GRAMMAR

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME

Introduction

Adverb clauses are clauses that function as adverbs. Since they are dependent clauses,
they must have a subordinating conjunction to connect them to the other clause.
Subordinating conjunctions can be arranged according to the purpose of the clause they
begin.

In this section, we will talk about adverb clauses of time. An adverb clause of time
shows when something happens. It is usually introduced by time adverbs such as AS,
WHEN, WHILE, BEFORE, AFTER, UNTIL, HARDLY, NO SOONER or
SCARCELY.

Explanation

Explantion 1

As, when and while

We can often use as, when or while to mean “during the time that”, to talk about
something that happens when something else takes place.

Example:

As/when/while Dave was eating, the doorbell rang.

We use when (not as or while) to introduce a clause which talks about an event that
takes places at the same time as some longer event (in the main clause).

Example:

They were playing in the garden when they heard a scream.

In the circumstances in which the event in the main clause happens.

Example:

When they are fully grown these snakes can be over two metres long.

And we prefer when to talk about past periods of our lives.

Example:
His mother called him Robbie when he was a baby.

We prefer when to emphasise that one event happens immediately after another,
particularly if one causes the other.

Example:

You’ll see my house on the right when you cross the bridge.

When the lights went out, I lit some candles.

In the first sentence, as or while would suggest “during the time that” and the
continuous tense would be more likely (… as /while you are crossing…).

In the second sentence as or while would be very unlikely because lights usually go out
instantaneously.

We prefer as to say that when one thing changes, another thing changes at the same time.

Example:

As the cheese matures, it improves. (Rather than when the cheese…)

We prefer while or as (rather than when) to talk about two longer actions that go at the
same time, although while is more common than as in a informal speech.

Example:

I went shopping while Linda cleaned the house. (Or as Linda cleaned the house)

We use while or when (rather than as) to avoid ambiguity where as could mean
“because”.

Example:

While you were playing golf , I went to the cinema. (As you were playing golf could
mean “Because you were playing golf”).

Before, after, until

We use before or after to talk about an event happening earlier or after than another
event.
Example:

I put my coat before I went out.

The message arrived after I’d left.

We can often use either until or before when a situation continues to happen up to a
lime indicated in the adverbial clause.

Example:

I had to wait six weeks until/before the parcel arrived.

We use until to talk about an action that confirmes to a particular time and then stops.

Example:

They sat on the beach until the sun sank below the horizon, and then they went home.

And when the adverbial clause describes the result of an action in the main clause.

Example:

He cleaned his shoes until they shone (“Shinning” is the result of “cleaning”)

Explanation 2

Hardly, no sooner, scarcely

When we say that one event happened immediately after another we can use sentences
with hardly, no sooner, and scarcely. After hardly and scarcely the second clause
begins with when or before; after no sooner it begins with than or when.

Example:

The concert had hardly begun before all lights went out.

I had no sooner lit the barbecue that/when it started to rain.

As we mentioned before, these expressions can be used (often with a past perfect tense)
to talk about two events that happen one after another.

NOTE THE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

…no sooner… than…

…hardly… when/before….

…scarcely…when/before…

No sooner can come after the subject. In this case, we use the normal word order.

Example:

No sooner had she read the letter than she started screaming. (NOT no sooner had she
read the letter when she started to screaming).

No sooner had I closed the door than someone knocked. (NOT no sooner had I closed
the door before/when someone knocked).

Or:

I had no sooner closed the door than someone knocked

Scarcely had I solved one problem when/before another popped up

Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out

Hardly had I closed my eyes when the telephone rang

Scarcely and hardly can come after de subject. In this structure, we use normal word
order. You can replace “hardly” with “scarcely”.

Example:

I had scarcely solved one problem when another popped up.

I had scarcely closed my eyes when the telephone rang.

It is wrong to use than instead of when or before this structure.

Examples:

Incorrect: Hardly I had closed my eyes when the telephone rang. (Correct: Hardly had I
closed…)

Incorrect: Scarcely I had stepped out when it started to raining. (Correct: Scarcely had I
stepped..)
EMPHATIC FORMS IN SPEECH

Introduction

We can shape our use of English to add emphasis in a number of different contexts. For
example, to give strong advice, to express opinions clearly, to disagree, to show concern,
to entertain.

Explanation

On a particular occasions, we can give special emphasis to a part of sentence by

stressing the pronunciation of a word or words, that we consider important. Such a way
of adding emphasis is common.

When we give short answers, for example:

A: Do you study English here? A: Are you interested in literature?

B: Yes, I do B: Yes, I am.

When we contradict what someone has said (in this latter case, if the sentence is
affirmative, we stress the auxiliaries, among them do, does, did, is, am, was, has, etc…)
For example:

A: You broke the window. A: You didn’t see us

B: I didn’t. John did it B: I did see you. You were at

McDonald’s

A: Mary doesn’t speak German.

B: She does speak German! She lived in Germany for 10 years.

The auxiliary do is used for emphasis in positive statements.

Example:

I do like this beer!

Emphatic tenses:

Present emphatic tense: I do take medicine for an allergy

Past emphatic: I did take medicine for an allergy

Future emphatic: I will take medicine for an allergy

The emphatic form of the verb infers the speaker’s degree of determination. The
construction of the verb changes when the emphatic form is used. However, the tense of
time does not change when the emphatic form of the verb is used in place of the less
emphatic form.

Emphatic tense is used in a popular ceremony:

Question: Dou you take this (person) to be your lawful wedded?

Answer: I do (emphatically, I do)

You shall return.

This type of emphasis is usually indicated in written English by means of italics or

underlining.

We can also add emphasis by transforming a sentence, or a part of it, into a subordinate
clause. Here are some of the most common patterns.

NOUN CLAUSE + CONJ. VERB (usually is/was) NOUN PHRASE (subj. of sentence)
or NOUN PHRASE + ADJ. CLAUSE (subject complement).

Notice: CONJ. VERB = “conjugated verb”, i.e , a verb with the endings –es (3rd
person), -ed (past) etc…

Examples:

Discipline and organization made it an army

What made it an army was discipline and organization.

Conceited people annoy me.

What annoys me is people who are conceited.

She wants to live in the United States

Where she wants to live is in the United States.

I saw John last night

Who I saw last night was John

NOUN CLAUSE (=subject of sentence) + CONJ. VERB (usually is/was) + THE WAY
or THE FACT + (THAT) ADJ. CLAUSE (subject complent)

Examples:

Some teacher treat their students badly. I hate that.

What I hate is the way some teachers treat their students.
Many people are starving. The government does not realize that.
What the government does not realize is the fact that many people are starving

My friends always celebrate my birthday . I appreciate this

What I appreciate is the fact that my friends always celebrate my birthday.

The way it was organized made it an army

What made it an army was the way it was organized.

NOTICE that the way that refers to the manner in which something is done; the fact is
that refers to a thing or object (usually to the direct object of a second sentence)

NOUN PHRASE=(sub of a sentence) + CONJ. VERB =(usually is/was) + NOUN

CLAUSE (=subj. complt.

Examples:

Drill transformed these men into an army

Drill is what transformed these men into an army

Listening to the radio entertains me

Listening to the radio is what entertains me

Helen works in a book store

Helen is who works in a book store.

NOTICE that the predicate is transformed into a noun clause (i.e. subject complement)

It (subject) + CONJ. VERB (usually is/was) + NOUN PHRASE + ADJ. CLAUSE (sub.
Complement).

Examples:

Pairs of individuals thrust at each other

It is pairs of individuals who thrust at each other

His bragging annoys me

It is his bragging that annoys me

John broke the window

It was John who broke the window

NOTICE that the whole sentence is transformed into a noun phrase followed by an
adjective clause (which is a subject complement)

Sometimes, we can add emphasis by moving a sentence element to the beginning of the
sentence, which causes an inversion in the position of the subject and the auxiliary verb
(Note: if the sentence dos not have an auxiliary you must supply it: either do, does or
did). This is common in writing and formal speaking. Here are some common cases of
inversion.

When we begin the sentence with a negative adverbial such as never, never again,
nowhere, not for a minute, not since, not until, rarely, seldom, no sooner… (Than),
hardly… (When), hardly ever, at no time, in no way, on no account, not only… (But
also). For example:

He had never eaten such a huge meal

Never had he eaten such a huge meal

I rarely go to the cinema

Rarely do I go to the cinema

We had no sooner sat down to dinner than there came an explosion from the kitchen.
No sooner had we sat down to dinner than there came an explosion from the kitchen.

I did not allow myself to consider the issue until I reached home.
Not until reached home did I allow myself to consider the issue.

You will come across a more hospitable nation nowhere.

Nowhere will you come across a more hospitable nation

The two strangers had hardly arrived when the majority of the guests left.
Hardly had the two strangers arrived when the majority of the guests left.

I will on no account compromise my ideals.

On no account will I compromise my ideals.
Mr. Smith was never informed at any time.
At no time was Mr. Smith ever informed.

The government can in no way deny its guilt.

In no way can the government deny its guilt.

When we begin the sentence with the restrictive expressions little, only when, only after.
For example:
I realized the value of my parents’ advice only when I myself became a parent.
Only when I myself became a parent did I realize the value of my parents’ advice.
Mary admitted that she had stolen the jewellery only after her father was imprisoned.
Only after her father was imprisoned did Mary admit that she had stolen the jewellery.
We realized little the seriousness of the situation.
Little did we realize the seriousness of the situation.

When we begin a conditional sentence with either the auxiliary had, should or were. For
example:

If you had arrived a minute earlier, you would have seen a most remarkable sight.

Had you arrived a minute earlier, you would have seen a most remarkable sight.

If you should ever come to London, come to visit me.

Should you ever come to London, come to visit me.

If he were to realize the danger he was in, he would not proceed with his plan.

Were he to realize the danger he was in, he would not proceed with his plan.

Hypothesising in speech

Introduction

According to the most dictionary entries, a hypothesis is an “idea or explanation for

something that is based on known facts but has not been proved”

In English, there are a few familiar ways to hypothesising by means of particular verbs
and tense patterns to express the things we imagine.

Explanation

Expressing Wishes

We use past tense forms to talk about wishes:

 • We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future

Examples:

I don’t like my work. I wish I could get a better job.

That’s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop

I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay later.

• We use past tense forms forms to talk about wishes for the present

Examples:

I don’t like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interesting.

These seats are very uncomfortable, I wish we were travelling first class

Everyone wishes they had more free time

John wishes he wasn’t so busy

I wish it wasn’t so cold

• We use past perfect to talk about wishes for the past

Examples

I wish I had worked harder when I was at school

Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her

I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month

Expressing Hypotheses

• We use present tense forms after phrases what if, in case and suppose to talk
about the future if we think is likely to happen.

Examples:

Those steps are dangerous. Suppose someone has an accident.

We should go home early in case we are late.

• We use past tense form to talk about the future after suppose and what if to
suggest something is not likely to happen.

Examples:

It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.

What if he lost his job. What would happen then?

• We use modals would, could for an hypothesis about the future.

Examples:

We can’t stay all in a hotel. It would be very expensive.

Drive carefully. You could have an accident.

• We use would in the main clause and the past in a subordinate clause to talk
about the imaginated future.

Examples:

I would always help someone who really needed help.

I would always help someone if they really needed it.

• We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in the
past

Examples:

I did not see Mary, or I might have spoken to her

It’s a pity Jack wasn’t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party

Why didn’t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.