the most abundant
biomolecules in nature.
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3. Do you agree that carbohydrates are important to organisms? Why or why not?
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Lesson 2 Carbohydrate Metabolism Module 2
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to :

a. demonstrate knowledge of the chemical pathways in carbohydrate metabolism;
b. create a concept map to summarize and correlate different processes of
carbohydrate metabolism; and
c. give the importance of each carbohydrate metabolic pathway .
Using boxes and arrows, diagram the carbohydrate digestion in the human body.
What would have happened if carbohydrate is not digested?

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In your previous subjects, you have surely learned about metabolism. In both aerobic and
anaerobic cellular metabolism, glycolysis is the first stage. Can you remember what is primarily
needed for glycolysis to occur? Yes, glucose!. This simple carbohydrate is the prime substrate
readily converted into ATP, the energy currency in cells. So, let’s start carbohydrate metabolism
with glycolysis. You will learn in the next topics the anabolic pathways in metabolism of
carbohydrates.
2.1. Glycolysis
Glycolysis, from Greek word glykys meaning sweet or sugar, and lysis or splitting, is
anaerobic pathway that takes place in a cell cytoplasm of all types of cells, prokaryote or eukaryote.
This pathway is also called Embden-Meyerhof Pathway. This metabolic pathway breaks down
1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate molecules and yields 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It has two halves with
five steps in each half. The first half is called ―energy-requiring‖ steps . This half uses 2 ATP
molecules to split glucose into 2, three-carbon molecules which will proceed to the next half of the
pathway, the ―energy-releasing‖ steps. In this half, 4 molecules of ATP, 2 molecules of NADH are
released. Since 2 ATP are used in the first half, glycolysis then has a net gain of 2 ATP molecules,
2 NADH and 2 pyruvate molecules.

Figure 14. Steps in the first half of Glycolysis. Glucose is split into two three-carbon containing molecules,
dihydroxyacetone-phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Two ATP molecules are used and notice the enzymes
involved in every step. Source: https://tinyurl.com/yx9d7qa7 .
Here are the steps in ―energy-requiring‖ phase of glycolysis:

1. Glucose is phosphorylated at the expense of one ATP. A hexokinase enzyme catalyzes the
phosphorylation of glucose into glucose-6-phosphate, a more reactive form of glucose, using
ATP as source of phosphate.
2. Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-6-phosphate by an isomerase. Isomerases are
enzymes that catalyze the conversion of molecules into one of their isomers. This step allows
the eventual spit of the sugar into two three-carbon molecules.
3. Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated again into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate at the expense of
a second ATP. The two phosphate groups are situated at the two ends (C1, C6) of the fructose
chain. The reaction is catalyze by phosphofructokinase.
4. An aldolase enzyme, fructose phosphate aldolase, splits fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two
three-carbon monophosphates; dihydroxyacetone-phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
5. Triose phosphate isomerase transforms the dihydroxyacetone-phosphate into its isomer,
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Thus, only the 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate will
continue to the next steps in the pathway. And at this point, there is an investment of energy in
the form of 2 ATP molecules in the breakdown of one glucose molecule.
Figure 15. Steps in the second half of Glycolysis. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate undergoes phosphorylation without using
ATP and a series of reaction that results in the production of 2 NADH and 4 ATP molecules. After this half, the pathway pro-
duces 2 molecules of pyruvate from a glucose molecule. Image obtained from https://tinyurl.com/yx9d7qa7.
Here are the five steps in ―energy-releasing‖ phase of glycolysis:

6. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized (lost an electron). The released high-energy electrons
are used to reduce the coenzyme NAD + to NADH. After oxidation, its C1 (carbon-1) is
phosphorylated by the addition of inorganic phosphate (P i) to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate,
which has a high phosphate group-transfer potential (denoted by the yellow shading). The
reaction is catalyzed by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. This step is a potential
limiting factor for glycolysis. The continuation of the reaction depends upon the availability of
NAD+. Without NAD+ second half of glycolysis slows down or stops. If oxygen is present, NADH
will be oxidized and the hydrogen released will be used to make ATP. In the absence of oxygen,
fermentation can provide the oxidation of NADH to NAD +.

7. The high-energy phosphate group from C1 of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to ADP

forming ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. A carbonyl group on 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
is oxidized to a carboxyl group that results in the formation of 3-phosphoglycerate. This is
catalyzed by phosphoglycerate kinase.
8. The remaining phosphate group in 3-phosphoglycerate is transferred by phosphoglycerate
mutase from the third carbon to the second carbon producing 2-phosphoglycerate.
9. Enolase enzyme catalyzes the lose of water molecule from the substrate. This results in the
formation of double bond that increases the potential energy in the remaining phosphate bond
and produces phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
10. Pyruvate kinase catalyze the transfer of the phosphate group in PEP to ADP forming ATP by
substrate-level phosphorylation, and the compound pyruvic acid (or its salt from, pyruvate). Take
note, there are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate that continued onto the second phase of
glycolysis. Thus, the energy-releasing steps proceeds twice.
Do you know what will happen to the outcomes of glycolysis?
The whole reactions of glycolysis is summarized as,

Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 H 20
The two products of glycolysis, pyruvate and NADH, can be metabolized in two very
different ways, depending on the type of cell in which they are formed and the presence or absence
of oxygen. In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic or fermentation), a cell cannot further catabolize the
pyruvate and only gains 2 ATP from a glucose molecule. The NADH is re-oxidized to NAD+ by the
conversion of pyruvate to lactate or ethanol.
In the presence of O2, aerobic organisms are able to extract large amounts of additional
energy from the pyruvate and NADH, enough to synthesize more than 30 additional ATP molecules.
This energy is extracted in mitochondria, the sites of aerobic cellular respiration.
What will happen to pyruvate?
1. Acetyl CoA through pyruvate oxidation
1. A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, releasing a
molecule of CO2. This step results in a two-carbon
hydroxyethel group bound to pyruvate dehydrogenase.
This step proceeds twice because there are two pyruvate
molecules produced at the end of glycolysis.
2. NAD+ is reduced to NADH. The high-energy electrons
from NADH will be utilized in ATP synthesis during
electron transport chain.
3. An acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme A, forming
Figure 16 Oxidation of pyruvate. Upon entering mitochondrial
acetyl CoA. The enzyme -bound acetyl group is
matrix, a multi-complex enzyme converts pyruvate into acetyl
CoA. In the process, a molecule of CO2 is released as by- transferred to CoA, producing a molecule of acetyl CoA.
product and a molecule of NADH is formed. Image obtained Acetyl CoA will undergo further oxidation through Citric
from https://tinyurl.com/yx9d7qa7. Acid Cycle and Electron Transport Chain.
2. Lactate through lactate fermentation, the enzymatic anaerobic reduction of pyruvate to lactate.
The only purpose of this process is to convert NADH to NAD+. The lactate so formed is
converted back to pyruvate when aerobic conditions are again established in a cell.
Figure 17. Lactate fermentation. © 2015 Stoker, S. H. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 6th ed. Cengage Learning, Inc.
3. Ethanol through alcohol fermentation, the enzymatic anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to

ethanol and carbon dioxide. Pyruvate will first undergo decarboxylation reaction to produce
acetaldehyde, which then undergoes reduction to produce ethanol.
(a). (b).
Over all reaction is:
Figure 18. Alcohol fermentation. © 2015 Stoker, S. H. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 6th ed. Cengage Learning, Inc.

After you have learned the fate of breaking down of glucose molecules, let’s find out how
glucose is synthesize through different metabolic pathways.
2.2. Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Pentose phosphate pathway is also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt or the
phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs entirely within the cytoplasm. It is an alternative pathway for
glucose oxidation. It provides the cell with energy in the form of NADPH, which is the reducing agent
required for many biosynthetic pathways. This pathway involves both oxidative and non-oxidative
pathways (figure 19).
Figure 19. The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH for biosynthetic pathways and ribose-5-P for nucleotide
synthesis. Flux through the pentosephosphate pathway is modulated in response to the metabolic needs of the cell. The
conversion of glucose-6-P to ribulose-5-P is the oxidative phase of the pathway, whereas the conversion of ribulose-5-P
to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (glyceraldehyde-3-P) and fructose-6-phosphate (fructose-6-P) is the non-oxidative phase
of the pathway. The key enzymes in the pentose phosphate pathway are glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase,
transketolase, and transaldolase. © 2017 Meisfeld, et al. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Pentose phosphate pathway serves two main functions;

1. Oxidative phase which serves to generate NADPH. This phase consists of two
oxidation reactions. One that converts glucose 6-phosphate to ribulose 5-phosphate
and one that reduces two molecules of NADP+ into NADPH.
Figure 19. Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH. Reduction of NADP+ into NADPH involves the
transfer of two electrons in the form of a hydride ion (:H−) and the release of a proton (H+). © 2017
Meisfeld, et al. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc .
2. Non-oxidative phase which serves to interconvert C 3, C4, C5, C6, and C7

monosaccharide phosphates, using many of the same carbon shuffle reactions
to produce ribose-5-P. Non-oxidative reactions in this phase do not only produce
ribose-5-phosphate (ribose-5-P) from glucose-6-P, but also regenerate glucose-6-P to
maintain NADPH production by oxidative phase.
Why is pentose phosphate pathway important?
Pentose phosphate pathway is very essential to generate NADPH and ribose-5-P. This
pathway is most active in tissues involved in cholesterol and fatty acid biosynthesis that require a lot
of NADPH. Thus the liver, which is the site of cholesterol synthesis and a major site for fatty acid
biosynthesis, and the adipose (fat) tissue, where active fatty acid synthesis also occurs, have very
high levels of pentose phosphate pathway enzymes.
The ribose-5-P is the carbohydrate component of nucleotides, the precursors to DNA and
RNA, and of the coenzymes ATP, NAD+, NADP+, FAD, and acetyl-CoA.
What regulates the pentose phosphate pathway?
Flow through the oxidative and non-oxidative phases of the pentose phosphate pathway is
regulated to meet three distinct metabolic states of the cell:
1. If increased NADPH is required for biosynthetic pathways or to provide reducing power
for detoxification, then fructose-6-phosphate (fructose-6-P) and glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (glyceraldehyde-3-P) are used to resynthesize glucose-6-P, thereby
maintaining flux or flow through the oxidative phase of the pathway.
2. If nucleotide pools need to be replenished because of high rates of DNA and RNA
synthesis, then the bulk of ribulose-5-P is converted to ribose-5-P, stimulating
nucleotide biosynthesis.
3. If ATP levels in the cell are low, then the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
(G6PD) is inhibited, which shuts down the pentose phosphate pathway so that
glucose-6-P can be metabolized directly by the glycolysis.
Overall net reactions of the pentose phosphate pathway?
Oxidative phase : 6 Glucose-6-P + 12 NADP+ + 6 H2O → 6 Ribulose-5-P + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ + 6 CO2
Non-oxidative phase : 6 Ribulose-5-P → 4 Fructose-6-P + 2 Glyceraldehyde-3-P

then, 4 Fructose-6-P + 2 Glyceraldehyde-3-P → 5 Glucose-6-P
Net reactions : 6 Glucose-6-P + 12 NADP+ + 6 H2O →
4 Fructose-6-P + 2 Glyceraldehyde-3-P + 12 NADPH + 12 H+ + 6 CO2

2.3. Gluconeogenesis and Cori Cycle

When dietary sources of glucose are insufficient, or when stored glycogen in muscle and
liver tissues are depleted from fasting and strenuous work, the cells synthesize glucose from
non-carbohydrate compounds by a series of cytosolic reactions in an anabolic pathway called
gluconeogenesis. About 90% of gluconeogenesis takes place in the liver. Without this process, the
brain, which is dependent on glucose as a fuel, would have problems in functioning if food intake
were restricted for even a day.
Gluconeogenesis (gleuko, Greek sweet; neo, Latin new; genesis, Latin produce) is the
metabolic pathway that synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate compounds which include
lactate, glycerol from fats, and all the amino acids except leucine and lysine. Lactate is produced
from hardworking muscles and from red blood cells, glycerol is from hydrolysis of triacylglycerol, and
certain amino acids from dietary protein hydrolysis or from muscle protein during starvation. Mean-
ing, the amino acids and glycerol are generally used only under starvation conditions.
Figure 21. Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis. These

Figure 20. Comparison of the reactions of glycolysis and two pathways are similar but not the same. © 2015
gluconeogenesis.© 2017 Denniston, et al. McGraw-Hill Stoker, S. H. General, Organic and Biological
Education Chemistry. 6th ed. Cengage Learning, Inc
At first glance (figure 21), the processes of gluconeogenesis, which is from pyruvate to
glucose appears to be simply the reverse of glycolysis, which is from glucose to pyruvate. But,
these two processes are not exact opposites. Why? Because steps 1, 3, and 10 of glycolysis are
irreversible hence, the reverse reactions must be carried out by other enzymes (figure 20).
In step 1 of glycolysis, hexokinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose. In gluconeo-
genesis, the dephosphorylation of glucose-6-phosphate is catalyzed by glucose-6-phosphatase,
which is found in the liver but not in muscle. In reaction 3, the phosphorylation of fructose-6-
phosphate catalyzed by phosphofructokinase, is irreversible. That step is bypassed in gluconeo-
genesis using the fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Finally, in step 10 of glycolysis, the phosphorylation
of ADP catalyzed by pyruvate kinase cannot be reversed. In gluconeogenesis, the conversion of
pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate involves two enzymes and some unusual reactions. First, the
enzyme pyruvate carboxylase adds CO2 to pyruvate to produce the four-carbon compound oxalo-
acetate. The enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase then removes the CO2 and adds a
phosphoryl group. The donor of the phosphoryl group in this reaction is guanosine triphosphate
(GTP), a nucleotide like ATP, except that the nitrogenous base is guanine.
Figure 21 shows most obvious difference of the two processes. There are 11 compounds
involved in gluconeogenesis and only 10 in glycolysis. Why? The last step of glycolysis is the
conversion of the high-energy molecule phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate. The reverse of this
process is the beginning of gluconeogenesis which cannot be accomplished in a single step only
because it requires two enzymes to catalyze the reactions. So, in gluconeogenesis pathway, a two-
step process by way of oxaloacetate is required to effect the conversion of pyruvate to phospho-
enolpyruvate. Both ATP and GTP molecules are needed to drive this two-step process.

What is Cori cycle?

The conversion of lactate back into glucose is important in mammals. After strenuous
work, the muscles produce lactate, which is converted back to glucose in the liver. The glucose is
then transported back to the muscle through the bloodstream. In the muscle, glucose can be
catabolized to produce ATP, or it can be used to replenish glycogen stores in the muscle. This
cyclic process between the liver and skeletal muscles is called the Cori Cycle. The Cori cycle
named after Carl and Gerty Cori, provides a mechanism to convert lactate produced by anaerobic
glycolysis in muscle cells to glucose using the gluconeogenic pathway in liver cells.
(a) (b)
Figure 22. The Cori cycle. A way for lactate produced by

anaerobic glycolysis in the muscle cells to be converted to
glucose through gluconeogenesis in liver cells, at a cost of
net 4 ATP equivalents. The NAD+/NADH coenzyme linkage
between the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
and lactate dehydrogenase enzymes is maintained because
these two reactions are reversible. (a).© 2015 Stoker, S. H.
General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 6th ed. Cengage
Learning, Inc.; (b) © 2017 Meisfeld, et al. W. W. Norton &
Company, Inc.
2.4. Glycogen synthesis and degradation

Glucose is the sole source of energy of the mammalian red blood cells and the main
source of energy for the brain. Neither of the red blood cells nor the brain cells can store glucose,
thus, a constant supply must be available as blood glucose. This is provided by dietary glucose and
by gluconeogenesis or by glycogenolysis, the degradation of glycogen.
Glycogen is a long, branched chain polymer of glucose stored in the liver and skeletal
muscles in most animals. Breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver mobilizes the glucose when
hormonal signals register a need for increased levels of blood glucose.
Two hormones
control glycogenolysis, the
glucagon, a peptide
hormone synthesized in the
pancreas, and epinephrine,
produced in the adrenal
glands. Glucagon is released
from the pancreas in
response to low blood
glucose, while epinephrine is
released from the adrenal
glands in response to a
threat or a stress.
Glycogenesis is
the process by which glyco-
gen is synthesize. It is stimu-
lated by the hormone insulin
which is also produced by
the pancreas in response to
high blood glucose levels.
This means, insulin counters
the action of glucagon. The
process of glycogen synthe-
sis and degradation is shown
in figure 24. Figure 23. Glycogenolysis.© 2017 Denniston, et al. McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 24.Glycogen degradation and synthesis involves three key reactions catalyzed by (1) glycogen phosphorylase,
(2) glycogen synthase, and (3) the glycogen branching and debranching enzymes. Glycogen phosphorylase removes
glucose from the non-reducing ends of glycogen through a phosphorolysis reaction that generates glucose-1-P. The
enzyme phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-P to glucose-6-P, which is either used by muscle cells in glycolysis or
dephosphorylated in liver cells and exported. The glycogen synthase enzyme catalyzes a reaction that links glucose to
nonreducing ends of glycogen, using UDP-glucose as the substrate. Generation of UDP-glucose requires the enzymes
UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and nucleotide diphosphate kinase. The branching and debranching enzymes are
responsible for modifying the glycogen polymer to maximize the number of reducing ends available during glycogen
degradation and synthesis. Hormonal signaling is the primary regulatory mechanism in controlling glycogen degradation
(epinephrine, glucagon) and synthesis (insulin). © 2017 Meisfeld, et al. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Watch:
 Carbohydrate metabolism @ https://tinyurl.com/10gnzabm
 Glycolysis @ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUPQVg1vO0Q
 Krebs cycle @ https://tinyurl.com/kx3gvmh1
 Oxidative phosphorylation @ https://tinyurl.com/eg5xyh6y
 PPP @ https://tinyurl.com/ymqsdkt3
 Cori cycle @ https://tinyurl.com/y4z5pp8m
 Glycogen synthesis @ https://tinyurl.com/5e4brzkg
 Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation @ https://tinyurl.com/zvrx6swh
 Glycogenolysis @ https://tinyurl.com/yescn3sq
Read: Carbohydrate metabolism @ https://tinyurl.com/1qz1hk59

Activity 3
CONCEPT MAP

Instructor: Rating :
Direction: Create a concept map that summarizes and correlates the different chemical pathways
in carbohydrate metabolism. Please include the starting materials and products of each metabolic
pathway. Be guided of the terms and phrases in the box below. You can use a term or a phrase
more than one time. You can also add terms or processes not written in the box.
Carbohydrate metabolism pyruvate Cori cycle glycogenesis glycolysis
Pentose Phosphate Pathway lactate gluconeogenesis glycogenolysis glucose
Acetyl CoA NADH NADPH liver muscle

Name: Rating:
Section: Date:
Subject Instructor:
Answer the following questions with a minimum of three sentences:
1. What is carbohydrate metabolism? Why is it important?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the major differences between gluconeogenesis and glycolysis? What about
glycogenesis and glycogenolysis?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Is Pentose Phosphate Pathway necessary? Yes or No? Why?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the importance of the antagonistic effects of glucagon and insulin?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Why do you think diabetic people take insulin?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Module 2 CARBOHYDRATES
Denniston, K. J., Topping, et al. (2017). General, Organic, and Biochemistry. 9th ed. New
York, USA: McGraw-Hill Education.
Meisfeld, R. L., McEvoy, M. M. (2017). Biochemistry. New York, USA : W. W. Norton &
Company, Inc.
Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 7th ed.. New York,
USA: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Stoker, S. H. (2015). General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. 6th ed.. Pasig City,
Philippines: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.
Yutimco, Mac Gerald A. (2021). Chem 14: Biochemistry. Compostela Valley State University.
(Unpublished Course Pack)
Online references:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wFYsufJ9XMM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FILqt0nSiRo
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/
https://byjus.com/chemistry/classification-of-carbohydrates-and-its-structure/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/carbohydrate-metabolism-no-content/
https://www.coursera.org/lecture/science-exercise/5-carbohydrate-metabolism-during-exercise-
crzgf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUPQVg1vO0Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FmEm0CgHGdA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxCdheLvrx4
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrate-metabolism/v/pentose
-phosphate-pathway
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LSIIxX1Fa2E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_5ubq6MikQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqDGlChGZPk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VCFAGNb5exk


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Republic of the Philippines

Surigao Del Sur State University

PROGRAM/YEAR LEVEL : ————————————————

Surigao Del Sur State University

The College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology aims to:

PROGRAM INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Specific Program Outcomes - Bachelor in Agricultural Technology (BAT) Program:

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY ii

This provides the list of references used in the module.

At the end of this course, students must be able to:

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY iii

Welcome to your second module in General Biochemistry, the

What are carbohydrates? Where do these biomolecules originated from?

Upon completing this module, you are expected to;

Together, let’s take the sweet challenge in learning more about

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY iv

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to :

Foods that are rich in carbohydrates:

1.1. Structure and functions of carbohydrates

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 1

In general, carbohydrates serve the following vital functions:

Figure 2. Major groups of carbohydrates. NAc = N-acetyl. © 2017

A. Simple sugars: often function as metabolic intermediates in energy conversion pathways

Physical properties, structure and nomenclature of monosaccharides

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 2

How to write Fischer Projection formulas?

In aqueous solution, monosaccharides with five or more carbons occur as cyclic

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 3

What are the cyclic structures of monosaccharides?

Prize in Chemistry in 1937. In a terminal

Haworth projection, the ring is

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 4

What are disaccharides and oligosaccharides?

Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed by two (2) monosaccharide units joined

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 5

What are polysaccharides?

Homopolysaccharides that serve as storage forms of monosaccharides used as fuels:

is usually 15%–20% of the starch and B. Starch (amylopectin)

amylopectin, a branched glucose polymer is

polymer of β-D-glucose units linked by

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 6

Some representatives of heteropolysaccharides are hyalorunic acid, heparin and peptidoglycan

Glycoconjugates: Proteoglycans, Glycoproteins, and Glycosphingolipids

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 7

Procedure: (Note: This activity is designed to be done at home)

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 8

ACTIVITY 1 REPORT SHEET (1/2)

Name: Date performed :

RESULTS and OBSERVATIONS:

Iodine test Observations Evidence (pictures)

B. For starch gruel

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 9

ACTIVITY 1 REPORT SHEET (2/2)

Name: Date performed :

2. Why does starch turned blue-black/deep blue in iodine test?.

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 10

1. Give the complete name of the carbohydrate or sugar in each diagram.

3. Identify the following structures if α (alpha) or β (beta) configuration and if D or L configuration.

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 11

B. Explain the following questions with at least three sentences.

1. What is the structural difference between an aldose and a ketose?

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 12

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to :

What would have happened if carbohydrate is not digested?

DEMEIAPE VERAS BAGALAY 13

Here are the steps in ―energy-requiring‖ phase of glycolysis: