Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

An environment-friendly solution for indoor air purification

by using renewable photocatalysts in concrete: A review
Ranjit K. Nath a,n, M.F.M. Zain b,1, M. Jamil b,2
a
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology (CUET), 4349, Chittagong, Bangladesh
b
Sustainable Construction Materials and Building Systems (SUCOMBS) Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Malaysia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Photocatalyst is needed for cleaner environment and a better quality of life. This fact leads an idea of
Received 17 February 2015 more eco-compatible use of light. This approach could become an integral component of strategies to
Received in revised form reduce indoor air pollutants through the use of photocatalysts as construction materials. In this study, we
6 January 2016
discuss the quality of indoor air, sources of pollutants in the indoor environment, and the photocatalysis
Accepted 3 May 2016
process. Moreover, the different parameters and uses of different photocatalysts in concrete for indoor air
purification, starting from the early research until the current research, are described, and the reaction
Keywords: mechanism of photocatalytic oxidation and sustainable construction by using photocatalysts are also
Environment reviewed.
Indoor air
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Photocatalyst
Pollutants
Volatile Organic Compounds

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185
2. Quality of indoor environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185
3. Sources of pollutants and its impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
4. Indoor air purification technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
5. Photocatalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
5.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187
5.2. Activation of photocatalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187
5.3. Selection of photocatalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188
6. Significance of photocatalysts in sustainable construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189
7. Photocatalytic degradation of pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189
7.1. Reaction mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189
7.2. Factors impacts on photocatalytic oxidation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
7.2.1. Pollutant types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
7.2.2. Chemical interaction and competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
7.2.3. Concentration of pollutants and flow rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
7.2.4. Effects of retention/residence time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
7.2.5. Relative humidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
7.2.6. Effect of temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
7.2.7. UV intensity and wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
7.2.8. Photocatalytic degeneration or regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
8. Influence of tropical climate on photocatalyst performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 8801817750388; fax: þ88031714910.
E-mail addresses: rkn_chem@yahoo.com, ranjitkumarnath@gmail.com (R.K. Nath), fauzi@vlsi.eng.ukm.my, fauzizain@gmail.com (M.F.M. Zain), mjamil.ukm@gmail.com,
lynyeeha@gmail.com (M. Jamil).
1
Tel.: þ60389213184; fax: þ 60389118315.
2
Tel.: þ60123120002; fax: þ6038911 8304.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.018
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194 1185

Conflict of Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192

1. Introduction indoor air exerts a direct impact on human health in terms of

In recent years, environmental concerns regarding pollution
and resource depletion have become major societal concerns. Air
quality is directly linked to health hazards. Many of these health
hazards are associated with volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and oxides of C, N, and S in the air. VOCs and inorganic oxides
(CO2, NOx, and SOx) may also travel long distances to produce
secondary pollutants, such as acid rain or ozone [1], and facilitate
global warming.
A potential solution to pollution remediation may be hetero-
geneous photocatalysis, which accelerate the natural decomposi-
tion process. Photodegradation occurs at room temperature and
pressure. In addition, the processconverts organic pollutants to
water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) without requiring an
additional carrier gas [2,3]. This technology shows a high removal
rate toward numerous pollutants, such as hydrocarbons, chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, VOCs [4], sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide [5], nitrogen oxides, and other compounds [6,7].
The super-hydrophilic or super-hydrophobic properties of
photocatalysts allow self-cleaning in the presence of rain [8,9].
Photocatalytic compounds may be utilized to construct air-
purifying concrete by integrating photocatalyst particles within a
thin, concrete surface layer. The properties to self-cleaning and
pollutant decomposition are maintained and even enhanced when
photocatalytic particles are used with concrete. Its large surface
area, which is in close proximity to that of pollutants, makes
concrete an ideal substrate for heterogeneous photo catalysis air
remediation [10].
Most studies in this field have focused on photocatalytic pro-
cesses that use semiconductor oxides, such as titanium dioxide
(TiO2), cadmium sulfide (CdS), and zinc oxide (ZnO),because of
their efficiency for degrading compounds, such as VOCs and other
inorganic oxides [11,12]. The use of photocatalysts in concrete is
relatively new, and the majority of studies in this area involve the
use of TiO2 [13]. In 2011, Matt Stock and Steve Dunn [14] found
that LiNbO3 can produce more products under UV–vis irradiation
in comparison with TiO2, which is a photocatalyst widely used in
construction for indoor air purification. The use of LiNbO3 in
building materials induces artificial photosynthesis, which is one
of the best approaches to producing O2 from moisture and
atmospheric CO2 and simultaneously reduce global CO2 levels.
Evaluation of the removal of air pollution by photocatalyst incor-
porated into construction and building materials is a considerable
necessity. Hence, this review aims to address relevant issues
lengthened exposure to pollutants by inhalation [15].
According to Changsuphan et al. [16], the quality of indoor air
can be deteriorated by a variety of pollutants, such as microbial
contaminants, volatile and semi-volatile organics, particulate
matter, and other sources that can affect the comfort level of air
and induce health hazards. Increasing pollutant sources have
made indoor air cleaning technologies gain more popularity, and
identifying a cost- and energy-effective method to destroy indoor
pollutants has become an important need. Numerous sources of
indoor air pollutants exist in Malaysia:for example, various
chemical substances, such as formaldehyde, are emitted from
furnishings, VOCs are emitted from the use and application of
solvents, and ozone emitted from photocopiers and laser printers.
The Ministry of Human Resources in Malaysia introduced the
Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality by the Department of
Occupational Safety and Health in 2005 to provide guidelines and
standards to protect the health of workers and other occupants of
an indoor or enclosed environment served by mechanical venti-
lation and air conditioning. This code of practice was established
to ensure that employees and other occupants are protected from
poor indoor air quality, which could adversely affect their health
and well-being, and thereby reduce their productivity [17]. In
general, buildings or completely enclosed areas used as offices or
public places are served by mechanical ventilation and air con-
ditioning (MVAC) systems. MVAC systems include the equipment,
distribution networks, and terminals that provide, either collec-
tively or individually, the processes of heating, cooling, humidifi-
cation, dehumidification, ventilation, or air-purification, or any
other associated processes to a conditioned space [18]. A public
place is defined as “any theater, place of public entertainment of
any kind, or other place of general resort, admission to which is
obtained by payment or to which the public have or are permitted
to have access.” Examples of eligible buildings include office
buildings, shopping malls, hotels, restaurants, theaters, cinemas,
and funeral parlors, and so on. A total of 12 indoor air quality
parameters, which are listed in Table 1, are necessary to ensure a
standard indoor environment. These parameters include three
physical parameters (i.e., room temperature, relative humidity, and
air movement), eight chemical parameters [i.e., CO2, CO, respirable
Table 1
Standard value of indoor air quality parameters for offices & public places.
Source: http://www.iaq.gov.hk/tables.html (Access date 17/06/2014)
Parameter Unit 8-h average

regarding sustainable construction using a photocatalyst for Excellent class Good class
indoor air purification, sources of pollutants in the indoor envir-
onment, photocatalysis process and provides an overview of the Room Temperature °C 20 to o 25.5 o 25.5
current developments in this field. Relative Humidity % 40 to o 70 o 70
Air movement m/s o 0.2 o 0.3
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ppmv o 800 o 1000
Carbon Monoxide (CO) μg/m3 o 2000 o 10,000
2. Quality of indoor environment Respirable Suspended Particulates μg/m3 o 20 o 180
(PM10)
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) μg/m3 o 40 o 150
People generally spend the largest portion of their time Ozone (O3) μg/m3 o 50 o 120
indoors. Indoor environmental quality is a key aspect in the Formaldehyde (HCHO) μg/m3 o 30 o 100
evaluation of green buildings aiming to achieve sustainable Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) μg/m3 o 200 o 600
Radon (Rn) Bq/m3 o 150 o 200
development in nonresidential buildings, such as commercial,
Airborne Bacteria cfu/m3 o 500 o 1000
institutional, and industrial structures. Therefore, the quality of
1186 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194
suspended particulates (PM10), NO2, O3, formaldehyde (HCHO),
VOCs, and radon], and one biological parameter (i.e., airborne
bacteria).
3. Sources of pollutants and its impact
Air supplies oxygen, which is essential for existence. Human
activities can release substances into the air, and several of these
substances can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.
Air pollution is not about outdoor air quality alone; air inside
houses or offices is also often heavily polluted. Several main
sources of indoor pollution include biological contaminants, such
as mold and pollen, indoor activities like cooking, cooling and
heating systems, household products, and materials used in the
building, such as paint, furniture glue, and other solvents.
Sick building syndrome occurs when several people are affec-
ted. People spend much of their time inside buildings. Exposure to
harmful indoor pollutants can lead to serious consequences.
Indoor air quality problems usually cause discomfort, and many
people feel better as soon as they eliminate the source of pollution.
Therefore, both indoor and outdoor air pollution must be con-
sidered [19,20]. Varma et al. [21] illustrated the main sources of
indoor air pollution and identified CO, CO2, ozone, nitrogen oxides,
formaldehyde, VOCs, suspended particulate matter, total sus-
pended particulate matter (TSP irrespirable particles), and organic
viable particulate matter as common pollutants.
Among these materials, VOCs perform an important function in
polluting indoor environment. VOCs are defined as compounds
that contain a minimum of one carbon and a hydrogen atom in its
molecular structure and a boiling point of between 50 and 260 °C
[22]. A large number of organic materials have been identified in
indoor air. These materials include aliphatic and aromatic hydro-
carbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and various ketones and
aldehydes [23]. Several of these compounds, such as benzene ethyl
benzene and toluene, have been suggested to be possible carci-
nogens. The actual health implications of most organic compounds
found in indoor air are not presently well defined. Numerous VOCs
are toxic, and certain compounds are considered carcinogenic,
mutagenic, or teratogenic [24]. Exposure to VOCs can result in
both acute and chronic health effects. Asthmatics and other indi-
viduals with prior respiratory complaints may be particularly
susceptible to low-dose VOC exposure [25]. At high concentra-
tions, numerous VOCs are strong narcotics that can depress the
central nervous system [26]. Exposure can also lead to irritation of
the eyes and respiratory tract and cause sensitization reactions
involving the eyes, skin, and lungs. The occurrence of these com-
pounds in the atmosphere therefore poses a great threat to human
health and the environment.
The global amount of VOCs every year increases. Table 2 shows
the indoor sources of certain organic vapors. The table shows that
construction coverings and household cleaners significantly con-
tribute to air pollutants in indoor environments. The environ-
mental protection agencies of most countries consider substances,
such as benzene, ethyl benzene, toluene, m-xylene, and acetone,
all of which promote extremely serious health problems, as
priority pollutants. The concentration of single VOCs was reviewed
to be generally below 15 ppb, with most measuring below 1.5 ppb
[27]. However, in a given environment, the concentration of
individual VOCs may be highly variable and depend upon the
presence or absence of potential emission sources. These sub-
stances may include monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated
with motor vehicle emissions arising predominantly from the
evaporation and combustion of petroleum products.
VOCs have received considerable attention in the last decade as
their health effects have become better understood [28].
Table 2
Sources of some specific organic vapors in indoor air.
Compound Source materials
Paradichlorobenzene Moth crystals, room deodorants
Methylene chloride Paint removers, solvent usage
Formaldehyde Pressed wood products, foam
Styrene Insulation, textiles, disinfectants, plastics, Paints
Acetaldehyde Glues, deodorants, fuels, leathers and mold
Acrolein Burning of fossil fuels and tobacco smoke
Toluene Polyurethane foam, aerosols, solvent
Phthalic acid anhydride Epoxy resins
Volatile amines Putrefactive degradation of case
Ethyl benzene Building materials, solvent
Tetrachloroethylene Smoking
Chloroform Wearing or storing dry-cleaned clothes
Chlorinated water (showering, washing, clothes)
Carbon tetrachloride Industrial strength cleaners
Aromatic hydrocarbons Paints, adhesives, gasoline, combustion sources
Aliphatic hydrocarbons Paints, gasoline, combustion, Products.
Numerous countries have since established stringent regulations
concerning the use and emission of VOCs. At present, research
efforts are focused on developing processes that can destroy these
compounds. As a large number of VOCs can be oxidized, the che-
mical oxidation process is being considered a viable method of
VOC elimination. The level of VOCs in concrete construction can be
further reduced by using low-VOC materials to form release
agents, curing compounds, damp-proofing materials, wall and
floor coatings and primers, membranes, sealers, and water repel-
lants. Concrete acts as an air barrier, helping improve indoor air
quality by limiting the amount of moisture that can enter a
building or wall through infiltration. Concrete also provides better
control for the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems.
4. Indoor air purification technology
Several air cleaning methods are available on the market.
Existing technologies, such as incineration, absorption, adsorption,
and condensation ionization, cannot satisfactorily control emis-
sions and improve air quality, as these technologies themselves
degrade air quality [19]. Filtration has been the most widely used
method for air cleaning because of its low cost and high pollutant
removal effectiveness. However, older air filters have been found
to be associated with health issues, increased pollutant con-
centration, and reduced work performance. Systems that are
passive, cost-effective, and work along with the existing air
handling systems are constantly needed to reduce loading and
increase energy efficiency on the whole [29,30]. One area that has
been widely explored is the use of materials that can be embedded
or coated on walls and wall boards and passively destroy indoor
concentrations of pollutants effectively. Titanium dioxide-based
photocatalysts have been studied extensively for numerous years
in air treatment, and this technology has gained considerable
importance in recent years because of its low cost, simplicity,
electronic structure, and catalytic properties [31,32].
5. Photocatalysis
The word photocatalysis is composed of two parts; the prefix
photo, which is defined as “light” and catalysis is the process
during which a substance participates in modifying the rate of a
chemical transformation of the reactants without being altered
ultimately [33]. Fujishima et al. [34] defined photocatalysis as “the
catalysis of a photochemical reaction over a solid surface”. In
reality, the widespread use of the term “photocatalysis” refers to
 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194
the “acceleration of a photoreaction by the presence of a catalyst”.
[35] The term “photoreaction” is sometimes elaborated as a
“photo-induced” or “photo-activated” reaction. Photocatalysis
involves photoreactions, which occur at the surface of a catalyst. If
the initial photo-excitation process occurs in an adsorbate mole-
cule, which then interacts with the ground state of the catalyst
substrate, the process is referred to as a “catalyzed photoreaction.”
On the other hand, the initial photo-excitation occurs in the
catalyst substrate, and the photo-excited catalyst then interacts
with the ground state adsorbate molecule. The process is a “sen-
sitized photoreaction”. In most cases, photocatalysis refers to
photocatalysis or photoreactions [32].
Therefore, photocatalysis methods based on catalysis and
photochemistry have been denoted by advanced oxidation pro-
cesses. Among these processes, those that produce hydroxyl
radicals (OH) have shown growing success. UV light can be used
in several approaches, but direct photolysis can occur only when
the chemical compounds absorb incident light efficiently. These
radicals can also be generated with a semiconductor (photo-
catalysis), which absorbs UV radiation when in contact with water.
In photogenerated catalysis, photocatalytic activity depends on the
ability of the catalyst to create electron–hole pairs, which generate
free radicals that can undergo secondary reactions.
5.1. Background
Initial interest in environmental photocatalysis began in 1972
and initiated by Fujishima and Honda's [36] research on photo-
electrochemical solar energy conversion. Through biomimicry of
plant photosynthesis, the researchers attempted to replicate the
photo-induced redox reactions by oxidizing water and reducing
carbon dioxide through a semiconductor irradiated by UV light
[37].
Goodeve and Kitchener [38] from University College, London,
carried out a study on the photocatalytic decomposition of a dye
on titania powder in air, including absorption spectra and deter-
mination of quantum yields [39]. The tandem proposed that tita-
nia acts as a catalyst to accelerate photochemical oxidation.
Moreover, they studied a number of other oxides and speculated
on the precise mechanism. At the time, the term “photocatalysis”
had become the subject of several discussions. The term was not
clearly defined, and the only known fact was that solar energy was
required for certain chemical conversions, such as natural photo-
synthesis in biogenic forms [35]. Mills and Le Hunte [32] reported
that the idea of a photocatalyzed reaction is fundamental interest
and that photocatalysis implies that light in the reaction acts as a
catalyst; light is not consumed in the chemical process but accel-
erates the photoreaction in the presence of a catalyst.
Studies involving gas-phase photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) are
relatively few in number in comparison with published studies on
the photocatalytic treatment of compounds in aqueous media
[40–42]. In 1972, Fujishimna and Honda [36] discovered the
photocatalytic splitting of water on TiO2 electrodes. This event
marked the beginning of a new era in heterogeneous photo-
catalysis. The main focuses of previous studies involve investi-
gating the principal applicability of photocatalysis systems for
efficient treatment of water polluted with toxic substances.
Quantum size effects on photoreactions for nano-particles have
only been recently studied [43].
The photo-electrochemistry concepts described above were
extended for research on heterogeneous photocatalysis applica-
tions by removing the external circuit [37]. In 1977, Frank and Bard
[44] were the first to demonstrate this approach by illustrating the
decomposition of cyanide in water. Since then, increased interest
in environmental photocatalysis has been realized, causing TiO2 to
be applied to glass, tile, paper, and pavements to obtain self-
1187
Fig. 1. Photocatalytic degradation process.
cleaning materials, water purification, air purification, sterilization,
and oil spill remediation [45,46]. According to these studies,
organic and inorganic compounds can be completely decomposed,
and the TiO2 surface is able to self-regenerate [37]. The photo-
catalytic degradation process illustrated in Fig. 1 shows the
photodegradation of organic toxinson the photocatalyst surface
under light energy. Therefore, rather than absorption of pollutants,
which is common to traditional air purification methods, hetero-
geneous photocatalysis can decompose pollutants to non-
hazardous waste products with minimal energy requirements [15].
To date, the majority of work in this field has involved the use
of TiO2. This material has a band gap energy of 3.2 eV and there-
fore absorbs in the near ultraviolet light (  380 nm). In 2011, Matt
Stock and Steve Dunn [47] found that LiNbO3 produces more
products (formaldehyde and formic acid) under UV and visible
irradiation than TiO2 despite the wider band gap (3.78 eV) of the
former. The unexpected high yield of the product from LiNbO3 is
explained by its strong remnant polarization (70 μc/cm2), which is
not found in TiO2. Remanent polarization facilitates improved
carrier life times and allows lower energy injection of charge
carriers, thereby enhance the efficiency of LiNbO3 [14].
5.2. Activation of photocatalyst
In solid band theory, electronic properties can be described by
the quantum properties of an electronic energy band structure.
The electrons of a single isolated atom occupy an atomic orbital,
which forms a discrete set of energy levels. If several atoms are
brought together into a molecule, the atomic orbitals split, as in a
coupled oscillation, thereby producing a number of molecular
orbitals that are proportional to the number of atoms. When a
large number of atoms are brought together to form a solid, the
number of orbitals becomes exceedingly large, and the difference
in energy between orbitals becomes very small. Therefore, the
levels may be considered to form continuous bands of energy
rather than the discrete energy levels of the atoms in isolation.
However, the electronic wave functions of constituent atoms
overlap, and the application of the Pauli Exclusion Principle leads
to splitting of discrete energy levels of isolated atoms into bands of
allowed electron levels separated by so-called forbidden bands or
gaps [48].
The bands of possible electron energy levels in a solid are called
allowed energy bands. The energy gap separates the highest filled
(or valence) band and the lowest empty (or conduction) band. The
allowed energy bands sometimes overlap and are at times
1188 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194
separated by forbidding bands. The presence of a forbidden band
immediately above the occupied allowed states is the principal
difference in the electronic structures of a metal and a photo-
catalyst or an insulator. In the latter two substances, a gap exists
between the valence band (VB) and the conduction band (CB). The
presence of a gap means that the electrons cannot easily be
accelerated into higher energy states. The energy diagram of a
semiconductor photocatalyst interface is shown in Fig. 2. Con-
jugated systems possess a low energy gap between the highest
occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital (LUMO) that corresponds to the frequency of
visible light. In insulators, the energy gap is markedly greater than
the probability of excitation of an electron from the VB to the CB,
which is extremely low. In metals, no gap exists between occupied
and unoccupied states [48,49].
Photocatalytic reactions occur at the interface between catalyst
and reaction medium under the condition of irradiation with
waves with electromagnetic field from UV and visible range of the
spectrum. The photocatalyst is a semiconductor with a band gap
between 1.4 and 4.6 eV [48]. Incident photons with energy
exceeding the band gap energy are absorbed, and electrons jump
Fig. 2. Energy diagram of a semiconductor photocatalyst interface.
Fig. 3. Valence and conductive band positions for various photocatlysts, E (Electric potential) and NHE (Normal Hydrogen Electrode potential).
from the VB to the CB and subsequently show pairs of electron–
hole particles. Photocatalysts such as TiO2, ZnO, CdS, GaP, SiC, WO3,
ZnS, and CdSe have been found to exhibit certain photocatalytic
activities [32]. VB and CB positions for various photocatalysts are
shown in Fig. 3. In the photodegradation process of VOCs to pro-
duce CO2 and H2O, photocatalysts with conduction band positions
at positive values (versus the normal hydrogen electrode) are
unsuitable for VOC degradation. Therefore, Fe2O3 and SnO2 cannot
be used for VOC removal. Photocatalysts containing band gap
energies of 3 or below are unable to oxidize most of VOCs. Thus,
GaAs, GaP, CdSe, CdS, Fe2O3, WO3, and SiC are not preferable for
VOC degradation. Only TiO2can be used for VOC degradation.
The activation of photocatalysts and corresponding reactions
on the photocatalyst surface can be described by the following six
steps [50]:
i. Adsorption of photons with an energy that matches or is
greater than its band gap energy of the semiconductor.
ii. Promotion of an electron (e  ) from the VB to the CB, with
concomitant generation of a hole (h þ ) in the VB;
iii. e  and h þ diffusion and migration to the surface where they
can react.
iv. Recombination of electron–hole pairs.
v. Stabilization of e  and h þ at the surface to form a trapped
electron and a trapped hole, respectively.
vi. Reduction of a suitable electron accepter and oxidation of a
suitable electron donor.
Of these steps, the absorption of light (step [i]) and subsequent
redox reactions at the surface (step [vi]) are the key process in
photocatalysis. Steps (iii) and (v) sometimes occur too quickly to
be observed in the reaction [51].
5.3. Selection of photocatalyst
The majority of the work in photocatalysts in concrete has
involved the use of TiO2 [52–54]. This material possesses a band
gap energy of 3.2 eV and therefore is absorbed in the near ultra-
violet light ( 380 nm). Another promising but relatively new
approach involves the use of the semiconductor oxide LiNbO3,
 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194 1189

Photocatalysis represents a highly exciting topic for innovations

in cement industry with sustainable solutions. These innovative
products have been developed to provide an environment-friendly
solution to the building market and are becoming widely recog-
nized for green-building construction [61]. Broad utilization of
white photocatalytic materials in concrete could provide sig-
nificant support in reducing environmental pollution and
improving air quality.
From the photocatalytic point of view, pervious concrete offers
high specific surfaces and corresponding high depolluting perfor-
mances, increasing its eco-sustainable value [62].

Fig. 4. Unit cell of LiNbO3.

7. Photocatalytic degradation of pollutants

which could be applied to concrete to improve indoor air quality;
LiNbO3 can also promote artificial photosynthesis [14].
7.1. Reaction mechanisms
The structure of a unit cell of LiNbO3 is shown in Fig. 4. The
crystal structure of lithium niobate belongs to the space group R3C,
In the photodegradation process, a catalyst may accelerate
and its lattice parameters are 0.5418 and 1.3863 nm. When illu-
photoreaction by interaction with the substrate in its ground or
minated with light energy that exceeds its band gap energy
excited state [63]. In heterogeneous photocatalysis, two active
(λ o333 nm) [55], LiNbO3can act as a photocatalyst to degrade the
phases, namely, solid and liquid/gas, are present [64]. The solid
toxic VOCs to safer compounds. LiNbO3, as a relatively new
phase is a catalyst and usually a semiconductor [65]. The mole-
material in concrete, is still not used in concrete as photocatalyst;
cular orbital of semiconductors possesses a band structure [63].
instead, it is used as photocatalyst in electronic instruments by
Bands are the distributions of numerous molecular orbital energy
replacing TiO2 to achieve artificial photosynthesis.
levels that are closely spaced in energy that the bands appear
The efficiency of this technology depends on numerous factors,
continuous. The bands of interest in photocatalysis are the popu-
including the size of the surface exposed, the concentration of
lated VB and the largely vacant conduction band, which is char-
pollutants, the humidity, and the ambient temperature. The por-
acterized by a band gap energy (Ebg) [66]. Semiconductors may be
osity of the surface is also important as the oxides of nitrogen NOx
(such as NO, NO2, and NO3), and removal ability is improved as photoexcited to form electron-acceptor sites (oxidizing sites) and
porosity is increased. Photocatalytic activity is decreased by electron-donor sites (reducing sites), providing great scope for
approximately 8% with aging of the surface but stabilized at the redox reaction [67]. As illustrated in Fig. 5, an electron is promoted
age of 90 days. Deposition of pollutants on the surface has been from the VB to the CB, leaving a positive hole in the VB and an
reported to decrease removal efficiency; this efficiency, however, electron in the CB, when the semiconductor is illuminated with
can be regained through the self-cleaning mechanism [56]. The light (hν) of greater energy than that of the band gap.
extensive use of LiNbO3 in photocatalytic building materials is If charge separation is maintained, the electron and hole may
attributed to its following characteristics [57]: migrate to the catalyst surface, on which the pairs participate in
redox reactions with sorbed species. In particular, the positive
þ
i. Safety, water insolubility, chemically inertness, and biological safety holes in VB (hvb ) may react with surface-bound H2O or OH  to
ii. Higher photocatalytic activity compared with those of other produce a hydroxyl radical, and a free electron in the conduction

photocatalysts band (ecb ) is picked up by oxygen to generate a superoxide radical
iii. Effectiveness under weak solar irradiation in ambient atmo- anion (O2.  ), as indicated in the following equations (2.1–2.3)
spheric environments [12,13,65].
Absorption of efficient photons by LiNbO3 (hνZ Ebg ¼ 3.78 eV)
 þ
LiNbO3 þ hν-ecb þ hvb ð2:1Þ
6. Significance of photocatalysts in sustainable construction
Formation of superoxide radical anion
Environmental pollution is one of the causes of poor indoor air 
O2 þ ecb -O2:  ð2:2Þ
quality in buildings, particularly in suburban areas. Gaseous
emissions from daily traffic in the same areas are continuously
increasing and often exceed the allowable concentration in the
atmosphere [58]. Within this frame, the development of photo-
catalytic construction materials, particularly when applied to
infrastructural works, can contribute to cleaning the air and
improving sustainability levels. Photocatalytic cementitious
materials represent a new frontier in air quality improvement
because photocatalysis can accelerate the natural oxidation pro-
cess, thereby promoting faster decomposition of pollutants, pre-
venting them from accumulating, and favoring their decay [59,60].
Proving to be highly effective and showing real eco-sustainable
value, these materials actually represent one of the most promis-
ing solutions for reducing air pollutant concentrations in urban
areas. The development of innovative, sustainable technologies for
environmental improvement is an absolute necessity. In this sense,
photocatalytic cements represent a significant contribution that Fig. 5. Mechanism of electron-hole pair formation in a LiNbO3 particle in the
can be widely implemented in the construction industry. presence of pollutant under UV illumination.
1190 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194
Neutralization of OH  group into OH by the hole
þ  þ VOCs depend on the pollutant. In general, higher soluble com-
ðH 2 O 3 H þ OH Þads þ hvb -OH þH þ
The hydroxyl radical (OH) and superoxide radical (O2  )
anions have been suggested to be the primary oxidizing species in
photocatalytic oxidation processes. These oxidative reactions
would result in degradation of pollutants,as shown in the fol-
lowing Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5).
Oxidation of the organic pollutants via successive attack by
(OH) radicals
R þ OH-R' þ H 2 O
Or by direct reaction with holes
þ be photo-oxidizable. However, the interaction and competition of
R þ h -R þ -degradation products
The chain reactions continue until the VOC is completely
mineralized to CO2and H2O. Several side reactions may also be
induced to generate volatile compounds, accelerating the oxida-
tion process. For oxidation reactions to occur, the VB must possess
a higher oxidation potential than the material under consideration
[43]. The redox potential of the VB and the CB for different
semiconductors vary between þ 4.0 and  0.5 V versus the stan-
dard hydrogen electrode (SHE), respectively [68]. The VB and CB
energies of LiNbO3 are estimated to be þ0.48 and 3.30 V,
respectively. These findings indicate that the band gap energy of
the material is 3.78 eV and it therefore absorbs in near UV light
(λ o339 nm) [69,70]. Most VOCs possess potentials above that of
the LiNbO3VB and therefore can be oxidized [14].
7.2. Factors impacts on photocatalytic oxidation process
Many environmental factors affect photooxidation efficiency.
Understanding these relationships is progressive and often varies
by photocatalytic material, thus making comparisons difficult.
However, known environmental factors consist of pollutant types,
pollutant competition, pollution concentrations, air velocity, rela-
tive humidity, UV light intensity, and photocatalytic degeneration
and regeneration.
7.2.1. Pollutant types
Numerous pollutants threaten our society in both indoor and
outdoor environments. Emissions from vehicle combustion
include NOx, SO2, CO, and VOCs, all of which threaten both human
health and the environment. For example, NO and VOC pollutants
are precursors to smog. Furthermore, NOx, CO2, and SO2are the
leading causes of acid rain, which not only destroys the environ-
ment by killing and reducing the biodiversity of forests and lakes
but also degrades our buildings [56,71]. Outdoor air also impacts
indoor environments. Indoor environments can be contaminated
by chemical, organic, and particulate pollutants that migrate from
outdoors or result from gas stoves and other indoor emission
sources, such as building materials, radon, and environmental
tobacco smoke [72]. Climate change can affect these factors. For
example, changes in the outdoor concentrations of a pollutant
because of alterations in atmospheric chemistry or atmospheric
circulation can affect indoor concentrations. Measures to reduce
energy use in buildings, such as lowering ventilation rates, may
cause higher exposure to pollutants emitted from indoor sou-
rces. NOx and VOCs are both associated with sick building
syndrome [73].
The photodegradation rates of each pollutant vary because of
different absorption rates and reaction schemes. For example,
VOCs, such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX),
show various photo-steady states and reaction rates [74,75]. As a
result, attempts to describe the ability of a photocatalyst to
degrade pollutants through better understanding of chemical
kinetics are continuously being undertaken. The reaction rates of
ð2:3Þ
pounds tend to possess higher reaction rates. Thus, the order of
conversion rates is as follows: alcohols and glycol
ethers 4aldehydes, ketones, and terpene hydrocarbons4aromatic
and alkane hydrocarbons4 halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons
[76]. However, VOCs are also known to fully oxidize, and several
less desirable intermediates may be exposed [76].
7.2.2. Chemical interaction and competition
As described in Section 7.1, different reaction schemes exist
ð2:4Þ
through dependence on the pollutant, resulting in different rates
of photocatalytic degradation. Numerous pollutants are known to
ð2:5Þ
other pollutants has yet to be completely understood. In the pre-
sence of other chemicals, simultaneous photocatalytic oxidation
reactions may inhibit or promote removal rates. Pollutants such as
SOx and BTEX are known to inhibit degradation of other pollutants,
whereas NO2 can enhance degradation. BTEX and SOx are known
to inhibit the degradation of formaldehyde. Both BTEX and SOx
interfere with formaldehyde degradation, decreasing conversion
by 10%. SO2, which is first absorbed into the TiO2 surface, inhibits
absorption of formaldehyde. Similarly, BTEX competes for
absorption with formaldehyde [77] and interferes with NOx
reduction [75]. By contrast, NOx enhances the photodegradation of
various pollutants. For example, NOx increases formaldehyde
photodegradation rates by 5% at low humidity and as much as 25%
at high humidity [77]. When BTEX combines with NOx photo-
oxidation, the largest enhancement in degradation was observed
in pollutants with low reaction rates, including ethyl benzene and
toluene [75].
7.2.3. Concentration of pollutants and flow rates
Removal efficiency is a function of the quantity of pollutants
and exposure periods [78]. In a previous research, flow rates varied
from 1 L/min to 6 L/min [1,56,79,80]. In TiO2 on roof tiles, when
longer periods of gas residence are adopted with lower amounts of
toluene gas, removal efficiencies increase; experiments employing
shorter periods and higher concentrations of toluene show
decreased efficiency [81]. Similar results were obtained in
experiments with indoor use of TiO2 oxidation of ethylene, for-
maldehyde, toluene, 1-butene, BTEX, and NOx [15,75]. For example,
an increase in flow rate decreased the removal efficiency of
toluene from 95% to 65% [82]. The explanation provided was that
an increase in flow tends to decrease the residence time with the
photocatalytic reactor, whereas an increase in concentration of
pollutants tends to increase the mass transfer rate and accumu-
lation of final products [75,81]. Accumulation of oxidation pro-
ducts on the catalyst surface inhibits the continuous absorption of
pollutants, potentially leading to deactivation of photocatalysis
[75]. Thus, research points to the main use of TIO2for mall pollu-
tant loads, similar to those found in indoor and outdoor air [81].
However, locating photocatalytic surfaces near pollutants is crucial
to ensure exposure [10].
7.2.4. Effects of retention/residence time
Retention period is used to refer the complete period of time
and residence time is used to refer the period of time that set in
Customizing. The retention period can be longer than the resi-
dence time and cannot be set in customizing. The effect of resi-
dence time has been widely studied together with the initial
pollutant concentration. Similar to the effects of initial pollutant
concentration, two opposite effects have been observed. The
influence of mass transfer performs a significant function in the
effect of residence time. When the reaction is mass transfer-con-
trolled, the degradation rate of reactants increases with decreasing
 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194
residence time [83]. With further decreases in contact time, the
photo-degradation rate changes from mass transfer control to
reaction kinetic control and can be described by the L–H model. In
this case, the degradation rate increases with increasing residence
time [84,85].
7.2.5. Relative humidity
Water vapor possesses negative and positive impact. This
finding is unexpected, since water is a key source of hydroxyl
radicals [15,81]. The absence of water in several chemicals is
known to hinder their reaction rates, as commonly observed in
toluene, ethyl benzene, and formaldehyde photocatalytic oxida-
tion. Surprisingly, water can also inhibit photocatalytic oxidation
rates. Researchers suggest that water particles compete with
adsorbed pollutant molecules [30,81]. Another hypothesis is that
water forms one or more layers of film, which prevents the pol-
lutant from reaching the TiO2 layer [82]. Thus, excessive water
interferes with reaction rates, and an optimum humidity condition
may exist [30].
Optimal humidity conditions have been identified for the
removal of formaldehyde. At low humidity, insufficient radicals are
present; at high humidity, competition impacts the amount of
pollutants absorbed. Studies suggest that 55% relative humidity is
optimal for the removal of formaldehyde [73]. However, whether
an optimal relative humidity level exists has been questioned by
several studies [73,82]. For example, Sleiman's research on the
photocatalytic oxidation of toluene oxidation did not show an
optimum relative humidity [82]. In addition, several pollutants,
such as trichloroethylene, exhibit only negative impacts when
water content is increased [15]. A second study on the reduction of
formaldehyde did not find an optimal humidity level; instead,
conversion decreased from 80% to 54% when humidity was
increased from 2100 pmv to 22,000 pmv [77]. When the same
humidity increase is tested for toluene removal, the removal effi-
ciency decreased from 72% to 19%. These discrepancies indicate
that the impact of humidity is difficult to describe. Impact may
differ by pollutant type, concentration, and other possible
experimental factors [75].
7.2.6. Effect of temperature
Temperature has been proven to be an important aspect in the
study of photocatalysis. Photocatalysis is activated by photons, and
photocatalytic reactions can operate at room temperature and are
relatively insensitive to temperature changes [23]. The literature
shows that reaction rates are typically the highest for reactor
temperature between 20 and 80 °C, whereas reaction rates gen-
erally decrease above 80 °C [86]. Water adsorbed on the surface of
a semiconductor extensively performs a critical function in
surface-mediated photocatalytic reactions, trapping VB holes and
forming hydroxyl radicals [87,88]. As the reactor temperature
exceeds 80 °C and approaches the boiling point of water, loss of
water on the material surface may limit photocatalytic reaction
[89]. Furthermore, conventional hereterogenous catalytic reactions
may occur at elevated temperatures, depending on the reacting
species and the catalyst [90]. Therefore, the effect of temperature
on a given photocatalytic reaction is highly dependent on the
organic contaminant, intermediates, and build-up potential of the
catalyst surface.
7.2.7. UV intensity and wavelength
Evidently, TiO2 requires light as an energy provider to function
and degrade pollutants. Several experiments show that photo-
degradation does not occur in the absence of light [56,73,91,92].
Changing the light source impacts the wavelength and photon
flux. The wavelength is primarily responsible for photocatalytic
activity, whereas intensity or photon flux impacts the rate of
1191
degradation. For TiO2, wavelengths smaller than 400 nm, which
corresponds to the UV radiation from the sun are, required for
irradiation. Higher intensities result in more photons and, conse-
quently, higher photocatalytic oxidation rates [15,43,94]. The
relationship between intensity versus photocatalytic oxidation
rate often shows a linear correlation. The rate of increase is
dependent on the chemical pollutant. For example, when the
irradiance is changed from 0 mW/cm2 to 1500 mW/cm2, a linear
impact may be observed, and the oxidation activity of o-xylene
and ethylbenzene increases drastically while that of benzene and
toluene increase only gradually [93,95]. In addition, the photo-
catalytic oxidation of trichloroethylene is enhanced from
0.08  10  6 mol/s gas to 0.25  10  6 mol/s gases as light intensity
increases from 0.08 mW/cm2 to 0.45 mW/cm2 [15]. The increase in
intensity not only increases activity rates but affects the formed
intermediates by increasing the availability of free radicals that
enhance the products. For example, in a previous study, more
intermediates were formed using germicidal lamps with hig-
her intensities in comparison with lower intensities of black
lamps [95].
7.2.8. Photocatalytic degeneration or regeneration
Another highly debated variable of photocatalysis is the pos-
sible degeneration of photocatalytic properties, which may
necessitate restoration of the photocatalytic properties of TiO2
[92,96]. As a catalyst that undergoes no change, TiO2 can theore-
tically be used indefinitely [92]. Thus, degeneration is caused by
other factors, such as interference of absorbed intermediates and
decreases in catalytic surface from the buildup of dirt, scum, gum,
oil, and grease, especially if used in outdoor environments [15,80].
As such, removal of these absorbed products can induce regen-
eration of photooxidation efficiency.
In an indoor experiment on the removal efficiencies of toluene
and TiO2, degeneration was not detected after over 48 h of testing,
despite previous research findings on the deactivation of TiO2 and
even a slight, yellowish color change because of the accumulation
of absorbed species from photocatalytic oxidation of toluene
[81,97]. Therefore, research suggests that degeneration and accu-
mulation of products may be a function of time and concentration
of pollutants present [82,98]. This concept may explain why Slei-
man, who used considerably lower concentrations in 120 ppb
versus 290 ppb, did not observe degeneration effects [82]. Today,
methods for regeneration are continuously being investigated.
Regeneration theories include washing surfaces with water to
simulate rain, blowing air, or surface burning [10,99]. Comparisons
between regeneration methods have quickly eliminated air as a
solution. For example, when flushed with clean air, TiO2 on roof
tiles does not show any change in its photocatalytic properties;
however, natural rain simulation showed 42% regeneration
[81,100,101]. To test water theory, Beeldens et al. [10] removed
photocatalytic blocks from laboratory and field tests. The blocks
for laboratory tests were removed over several periods of time to
represent different exposure levels, and photocatalytic efficiencies
were recorded before and after surface washing. The results
demonstrated that additional washing could significantly improve
photocatalytic efficiency and maintain durability [10,102]. When
tested in outdoor environments, rainfall can help regenerate
photocatalytic activities, offering results similar to those of
laboratory washing. Thus, several researchers recommend that
washing should be performed at least once every two months
during the dry season [80,103]. However, water washing or rain is
ineffective for eliminating adhesives and water-insoluble con-
taminants. Thus, the use of a degreasing agent may be beneficial.
Exposure to different contaminants depends on location, which
demonstrates that exposure to such contaminants can be con-
trolled by locality [3]. Other proposed solutions from Zhao include
1192 R.K. Nath et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1184–1194
Table 3
List of tropical climate and region.
Type of tropical climate Region
Tropical rainforest climate Cebu, Philippines
Kuching, Malaysia
Singapore
Apia, Samoa
Paramaribo, Suriname
Mbandaka, DR Congo
Biak, Indonesia
Quibdó, Colombia
Innisfail, Australia
Ratnapura, Sri Lanka
Tropical monsoon climate Cairns, Queensland, Australia [2]
Chittagong, Bangladesh
Abidjan, Ivory Coast
Macapá, Brazil
Sinop, Mato Grosso, Brazil
Guanare, Portuguesa, Venezuela
Puerto Ayacucho, Amazonas, Venezuela
Tropical wet and dry climate Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Jakarta, Indonesia
Cartagena, Colombia
Medellín, Colombia
Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
burning the surface or water washing to eliminate intermediates
and restoration of the active sites on the catalyst surface [15].
Despite the ongoing debate, most researchers agree is that the
durability of the catalyst must be proven for widespread implan-
tation [104] and possible regeneration techniques. For example,
the applications of water washing must be evaluated when
degeneration occurs [76,105].
8. Influence of tropical climate on photocatalyst performance
The tropical climate is a climate of the tropics (region of the
Earth). The Köppen climate is classified as a non-arid (region with
a severe lack of available water) climate wherein all 12 months
feature mean temperatures of at least 18 °C (64 °F). Unlike the
extra-tropics, which show strong variations in day length and
temperature with season, tropical temperatures remain relatively
constant throughout the year and seasonal variations are domi-
nated by precipitation [106].
Within the tropical climate zone, distinct climates based on
rainfall may be observed. These zones include tropical rainforest
climate, tropical monsoon climate, and tropical wet and dry or
savanna climate. A list of tropical climates and regions are shown
in Table 3. Tropical rainforest climates do not experience pro-
nounced summers or winters, and all 12 months present an
average precipitation of 60 mm (2.4 in) minimum. These climates
usually occur within 5°–10° latitude of the equator. In certain
eastern coastal areas, the tropical rainforest climatemay extend to
as far as 25° away from the equator. This climate is dominated by
low pressure systems all year round, and environments with this
climate therefore do not show distinct seasons. The climate is
typically hot and wet throughout the year, and rainfall is both
heavy and frequent. This type of climate is suitable for photo-
catalyst use because self-cleaning effects increase with increasing
humidity [107,108]. Self-cleaning is a process wherein which a
catalyst stimulates chemical transformation without being con-
sumed by the reaction.
The inner surfaces of buildings are comparatively cleaner than
the outer surfaces, and the chemical transformation of a pollutant
begins as soon as it comes into close contact with a photocatalyst
in presence of light. Photocatalysts can be used to produce a self-
cleaning concrete surface with the ability to remove or reduce
pollution [99]. Heavy rains remove dirt, such as lingering dust, on
buildings coatings with catalysts, increasing the efficiency of cat-
alysts to reduce environmental pollution and improving self-
cleaning performances a consequence. Tropical monsoon cli-
mates (resulting from monsoon winds) and tropical wet and dry or
savanna climates (i.e., pronounced dry seasons) are characterized
by precipitation of less than 60 mm. Because of limited rainfall,
photocatalytic surface can be covered with non-degradable
materials that decrease the photocatalytic activity of the outside
of the building [109,110]. Therefore, the application of photo-
catalysts to building materials is particularly useful for cities
located in tropical rainforest climates zone, such as Kuching in
Malaysia [106,111,112]. The use of photocatalysts to reduce out-
door and indoor air pollution in buildings is also highly appro-
priate for cities located in tropical rainforest climates and all
tropical zones.
9. Conclusion
To reduce our current and future levels of air pollution, more
attention is being given to the use of photocatalytic concrete.
Photocatalysts induce the formation of strongly oxidizing reagents
that can decompose some organic and inorganic substances pre-
sent in the atmosphere. These photocatalysts promote the more
rapid decomposition of pollutants and prevent them from accu-
mulating on the surfaces. This study is useful for producing pho-
tocatalytic concrete blocks as significant agents for indoor air
purification. Given its large surface area and proximity to a major
source of air pollution, photocatalytic concrete may be used for a
number of logical concepts that will offer building professionals a
unique opportunity to contribute to sustainable development
goals. The continuous oxidizing action of photocatalytic concrete
promotes clean buildings for the lifetime of the structure.
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests
regarding the publication of this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Fundamental Research Grant
Scheme FRGS/1/2013/TK06/UKM/01/1 of Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia and the Ministry of Education, Malaysia.
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