Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Whole Farm System Design
Whole Farm System Design
STATE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SMALL FARMS
Designing a Whole Farm
System
Whole Farming Principles and Strategies
Authors: Melissa Matthewson, Maud Powell, Nick Andrews, Gwendolyn Ellen, Don Tipping,
Tim Franklin, Shelley Elkovich
2010
This is a product of the OSU Extension Small Farms Program.
Whole Farm Systems Design: An grow all the feed for their animals on the farm
and creating a closed loop farm where very
Introduction
little inputs came from somewhere else. He
Long before I was a farmer or worked for talked about enhancing the soil with cover
Oregon State University Extension, I was crops and sound crop rotation. I saw happy
learning about farming, studying it, trying it out grazing animals, rows of flowers in bloom and
on a small scale in my backyard, working at a diverse pockets of vegetables and healthy
local student farm and immersing myself in all stands of grass and cover crops. What struck me
things related to farming. Through all of this the most was the diversity of their farm, their
came a sense and urgent need to become a intuition as farmers working with the land and
farmer, to know and be involved with all the their profound deepness and connection with
intricacies of farming. There was one particular their place. It was through their own passion
experience that led me to that decision. Part of and dedication to diverse farming systems that
my time at the student farm included tours to captured me.
other farms throughout the season to learn
What Lifeline Produce represents and what this
what other farmers were doing and how they
manual attempts to relate is the extraordinary
applied various sustainable farming methods.
nature and complexity of the whole farm
One of the visits was to Lifeline Produce Farm in
system. How it is a departure from the
the Bitterroot Valley of western Montana. It
industrial agriculture that dominates many
was this short visit to this highly diversified
places in the U.S. How whole, diversified
small farm that had a profound impact on me as
farming takes into consideration a farming
a student of farming.
pattern that is based on diversity – biological,
I still remember the smell of the hot dirt near economical & social. Whole diversified farms
the barn and the sheep grazing on green are places where bluebirds nests, where
pasture and the farmer with suspenders leading diversified markets support the farm and family,
us through the various fields and structures of where the community is connected to the
the farm. Located in Victor at the base of the farm’s life and longevity. The whole farm is
Bitterroot Mountains, a stunning backdrop for supporting the landscape, communities & farm
this organic farm, Lifeline Produce (run by Steve families in healthy, intelligent and sustainable
Elliot and Luci Brieger) is an extraordinary ways that integrate the strong connections
example of a highly diversified farm – nine acres between farming and nature.
of vegetables, herbs and flowers, 29 acres in
In this manual, we try to take you through all
pasture, 8 acres in hay with greenhouses,
the most important components of a whole
hoophouses, chicken, ewes and cattle. I
farm – we undoubtedly miss something, but we
remember walking their farm on that hot
hope to give you a strong overview of all the
August morning and listening to Steve talk
strategies and components that go into
about the cycles of the farm, the
designing a whole farm system. What doesn’t
interconnectedness of all things that grow and
take place here on these pages is the
live on the farm and their efforts at creating and
importance of the individuality of every farm –
enhancing a biologically diverse and complex
how each farm has its own nuances, challenges,
farm. Steve talked about their goals of trying to
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successes and deep complexities which all work The following questions can help you identify
together (or not) to create a functioning whole some of your goals:
farm organism. As well, creating a whole farm is
a process, a road map to follow and many of the • What is it you want from your life and
whole farms I have visited over time have been for your family?
working for years on their farm design and • How can you make farming enjoyable?
implementation. A new farmer working on this • What would you like for your children
whole farm design cannnot possibly compare and your community?
their experience to a farmer who has been • Do you want to produce your own food,
farming for twenty or more years, but you can or do you want to sell products from
take inspiration, advice and ideas to build on the farm?
your own farm. There are so many examples of • What land management practices are
whole farms abundantly available to draw from. important to you?
This manual really gives the new farmer an • Will the farm supplement your income,
introduction and starting point to what a whole or do you want a full‐time farming
farm system is and how you as a farmer may career?
take these pieces and apply them to your own • How much money do you want the
place, farm and experience. ‐MM farm to make?
• What financial obligations do you have?
Setting Goals • What do you want to produce?
The first step in whole farm systems design is to Goal setting is a process. It is something that
set goals for your farm. Goals are fundamental you must come back to over time. Goals shift,
to the success of your farming enterprise as evolve and change over time. It is important to
they steer the direction of your farm. Their assess your goals and reference them whenever
function in your whole farm should not be making decisions. It is important to identify
underestimated. Goals must be based on your both short‐term goals as well as long‐term goals
values. Values include such things as for your entire farm & family (five to ten years).
friendships, spending time with family, having
leisure time to explore hobbies, health and
wellness, quality of life and happiness. For
example, finding at least one day of the week to
rest is a quality of life goal. As well, eating
healthy food that you grow on your farm is
another example of a quality of life goal. Goals
for the whole farm are also based on your land
stewardship values and economic values. See
Figure 1 for a list of possible goals. It is
important that you write down your goals.
Some farms will also display their goals on the
wall where they will see them often, so they can
be reminded of their initial pursuit.
3
Figure 1. Sample Goals they require no marketing once they have the
contracts, which fit into their personalities very
Sample ShortTerm Sample LongTerm well. They grow annuals because they like to
Goals Goals
contribute to the local food supply and they are
I want to live rurally I want to improve my
on 10 acres. water by installing a good way to make money. They designed
ponds. their farm using permaculture principles, which
I want to grow 1‐acre I want to create a emphasizes perennial crops, so they plant a lot
of vegetables for the conservation easement of trees every year. This is just one example of
farmers market. for my farm. a farmer taking into consideration the
I want to improve the I want to retire on my importance of their goals in designing their
soil conditions of my farm.
whole farm system.
farm.
Social Capital
I want to have free I want to be debt‐free
time to enjoy my on the farm. Farms, like rural schools, provide a nexus for
family and explore
communities. They offer a venue for social
hobbies.
I would like to certify I want to expand my interaction to take place in, and a set of values
my farm as organic. herd to 100 head of and products that bind people together. Many
cattle. people refer to this as “social capital.” The term
I want to take a I want to install solar “social capital” can be traced back to L.J.
vacation once a year. panels for all my Hanifan's 1916 article regarding local support
electricity needs. for rural schools, and refers to social cohesion
and personal investment in communities.
Overall success on the farm happens when all Hanifan defines social capital as1
farm partners can come together around a "goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy and
specific set of values and goals. They may not social intercourse among a group of individuals
always be accomplished, but having a road map and families who make up a social unit… The
in place helps the decision making process. community as a whole will benefit by the
Maud and Tom Powell of Wolf Gulch Farm took cooperation of all its parts, while the individual
a long time exploring their goals for their farm will find in his associations the advantages of
when they started farming in 1999. They the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of
currently grow about 50% seed crops, 40% his neighbors."
annual vegetables and 10% perennials. Their Whole farms have myriad opportunities to
goals were to steward the land, have a demonstrate social capitalism at its best. Social
profitable business that would increase their capital can be generated between farmers as
food self‐reliance and create a healthy, happy well as with other members of a community.
environment for their family.
1
Hanifan, L. J. 1916. "The Rural School Community
They decided to grow seed crops because they
Center." Annals of the American Academy of Political
needed less water than most annuals. They also
and Social Science 67: 130‐138.
have very good isolation for the seed crops, and
4
Within a farming community, members will The concept of Community Supported
often rely on one another for help and support. Agriculture, in which individuals or families buy
Farmers may borrow equipment or tools from a share of a farm for the season, is another
one another, or even invest in equipment excellent example of social capital. While CSA
together. A group of poultry producers in members pay money for their share in the
Southwestern Oregon formed a limited liability harvest, they are also rewarded with less
company, pooled their money and bought tangible benefits. Many CSA farms invite their
equipment to process their poultry more easily. members to participate in work parties, in
Members of the group have taken it upon which they can learn about farming and gain a
themselves to regularly clean the equipment, greater appreciation for agricultural work.
track scheduling for use of the equipment, and Other CSAs provide weekly updates about the
maintain a savings account for money collected. farm operation, giving members a sense of
As well, during crisis periods, such as wildfire belonging to something larger than themselves
and floods, farmers readily help each other out. and a greater connection to their food.
Cities and towns have seen a huge growth in
the number and size of local farmers’ markets.
These markets not only provide opportunities
for purchasing wholesome, delicious products,
but also offer a cultural and social experience
for both customers and farmers. People go to
farmers markets to see their friends, listen to
local musicians, observe the change in season
A farm tour can be a great way to build
social capital. Photo: Khaliqa Rogmans through the products offered, talk to farmers
about their products, and learn a little more
about the agricultural history and diversity of
Whole farms generate social capital that their bio‐regions. The personal exchanges,
reaches beyond the agricultural world. Farms along with the monetary transactions that take
that are embedded in their communities often place between farmers and customers,
become a hub of social activity. The rise in represent a great deal of social capital.
agritourism highlights farms as a place for social
gathering and a return to rural activities: many Farmers that are interested in increasing the
farms host harvest parties, cider pressing social capital they both produce and have
events, square dances, craft circles, and food access to should take stock in their farm
preservation gatherings. Full Circle Bison Ranch operations and in the communities around
hosts a barbeque and ranch tour every June. them. Farms can provide communities with a
This gives members in a community an range of opportunities and experiences that will
opportunity to genuinely interact with their enrich the lives of individuals and generate
neighboring ranchers building social capital that social capital. For example, farms can offer
can remain for years to come. healthy food, a venue for community events, a
place for children to learn about gardening, a
library for people interested in beekeeping, a
5
place for people to share skills with one
another, and seasonal jobs. In return, the
community can offer farmers a loyal customer
base for their products, non‐agricultural skills
like web site development and tax preparation
that can be traded for agricultural products,
extra labor, and appreciation and respect.
While farming may not be considered a
financially lucrative career, farmers have ample
opportunities to generate social capital. The
farm itself can represent an incredible resource
Farmers markets are emerging as strong
to the community: a place of beauty,
social capital tools. Photo: Tracy Harding.
productivity, inspiration and demonstrations of
sustainable practices. The products that come
off a farm can also generate social capital by Economic Viability
providing people with a deeper sense of
connection with their sustenance and Economic viability is fundamental to the whole
environment. Finally, the farmers themselves farm whether or not you are a business or a
can generate social capital through their hobby farm. Either way the farm must be an
knowledge of agricultural systems, and their economically viable pursuit if you are to remain
passion and vision. Increasingly, farms, like as a farmer. Harvey W. Wiley once wrote, “It is
schools are being reinstated as central to the a fundamental error to suppose that farming is
social fabric of the communities in which they neither a business nor a profession. It is a
are situated. How your farm may generate business which requires the highest business
social capital is something you can sketch out talent, it is a profession which requires the best
and decide in your goal setting process. It is technical skill…No other profession requires
often the social capital that is generated such a variety of learning, such an insight into
between farmer and community that is one of Nature, such skill of a technical kind in order to
the most rewarding parts of farming. be successful, as the profession of farming.”2
There are various components to economic
viability and many of them are interconnected,
but some of the key components include: ability
to meet your family’s needs including food,
health, and insurance expense; quality of life
and other benefits of an economically viable
farm; profitability of crops and livestock; a
healthy debt to asset ratio; a return on the
2
Wiley, Harvey W. 1915. The Lure of the Land:
Farming after Fifty. New York: The Century
Company.
6
farmer’s investment. Overall, these indicators profitability on the farm include increasing
contribute to a sustainable whole farm system. gross sales and a net profit from the farm at the
end of the year. There may be things on the
Farmers need to make a living just like everyone farm that are not exactly profitable, but these
else. It is important to identify financial goals things may have more than financial value to
and targets including how much you need to the farm. They have other benefits like fertility
pay yourself and the amount of the family’s or pest control. For example, Persephone Farm
expenses you want the farm to cover. Preparing in Lebanon, Oregon raises organic laying hens
a budget can help enormously. It is best to for eggs. They have figured their true cost of
identify your personal costs first. It will also producing eggs somewhere around $8 to $9 per
work to set a number for how much you want dozen. While they may not set their egg prices
to make per year and go from there. Diversified at this value, they do find inherent value in
streams of income can also help. Off‐farm keeping poultry on the farm even if they break
income from another family member can even on the eggs. Another example in the
balance the farm’s economic viability if that profitability equation is growing crops that
income is contributing to the quality of life of might not be entirely profitable, but that attract
the farm family. customers to your farm. Broccoli or corn are
There are certain things on the farm contribute examples of crops that may not be profitable on
to overall farm economic viability, but that their own, but they can contribute to the
cannot be measured or do not usually get overall profitability of the whole farm. Figure 2
included in any sort of profit and loss statement lists some questions to consider when
for farms. This includes such things as food improving profitability for a whole farm.
consumed from the farm by the farm family, Tracking your enterprises on the farm to find
wood from the farm’s woodlot, bartered items their profitability indicator can be tough,
between farms. As well, community challenging, not to mention time consuming.
relationships can also contribute to the Recordkeeping templates are useful in this
economic well‐being of farm. A University of exercise. Various templates and programs are
Minnesota study found that a farmers’ positive available to help you with your recordkeeping,
attitude toward the farm contributed to an but generally, you will want to track your
overall strong economic picture for the farm.3 income and expenses related to the farm
They are many ways to achieve profitability, but including purchases of assets, sales by product,
many people ignore this important aspect of a etc. The extra effort you put into measuring
whole farm. Putting together solid plans, your profitability will only assist in the long run.
records and enterprise budgets can help you in A healthy debt to asset ratio means that you do
achieving profitability as well as help you make not owe more than fifty cents of every dollar of
informed decisions when a crop or animal is your assets to a creditor. This ratio also relates
losing money on the farm. Obvious indicators of to the ability to liquidate your farm assets
3 quickly if for some reason your farm runs into
Kent Olson, University of Minnesota Extension
Economist, trouble. Having adequate cash flow and
http://www.extension.umn.edu/extensionnews/201 working capital also contributes to a healthy
0/top‐farmers‐charact.html
7
economically viable business. Do you have the highest dollar they can receive directly from
working capital to run your business? What are the customer. They are also reinvesting in their
ways that you can plan to adequately cover
your farm expenses in times of a cash flow Figure 2. Improving Farm Profitability4
crisis?
1. Am I making the most profitable
use of land and resources with
Finally, it is important to think about the
chosen enterprises?
investment you have made into your farm and
2. Is my equipment appropriate to my
whether you are seeing a valuable return on scale?
that investment. Is the farm growing? Are you 3. Do I make good use of hired labor?
able to reinvest into it every year? How does 4. Are there offfarm income
your farm investment compare to other types opportunities to supplement farm
of investments? Is your farm value increasing? income?
5. Am I reinvesting profits into my
Direct marketing contributes to economic business allowing it to grow?
viability in the whole farm system. This is the 6. Am I meeting my family allowances
reasonably?
place where the small diversified farm makes
7. Are my farm inputs operating at
the most of the value of their product and that the right level?
which contributes to the bottom line of the 8. Am I making use of new
whole farm. Many whole farms are integrating technologies for the farm?
several direct marketing approaches including 9. Do I acquire good rates when
farmers markets, CSA, restaurants, grocery borrowing?
stores and cooperative marketing. Some are 10. Do I maintain good business
relationships with others?
even exploring online markets as a potential
viable direct marketing channel. Whole farms
are typically skilled at seeking out niche business continually and enhancing community
products that the market is not already and business relationships as their farm grows.
currently supplying and which makes them
more competitive on a local and regional level. The Role of Perennials
These all contribute to the long term economic
Perennial crops should be given strong
viability of the whole farm. These markets are
consideration from the outset of any thoughtful
also based on good community relationships
farm design process because their virtues are
and are a key factor in maintaining viability. For
manifold. Perennials:
example, Thompson Creek Organics is a small,
family owned organic orchard in the Applegate • can increase yields inversely
Valley. They produce organic apples and organic proportional to their maintenance over
apple cider for sale in the Rogue Valley. They do time.
most of their marketing through direct channels
and have added value to their business by
pressing their apples into cider. They take 4
Johnson, Dale. Fact Sheet #539: Assessing and
advantage of their niche product by selling at Improving Farm Profitability.
http://www.smallfarmsuccess.info/FactSheet_539.cf
m
8
• are generally less represented at livestock paddock border row, or plant every
farmers markets, in CSAs and other 20th row in a row crop system to apples with the
direct marketing channels. long term goal of diversifying yields, minimizing
• are more resilient against climate and long term labor inputs and greatly increasing
seasonal vagaries. the net biodiversity of life and food coming
• provide erosion control and wind from the land. Seven Seeds Farm in Williams,
abatement. Oregon has also made extensive use of
• provide habitat for beneficial insects. perennial nitrogen‐fixing legume sod in their
• afford yields that benefit other vegetable rotation system, using plants such as
elements of a system such as fodder, red clover, alfalfa, and birdsfoot trefoil. Their
nitrogen fixation, wildlife habitat, rotation is a 6‐7 year cycle, wherein intensive
woody material, mulch, medicine, mixed vegetables are grown for 4‐5 years then
nectar flow, shade and more. the area is followed by a cereal grain and
perennial legume pasture mix. The yields of this
Short lived perennials such as strawberries, aspect of the rotation can include grain, straw,
cane berries, artichokes, asparagus, currants, hay, grazing pasture, nitrogen and organic
and culinary herbs should definitely be matter for soil improvement. This mix is
considered as cornerstones of a well rounded allowed to flourish for two years giving that soil
farm system and can be integrated in a way a great rest period that is followed by another 4
which does not detract from other elements of ‐5 years of intensive mixed vegetables.
the farm. Rather the opposite can be true if Integrating perennials is a tremendously
attention is given to proper assessment and worthwhile endeavor that can greatly enhance
design and these perennials are placed on rocky any farm system.
ground, or areas that are inconvenient for row
crop farming. Longer‐lived perennials such as Growing Annuals for Profit
blueberries, fruit trees, nut trees, grapes, and
kiwis have an equally important role within a One of the many benefits of growing annuals is
whole farm design. Their time to establishment that it provides quick crops for sale to maintain
curtails their inclusion in many farm designs; an economically viable whole farm. It provides
however, their ability to positively affect the cash flow that is necessary to reinvest in the
farmer’s bottom line should not be overlooked. farm. The nice aspect of integrating annuals
This is particularly true when one considers into a whole farm system is that it is an
weaving these crops into a CSA or direct enterprise that a farmer can get started on right
marketing program and serving the local away. From seed to plant to harvest and
consumer base more abundantly. maturity, it only takes a short time (depending
on what annual crop you choose) before the
Integrating perennials into a whole farm can product is ready for sale. Annual crops can be
come in many forms. For example, once main anything from nursery and bedding plants,
field blocks are planted out, opportunity areas vegetable starts, seed crops, fresh market
emerge to plant fruit trees or other perennial vegetables, culinary herbs, and flowers. Most of
berry bushes between fruit trees. You can plant these can be started in the spring and sold
nitrogen fixing medicinal berry bushes as a continually on an on‐going basis throughout the
9
year. Many vegetable farmers use succession around borders of annual crops to provide
planting as a way to continually have vegetables pollinators and other aesthetic benefits to the
for sale throughout the growing season (for garden. Like perennial fruits, annual crops fetch
instance, carrots). a high dollar at retail markets like farmers’
markets , farm stands and CSA programs, which
Another benefit of growing annuals on a allows the farmer to take that income and
diversified whole farm is that it provides food provide for his/her family as well as reinvest in
and nourishment to the whole family as well as the farm.
farm partners and employees. It can also add
aesthetic value to the farm by adding bedding Potential challenges in growing annuals on the
plants and gardens as well as some annual whole farm is that most annual crops are labor
flowers and herbs that attract beneficial intensive, so they require more attention and
pollinators and other insects to the farm, management during the whole growing season
contributing to the farm as a whole. where as perennial crops have higher points of
maintenance at various times of the year.
Annuals work well in rotation with cover crops Consistent and on‐going irrigation can be a
and grains. Many vegetables have certain challenge as well, so this is something to
maturity and growth dates and many can be consider when thinking about designing your
harvested and then that ground planted into whole farm system. Understanding water
another crop whether it is a winter cover crop management, flow and energy can help in
or winter grain. Some annuals grow so fast, like deciding how to integrate multiple and diverse
radishes and other spring crops like peas, that a enterprises onto the farm.
summer cover crop can follow the annual crop.
This adds to the whole farm by building soil Finally, growing annuals adds to the social
organic matter and quality as well as adding capital of the farm by providing the community
another enterprise for sale like wheat or barley. with ample opportunities to experience life on a
diversified, whole farm. Families have
Many farmers are experimenting with opportunities to come out and pick peas in the
integrating perennials with annual crops which spring, or plant potatoes, or eat sweet corn
can be designed in several ways. Some farmers straight from the farm. Having annuals as part
will plant a bed of chard and lettuce and then of your diversified farm can have a great many
have a row of apple trees in between their next benefits while helping to finance the farm
row of annual crops. Or you can add perennials operation as a whole.
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Figure 3. Benefits of Annual Crops
Incorporating Grains
Farmers grow certain crops as an integral part harvested as early as the end of June, leaving
of their farm business, but some enterprises are plenty of time to turn that field over for a late
important to the small farm only when part of a summer planting. Typically, grains need about
longer rotation. Grains are a terrific example of 110 days to mature, and then another thirty to
an enterprise that can be integrated into a sixty days to sufficiently dry for storage.
whole farm system. Small grains gross
considerably less in sales compared to
vegetables or perennial fruits and nuts;
however, grains are less labor intensive to grow
and can be a valuable part of a rotation when
the field needs rest from annual vegetables.
Grains can be grown without irrigation because
spring rains are usually adequate for plant
growth; once seed heads form, the plant is
done growing and needs only to dry. It is
possible to extend the productivity of more Wheat as a part of a vegetable rotation in
marginal fields by growing small grains southern Oregon. Photo: Neil Subhash
overseeded with clovers or alfalfa, which also
helps to control weeds and minimize soil
erosion. Also, hard red spring wheat can be
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When choosing which grains to grow, consider that heavy a feeder.” Dolan grows dent corn as
the other needs on your farm: do you have feed for his hogs, as well as for homestead use
livestock that benefits from straw bedding, or in the form of cornmeal and polenta. He plants
do you use straw as mulch? If so, a tall grain corn in rotation after a nitrogen‐fixing cover
like wheat might be a good choice. Easy as it is crop like fava beans or vetch.
to grow, wheat is a high yielder (expect a
harvest of 40‐60 times the amount of seed Grains in rotation can contribute to soil
sown) and therefore labor‐intensive in the sustainability by breaking the cycle of intensive
threshing and winnowing stage of production. tilling and cultivation required by vegetables,
Corn is perhaps the easiest grain to grow, and and more diversity generally means fewer pests
requires less work to harvest than wheat or and diseases. Soil‐building legumes should be a
barley. Consider as well the dietary preferences part of any rotation. Different grains are
of your family. If you enjoy polenta and corn interchangeable in rotation, so one could easily
bread, dent corn would be an excellent choice, substitute wheat or barley for dent corn in the
particularly if you also have animals to feed on small grains part of a plan. When considering
the farm. Corn has a reputation as a heavy adding grains to a crop rotation plan, consider
feeder, but Ryan Dolan of L & R Farms in your acreage and the potential uses of your
Williams, Oregon believes that this reputation is fields. More marginal land may alternate
overstated: “Sweet corn is maybe a heavier between alfalfa and grains only, whereas fields
feeder, but in my experience, dent corn is not with more productive soil may include row
crops or vegetables, legumes, and grains.
Figure 4. Sample Crop Rotations
Grains can be an economical way to reduce the cereal grains, barley in particular, can be
feed costs for poultry as well. Some farmers cut
the mature grain and leave it in the field for
chickens to harvest themselves; however, some
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detrimental to poultry in large quantities.5
Grains can also fill a different niche in the whole
farm, but the benefits may not be as easy to
measure. For example, a stand of grain on your
market farm could be valuable as a
homesteading contribution to your family
pantry. As well, grains may earn their place in
your fields solely for the pleasure of watching a
stand of wheat grow or for the pride of self‐
sufficiency that comes from baking bread that Pigs are a great addition to a diversified
originated from your own soil. whole farm. Photo: Tracy Harding.
Integrating Livestock Grazing animals such as cattle or sheep can
Consider a whole farm as an agro‐ecosystem. mow cover crops, or forage crops grown in
Intact and functioning ecosystems contain both rotation with vegetable crops, while manuring
flora and fauna, both plants and animals. Plants fields. Chickens in portable pens or “tractors”
and animals work together to complete are very effective at grazing cover crops, insect
ecosystem processes, such as nutrient cycling, control, and bed preparation in smaller fields
seed dispersal, plant succession, vegetation and gardens. Pigs can mow and plow in cover
community dynamics, energy capture, and crops prior to planting vegetable crops, and / or
maintaining predator‐prey populations. These “hog off” crop residue in a corn field in
services can render farms both more preparation for the next crop in the rotation.
sustainable and more profitable. Cattle (or hogs) turned into a pumpkin field in
November can find a rich source of nutrition
Livestock on any farm should play a key role in and clean up a field for the farmer.
the nutrient cycle, and should build and sustain
soil fertility. Animal manure, when mixed with Cattle consume grasses and forbs only a
a carbon source such as straw or wood chips, ruminant can process, and return
makes fantastic compost. Manure and compost approximately 70% of what they consume to
applications improve soil organic matter, pastures in the form of manure, assisting plants
biological activity and potential disease in capturing the sun’s energy and incorporating
suppression. This improved “soil health” will it into the nutrient cycle. As they graze and
manifest itself quickly and includes improved move on, ruminants help spread seed and
soil nutrient cycling, improved soil structure, maintain plant diversity around the farm.
better water holding capacity in droughty soils Grazing animals can be important tools in
and improved tilth and drainage in heavy soils. perennial vegetation management around the
farm, improving or maintaining a diverse
herbaceous pasture community, or controlling
5
Sticky Droppings: A Feed Related Poultry Problem.
weed species and restoring natural area plant
Mount Vernon Research Center
http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/fs002e/fs00 composition through timed grazing as well.
2e.pdf
13
Sheep, for example, can control star thistle in greenhouses and gardens, and weeder geese
dry grasslands and goats can be used to control can keep a garlic fields free of grasses.
Himalayan blackberries in riparian areas near
streams. In orchards and vineyards, sheep, When livestock and plant crops are integrated,
turkeys and chickens can mow and fertilize the farmers can realize more production per acre
orchard or vineyard floor. with fewer inputs, increasing profits and
reducing costs. These benefits, combined with
Chickens can be used to control parasite the ecological benefits of integrating livestock
populations when grazed on pasture following and plant crops on farms, make mixed farming
cattle or sheep, and while there will provide systems an excellent approach to sustainable
additional fertilizer for pasture plants. Similarly, farming.
ducks can provide natural pest control in
Figure 6. Integrating Livestock
Farmscaping for Beneficials populations of wild bees that can increase crop
pollination, increased diversity of soil flora and
Many insects, spiders, birds and bats will eat fauna that can decrease the incidence of soil‐
crop pests and weeds. Providing the basic food borne crop diseases, improve crop plant vigor
and shelter for these useful animals can help and increase nutrient content of crops by
keep pest species to a minimum. Providing on‐ making soil nutrients more available to crops
farm resources for beneficial organisms is called and having active breeding pairs of barn owls
farmscaping for beneficials (FSB) and is an on the farm that can decrease on‐farm mice,
active component of functional agricultural gopher and vole populations.
biodiversity. Functional agricultural biodiversity
is the ability to reap the benefits or “ecological Farmscaping for beneficials is done at the whole
services” that increasing farm biodiversity farm level. It begins by understanding that your
brings. Examples of functional agricultural farm is a unique, ecologically dynamic unit that
biodiversity include increased on‐farm is part of a larger ecological system. What you
14
do on your farm affects the larger eco‐system beetles will also prey on aphids but need shelter
and the larger eco‐system affects many things to stay on the farm, undisturbed by tillage or
that occur on your farm especially in terms of pesticide sprays.
beneficial and pest organisms. An important
initial step in the farmscaping process is to The key to successful farmscaping for
create a habitat map of your farm. This map beneficials is maintaining a balance of on‐farm
should include production fields, field margins, beneficial organisms by planning habitat
on‐farm riparian areas, farm roads including all enhancements that fit within your own farm
production plan. If there is no time to plant
habitats they will not grow and attract
beneficials! It also helps to start with simple
habitat enhancements and monitor their effects
to learn which plants and which beneficial and
pest interactions are working best and why.
You can increase the complexity of the FSB
practices as your monitoring skills and
knowledge of the specific functional biodiversity
of your farm develops. For instance, a simple
way to increase on‐farm populations of
beneficial insects and wild bees is to make
Spirea hedgerow at Kenagy Family blossom happen all season long. Insectary
Farm. Photo: Gwendolyn Ellen
plantings, plants that provide available pollen
non‐cropped on‐farm areas and most adjacent and nectar in their flowers, are a common FSB
off‐farm habitats. The map provides a graphic practice that serves that function. There are
representation of existing habitat and areas of many configurations of insectary plantings that
habitat enhancement possibilities for your farm. vary in complexity to implement. Native,
The next steps of farmscaping are to identify perennial, end‐row insectary plantings may
which beneficial organisms will prey on your work well in orchards, between‐row, annual,
crop pest and what their basic needs are. For flowering cover crops can work well in grapes,
instance, there are many predators and whereas, annual, in‐field groups of insectary
parasitoids that will feed on aphids. The plants can be transplanted along with the crop
parasitoids will need nectar and pollen as adults in vegetable farming systems, serving the dual
to lay their eggs producing larvae that will feed purpose as variety markers, cut flowers for
on the aphids. The true bug predators require direct market or even a flower seed crop. Some
some prey throughout their entire life cycle commonly used FSB practices and their
before and after the aphid feasts occur. associated ecological services are listed in
Generalist predators such as spiders, and some Figure 7.
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Figure 7. Common Farmscaping Practices, Benefits, and Ecological Services Provided
16
Farmscaping for beneficials can have long‐term removing biomass from your farm. If you don’t
positive effects on the biodiversity of your farm replace that biomass, soil is gradually depleted.
and the habitats that surround it. At the same Soil is maintained or improved when organic
time it increases the ecological services of amendments are applied in sufficient quantities
beneficial organisms on your farm, diversifies to replace the organic material that is
your integrated pest management toolbox and harvested. Cover crops can build soil organic
can help you meet certified organic and eco‐ matter, prevent soil erosion and improve soil
label biodiversity standards. FSB practices can fertility if your cropping system has niches that
be esthetically pleasing, dynamic and allow for good cover crop growth. Application
interesting to implement and help you reach of raw organic amendments or compost can
personal goals of environmental quality, farm also increase organic matter, and if used
diversity and quality of life. As third generation appropriately they can improve soil fertility.
farmer, Dave Buchanan, of Buchanan Family With your soil building strategy in place, you
Farms in Corvallis, Oregon points out, there are can use soil tests and fertilizer guides to choose
three components that keep farmers farming: supplemental fertilizers and determine
that they are economically sustainable; that application rates for optimal crop quality and
their farming is stimulating and interesting to yield.
them; and that they can pass their farms to the
next generation. He concludes that it was the Cover crops can improve soil quality without
ecological conservation practices that his father requiring the transport of large amounts of
did to preserve the creeks that border the farm organic material. This makes cover cropping
that brought him back to farming, not the dairy one of the most efficient long term soil building
cows. Buchanan Family Farms continues to strategies. Legume cover crops (i.e. peas,
restore over 250 acres of their 360 acre clovers and vetches) also provide a source of
vineyard and hazelnut orchard to oak savannah, nitrogen. Bear in mind that summer and fall
wetland and optimal riparian habitat. Farmer planted cover crops often need overhead
Dave, besides being an expert conservationist, irrigation for good stand establishment. Cereals
farmer and professional ichthyologist is also the and other non‐legumes often establish
proud father of fourth generation Buchanan relatively quickly in the fall and can take up
family farmer, Merilee. residual soil nitrogen, thereby keeping nitrogen
in your system and protecting water quality.
Soil Fertility, Organic Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen with the help
of symbiotic soil bacteria in root nodules
Amendments and Cover Crops
(Rhizobia spp.), and can reduce the amount of
A soil management plan that maintains or fertilizer needed. You may need to inoculate
increases soil organic matter content will legume seed with the correct Rhizobia spp. if
improve the profitability and environmental that legume has not been grown in the field
performance of your whole farm over time. The recently. Several resources describe the traits of
best soil improvement strategy depends on the different cover crop species and will help you
resources that are locally available, and the choose cover crops that will perform well under
techniques that suit your production system. your conditions. The OSU Organic Fertilizer and
When you sell agricultural products, you are
17
Cover Crop Calculator6 have been developed to avoid tying up nitrogen needed for good crop
help you estimate the management cost and growth, woody materials should be applied well
nitrogen contribution of cover crops. In Oregon, before planting crops. In many cases the fall is a
winter cover crops usually do well when seeded good time to apply these sorts of materials
in September. Many late harvested vegetables which include horse manure, straw, woody yard
can be under sown with cover crops earlier in debris, wood chips, sawdust and waste paper.
the summer just before final weed cultivation. It
is a good idea to discuss cover cropping Composting can transform raw organic
strategies with experienced local farmers and materials that are not convenient for
extension agents. agricultural use into a high quality soil
amendment. Proper composting requires a
Since cover crops don’t always perform well it is similar level of effort and attention as it takes to
wise to find other sources of other organic successfully grow a new crop. The composting
amendments. It is usually more efficient to process can reduce weed seeds, plant or human
learn how to use readily available local pathogens, odor, and other concerns, so the
materials well than to pay for organic materials effort is often justified. The feedstock, or raw
imported from further away. Raw organic materials used for composting should be well
amendments can be divided into three mixed and combined at ratios that provide a
categories based on their C/N ratio and their good initial C/N ratio (20‐40:1), moisture (40‐
effects on soil fertility: 1) hot stuff (C/N <15:1), 65%) and density (<1,100 lbs/yd3). The WSU
2) cool stuff (C/N 15‐50) and 3) woody stuff Compost Calculator7 will help you develop good
(C/N >50). Hot stuff includes materials such as compost recipes. Composting equipment
chicken manure, feather meal, blood meal and should be chosen to fit the scale of your
other specialty fertilizers. It is very easy to over operation and the composting technique you
apply these materials so they should be used as choose. Be sure to understand the standards
fertilizers and only applied at agronomic rates and environmental regulations relevant to your
(see below). They increase soil fertility, but do composting activities.
not generally increase organic matter. Cover
crops, separated dairy solids and many other Equipment and Infrastructure
manures, spoiled hay, lawn clippings and
It is important to assess your equipment and
vegetable crop residues are all examples of cool
infrastructure and other physical resources
stuff. They decompose relatively quickly,
when designing a whole farm. Location, size,
releasing nitrogen as they decompose. These
expense, and need are all things to be
sorts of materials can be applied in larger
considered. It is often a good idea to draw a
quantities and can increase soil fertility and
map of your farm, so you can plan your
organic matter. Woody materials can build
infrastructure development. Building upon
organic matter and improve soil fertility, but
existing infrastructure is a great way to start
they decompose more slowly and can
and most likely, your first few years will be
immobilize nitrogen as they decompose. To
7
Compost Mixture Calculator.
6
Andrews, Nick. Organic Fertilizer & Cover Crop http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/soilmgmt/CompostM
Calculator. http://smallfarms.oregonstate.edu ixCalc.htm
18
devoted to building infrastructure for the entire The next obvious consideration is to think about
farm. the equipment you will use on your whole farm.
Farmers use various models including highly
Equipment can be a large cost on the farm and mechanized systems to draft horses to low
it is usually a smart decision to figure out what maintenance and hand tools. You’ll want to
you exactly need for the farm and how you can consider your scale when purchasing
achieve that within your economic and farming equipment. Typical on‐farm equipment that is
goals. Are you thinking about draft horses? Are crucial is a tractor, mower, loader and tiller,
you thinking about hand tools? A tractor? At which are sort of the basics to get started in
what scale will you be operating at? You will farming. Cost again plays into this and looking
want to think about what types of tillage and for ways to share equipment with other
whether using a custom operator is an option. neighboring farmers is one way to lower costs
Investing in infrastructure can be a major and build social capital at the same time.
capital cost and one that annual crops can help
offset as you continue to develop your whole Many small, diversified farmers designing whole
farm. farms use what is already available on the
market or at the farm and use innovation when
You can think about equipment and designing tools or reusing materials. There are
infrastructure in several ways. One way to numerous examples of homemade harrows,
separate it is to first look at your basic buildings hilling discs, electrically converted tractors and
that will be needed to establish your whole old time equipment being used on a modern
farm. Generally, farms will need basic structures whole farm today. Farmers tend to value
like barns, greenhouses, tool sheds or pack innovation and reuse and making an incredibly
houses for normal day‐to‐day farm activities for useful tool for very little cost and energy. There
housing animals, growing plants, storing tools is a lot of material to work with out there and
or preparing products for market. Most farms other farmers are your best source for
come equipped with some or all of these innovation in tools and equipment.
buildings, but many farms must start from
scratch and so understanding what is a priority Figure 5. Choosing Equipment
(depending on what you are producing) and
where it should be placed is important. It is Task/Function Features
Essential: Essential:
advisable that farms work with existing
infrastructure by building onto it, renovating or
making use of buildings to keep the costs down. Ideal: Ideal:
Another major infrastructure cost on the farm is
fencing. Some farms come equipped with
fencing, but many may have to make the
investment depending again on what you are Dream: Dream:
producing including livestock fencing or wildlife
fencing (in wilder areas where deer are a
concern for perennial and annual crops.)
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Water Management the most efficient water delivery method for
your farm. The most common irrigation systems
Managing water on a whole farm begins with a are flood, overhead, and drip. The amount of
careful assessment of both the available water flow you have will help determine the most
and your farm goals. The first step is to visit appropriate system. For example, overhead
your local Watermaster and determine whether systems require more water at higher pressure.
or not you have a water right on your property, If you are new to a property, you probably
and if so, the details of the right. Your water inherited an irrigation system. Before you
right specifies how much water you can use, revamp the system, take stock in what already
and during which months. This information is exists. You may not have the most efficient
critical to designing a water management plan system, but the process of installing a new
for your farm. system may wind up being more work and
trouble than justifies the improvement. If you
Once you have determined how much water is
are developing an entirely new system, consider
available to you and when, consider your need
how you can best make use of the water
for water as it relates to your farm goals. If you
available to you.
are planning to grow annual or perennial crops,
find out how many inches of water each crop Water conservation has become an increasingly
needs. If you are raising animals on pasture, important component of whole farm planning.
research the amount of water needed to keep Water and soil are closely connected, so using
your fields green. Keep in mind that your soil conservation tillage and soil‐building practices
type may influence the amount of water will enhance the efficiency of your irrigation
needed for your various enterprises. systems. For example, planting green manure
and cover crops and applying compost to your
Now, look at your water availability and your
fields increases the organic matter in your soil.
farm goals side by side and see if they are
Soils high in organic matter both retain soil
compatible. Will you have enough water
moisture better and drain more efficiently,
throughout the growing season to keep your
which moderates the effects of flooding and
crops and pasture adequately irrigated? If you
drought in your soils. In other words, building
find that you do not have enough water from
up the organic matter in your soil enables crops
your water right, you may also want to consider
to utilize the water available to them more
winter storage of rainwater. Consult your
easily. Plowing on contour is another
Watermaster about regulations on storage. You
conservation tillage practice that helps prevent
may be able to build a small irrigation pond, or
erosion and keeps water in soils for longer.
store rainwater in tanks to be used during the
Some farmers also plant hedgerows in an effort
late summer. Think of water as you would in a
to retain more soil moisture and mitigate water
yearly cash flow statement: do you have
loss through evapo‐transpiration.
enough water for each month of the year? If
not, you need to have a savings plan to cover Finally, when designing a water management
the drier months. plan for your whole farm, consider how your
irrigation system will impact the watershed you
If you do have enough water to proceed with
live in. For example, if you are pulling too much
your farming plan, the next step is to consider
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water from a creek, you may see significant tree Conclusion
dieback along the riparian zone during a
drought year. If you are flood irrigating a hillside Designing a whole farm system takes many
without using any conservation tillage practices, years of planning, experimenting, learning and
you may cause soil erosion that will impact your continually reinventing. The farm is such a
creek. Whole farms are not isolated from the dynamic place and there are so many factors
landscape in which they are situated. involved including Nature that the farmer finds
herself balancing so many forces including
Successful water management on a whole farm economics, environment and community
involves a careful, honest assessment of the dynamics. This short manual is intended to spur
water available and the water needed. Once thoughts, inspire and inform those trying to
availability and need are reconciled, designing a design a whole farm –a place that is diverse,
system involves taking into account the health healthy and sustainable. Remember to always
of the soil, plants, and animals on the farm, and place yourself back on the farm, think about the
well as the watershed as a whole. enormous resources and learning opportunities
available to you on your farm and proceed
forward with continual innovation, diversity and
sustainability in mind. Good luck!
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Resources for Your Whole Farm
Setting Goals
Jake, R. (2000, August). Whole Farm Planning for Economic & Environmental Sustainability. Kansas
State University Cooperative Extension. Retrieved from
http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/hort2/MF2403.pdf.
Wisall, Richard. (2009). The Organic Farmer’s Handbook: A Complete Guide to Managing Finances,
Crops, and Staff—and Making a Profit. Place of publication and publisher.
Fery, M. & Martin, D. (2009). The Growing Farms Planning Book: Think It! Write It!. Oregon State
University Extension Small Farms. (Available for $10 in the OSU Small Farms library).
Social Capital
Saguaro Seminar on Civic Engagement in America. (2010). What is social capital? Retrieved from
http://bettertogether.org/socialcapital.htm.
Indivisible.org www.indivisible.org
Economic Viability
Wisall, Richard. (2009). The Organic Farmer’s Handbook: A Complete Guide to Managing Finances,
Crops, and Staff—and Making a Profit. Place of publication and publisher.
Small Grain Production
Growing Grains on a Small Farm. OSU Extension Small Farms Program, Central Point, OR. (Available for
$10 in the OSU library).
Nutrition problems in poultry from certain types of grain:
http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/fs002e/fs002e.pdf
Pastured poultry nutrition for small producers:
http://www.sustainablepoultry.ncat.org/downloads/chnutritionhpinew.pdf
Equipment & Infrastructure
The Organic Farming Manual: A Comprehensive Guide to Starting & Running a Certified Organic Farm.
Ann Larkin Hansen. (Available for lending through the OSU library).
The Growing Farms Reader: Read It! OSU Small Farms Program. (Available for lending through the OSU
library).
Draft Animal Power for Farming. ATTRA. http://attra.ncat.org/attra‐pub/draft_animal.html
22
Farmscaping
Bringing Farm Edges Back to Life: Landowner Conservation Handbook Yolo County Resource
Conservation Handbook 221 West Court St., Ste 1, Woodland, CA 95695 530‐662‐2037 x5
www.yolocrd.ca.gov
Farmscaping to enhance biological control. Rex Dufour 2000 ATTRA, Fayetteville AK
http://attrta.nact.org/attra‐pub/PDF/farmscaping.pdf
Restoring Rare Native Habitats in the Willamette Valley. Bruce H. Campbell 2004. Defenders of Wildlife,
1880 Willamette Falls Drive, Ste.200, West Linn, OR 97068 503‐697‐3222 www.biodiversitypartners.org
Hedgerows
A Guide to Multifunctional Hedgerows in Western Oregon. Jude Hobbs and Dan McGrath 1998. Oregon
State University Extension Pub EM 8721. $1.00 Corvallis, OR
Perennials
Howard, Sir Albert. 1972. An Agricultural Testament. Rodale Press.
Lee, Andy, and Patricia Forman. 1998. The Chicken Tractor. Good Earth Publications, Buena Vista, VA.
Mollison, Bill. 1990. Permaculture. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Turner, Newman. 1956. Fertility Farming. Faber and Faber, Ltd. (or reprints from Acres, USA, 2009).
Soil Fertility
1. Soil Sampling for Home Gardens and Small Acreages (EC 628).
2. A List of Analytical Labs
3. Soil Test Interpretation Guide (EC 1478).
4. Using Cover Crops in Oregon
5. OSU Organic Fertilizer and Cover Crop Calculator.
6. WSU Compost Calculator
7. Fertilizing with Manure (PNW 533).
8. Oregon DEQ Composting site
9. Building Soils for Better Crops
10. Managing Cover Crops Profitably
11. UC Cover Crop Database
12. NRAES On-farm Composting Handbook
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The OSU Extension Small Farms Program is thankful for
the support of the USDA Risk Management Agency.
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