CHAPTER ONE

QUESTIONS

1. Biomedical engineering is a bransh of engineering that use scientific and

mathematical knowledge to improve, solvwe problems and make new discoveris

in the biological and medical field.

2. i. X-rays

i. Compluted Tomography scanners

ii. Tonometer

iii. Phoropter

iv. Contact lenses

v. Scoliometer

vi. Catheters

vii. Dentures

viii. Pace makers

ix. Position Emission Tomugrapgy

2b. Description and improvement

i. Position Emission Tomograpgy: A type of maker medicine procedure that

measures the metabolics activitly lof the cells of the body tissues. It is

mostly used in patients with brain or heart problems and cancer.

1
 Improvement suggestion. It should be able to measure other body parts, not

just the brain, heart or other cancerous body parts.

ii. Catheter: A catheter is a thin tube made from metal grade material serving a

broad range of functions. Cathetters are medical devices that can be

inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform surgical procedure.

Improvement Suggestion: The urinery catheter basically can be improved by proper

sterilization so as to avoid bacteria entering the body.

iii. X-ray Machines: These are machines that emit eletromgnetic radiation that

differentially penetratis structures within the body and creates an image of

these structures of photographic film. They are used in detecting

abnornalties within the body.

Improvement suggestion: Emission of this rediation could cause cancer, reduction of

this eletromagnetic radiatrion and still getting the same result would improve the

system.

2b. i. Viewing of internal organs in 3D and giving functions is 3D.

ii. Brain – computer interface to bring hope for the paralyzed

iii. Cyborgs

iv. Impplants that will go to specfic location of disease and treat them.

V. Canification in health.

2
 VI. Lab grown ment, synthetictea e.t.c to aid against food shortages

VII. Voice as diagrostic trol to replace damaged skins as used in stem cells.

VIII. Drugs or implants that could make mankind imprortal by stopping the

shortening of his tetomese.

IX. Drugs or machines that would reduce pain during child birth.

4 a. An advance in medicine my grandfather remember is the X-ray machine.

b. He had a fracture and was taken to the hospital by my parents and they had to

explain what the machine is to him.

PROBLEMs

1. Total surface area = 2 πr ( r +h )

Volume of cyleder = 2 π r 2 h

3mm L = h = 1cm = 10cm

3mm

1cm
d 3
d = 3mm - = r = =1.5 mm 
2 2

a. Surface to volume ratio.

22
Total surface area = 2 π r ( rt h ) w h ere π=
7

3
 22
= 2x x 1.5 (1.5 + 10)
7

44
= ×17.25
7

= 108.43mm

Volume = π r 2 h

22
= ×(1.5)2 ×10
7

= 70.71 mm3

Surface are: Volume = 1`08.43 : 70.71 => 1.53:1

(1b) d = 0.4 => diameter of partide

d = 3mm => diameter of apsule

therefore numbert of partides that an contain a capsule

3
=7.5 partides
0.3

         ii.total surface area of particles within the aspsules

⃛ 2❑
ud 22 32
×7.5= × ×7.5
4 7 4

22 9
                      = + ×7.5
7 4

4
 1485
                      =  =53.036 mm2
28

(2a)

80 0

70 0
0
60
0
50
0
40 0

30 0
0
20 0
10

500 1000 15000 2000

This is an exponential growth

y= Aenx

40 = Ae2000 x −−−−−−−(i)

35= Ae1500 x −−−−−−−(ii)

1.14=e 500 x

¿ ( 1.14 ) =500 x

0.13=500x

x=2.67 ×10−4 ¿

5
 40
A= =¿ A=23.47 years
2000 ×2.67 × 10−4

(a)      Since y = Aenx

−4

     y = 23.47 e 2.67 ×10 n

In year n = 1250

y 1=23.47 e 2.67 ×10−4 × 1200

y 1=23.47 e 0.33375

     y 1=32.77 years

(b) n = 2050

At 2000 years

80 = 40 e2000 x

80 2000 x
=e
40

2 = e 2000 x

In (2) = 2000 x

0.693 = 2000 x

0.693
x= =3.47 ×10−4
2000

y=40 e 2050×3.47 × 10− 4

        = 40 e0.7135 =81.47 years

3. Fraction of students in years 1980, 1985,1990, 1995,2000

In 1980, 1000 students

6
 In 1985, 1100 students

In 1990, 2000 students

In 1995, 2100 sgtudents

In 2000, 300 students

Total number of students during these years = 1000 + 1100 + 2000+2100+3000

9200studnts

1000
1980 ¿>
9200

1100
1985 ¿>
9200

2000
1990 ¿>
9200

2100
1995 ¿>
9200

3000
2000 ¿>
9200

5. my heart beat cycle in a minute = To beat per minute

In 1 hour = 70 x 60 mins = 4200 beats per hour

In 24 hours F e 1 day = 4200 x 24 100800 beats per day

In 365 days e.i 1 yeat = 100800 x 36,992000 beats per years

7
 In 10 years => 36792000 x 10 = 367920000 beats in 10 years

6. 1 foot of protein = 300 u m = 300 x 10-6 in diameter

I cell 15 x 10-6 in diameter

=> Number of cells that can contain a protein is

300× 10−6
= 20 cells
15× 10−6

DEFINITION OFM TERMS

1. In viro: In glass as in a test tube. An invitro test is one that is done in a glass or

platic vessels is the laboratary its translation means in the glass.

2. In – vivo: meaning in the living orgainsm :. It is an experiment that is done in the

body of a living organism. It is the stusdy of the effects of biological atities on

whole living organisms or cell when tested.

3. Minimally invasive testing: these are surgical techniques that limits the size of

licison needed thereby lessning the time for wound heating associated pain and

risk of infection.

4. Invasive testing: This is a type of medical procedure that requires trained medical

provides to use instruments that out skin or that are inseated into a body opening

examples are incision, endosocpy, biopsy.

8
 CHAPTER TWO

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

i. Dilute acids have sour taste

ii. Acids tum blue, itnus paper red

iii. Acid react with some metals to liberate hydrogen gas

Examples are Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium

H 2 S 04 (4 ) +19gs , → 19g SO4 + H 2 g 4

( g)

iv. Acids react with bases to give salt and water as their only products

2 H(s )+C a 0( S )→ Ca C l 2(qq) + H 20

(1)
,

PROPERTIES OF BASES

i. Bases have bitter taste

ii. They are soapy to touch

iii. Bases turn red litmus paper blue

9
iv. They react with ammonium salts in the presence of heat to give ammonia gas

NaOH (QQ ) N H 4 N 03 (aq ) → Na N O 3 (aq) + H 2 H (c) + NH 3 g

v. They also react with acids to produce salt and water.

Polar molecules are hydrophilic because they dissolve readily in water hence polar

molecules are considered water loving molecules.

Polar molecules are molecules in which theree is unequal showing mof electrons

between the two elements.

He nce, water as polar solvents , there is an unequal sharing of elections between

hydrogen and oxygen that makes n up water.

Therefore, polar molecules dissolve in polar sol vents hence, they are hydrophilic.

Examples are polysaccharides like wood and cotton and leather which is protein. On

the other hand, non-polar molecules are considered hydrophobic as they repel water

molecules they aggregate together to separate themselves from the water molecules.

An example is oil and this in turn leads to a process known as protein folding as a

result of hydrophobic effect. Non-molecules are molecules in which there is an equal

sharing of elections between the two combining elements or atoms.

(4) .

i. This is decrease in entropy during a polymerization reaction.

10
ii. The increase in entropy during polymerization reaction is as a result of the fact

that polymerization is not a dissociation process. It involves reacting monomer

molecules together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains.

(5)

A(i) Passive transport is a movemnet of ions and other atomic or moleauer substances

acrosss cell membrains without the need of energy input. It is driven by the

tendency of the system to grow in entropy. WHILE Active transport on the other

hand also involves movemnet of colecules across a cell membranes into a region of

higher concentration assited by enizymes a nd itrequires energy.

ii. passive transport moves molecules with conentration gradient is from high to low

regions WHILE Active transport makes prolecules against concentration jgradient.

B. Active transport is necessary for some ions because some ions needs to move into

the cell against its concentration hgradient that is, if the concrentation of the substance

inside the cell must be greater than its concentration in the extracellutar floid.

6.

(i). 0.9% of NaCl is an votonic solution

(ii) it is a isotonic solution because whe n blood cells resides such a mediiu m that is

0.9% NaCl, the intracellular and extracellular fluid are in osmatic equ illibrium across

the cell membrane.

7.

11
Ifyou drfink salt water on a deserted island, the osmatic pressure is higher than most

fluids in the body therefore you will end up urinating mopre frequently since the

osmitic pressure is higher mnthan you get degydrated since you will be releasing

more fluids hthan you took in then you die.

Drinking normal/fresh water works to detute excess salt in the body tyhen excrete out

in f orm of urination, therefore drinking sea water, that is, water with salt increases

concentrationof salt therefore more water be needed to be taken out to dilute the salt

already e xisting in the body ad the sea water salt. The extra water that wou ld be

used with be water from the cells, thereby casuing dehydration than death.

8.

The effect hypeventilation has on HCO 3/H2CO3 equli bruim is that it results in a

corresponding increase in blood pH. Hyperventilation involves excess exhalution of

carbon dioxide concetration therefore CO2 is reduced in the blood therey causing an

increase in blood pH, therefore there is excess alkal in the blood. It therefore cause

respiratory alkalosis.

9.

Cystic fibrosis tis a genetic disease. It is a defect in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane

conductance regulator (CTTR) GENE THAT CAUSES CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF).

12
This gene makes protein that controls movement of salt and water in and out of body

cell. In ppeople who have cystic fibrosis, the gene makes a protein that doesn’t work

well thereby ocausing a thick, sticky mucus and very salty sweat.

The affected areas of the body are the lugs and pancreas, it can also affect other body

parts like the liver, nose and sin uses and sweat glands.

The sysuptoms that may be seen in a cystic fibrosis patient include cough, repeated

lung infection, hypertension severe constipation, delayed development.

10a.

C6H12 06 + 603 6C03 + 6H20

C6H12 06 - 1273.3 kJ/mol

H2 0 - 285.8kJ/mol

C02 - 393.5Kj/mol

Enthalpy = DH (products) - DH( reactants)

= 6 (-285.8 + (-393.5)] - [-1273.3]

= -4075.8 + 1273.3

= -22802.5 kJ/mol

10b.

Since the enthalpy is negative, it is exsthermic

10c.

13
From Gibbs free energy

DG =DH –TDS

= -2802.5 TDS

Where T = 37 + 273 = 310k

DS = 212

Da = -2802.5 – (310) (212)

Da = - 68522.5

13a.

pH = 7.4

2−¿ +¿; P
H 2 P O−¿ =7.2 ¿
4 → H 2 P O4 + H
KA
¿¿

pH= pK A + log¿ ¿

7.4=7.2+log ¿ ¿

0.2=log ¿ ¿

¿ ¿ = 1.585

13 b .

14.

dc
J x2− D
dx

D=10−6 cm 2/ s 

14
 dc
=1× 10−9
dx

−6 ( C 2−G )
J x =−10 ×
1

J x =−10−15 mg|cm2| s

PROBLEMS

a. NH3 Acid

b. H3PO4 Acid

c. Li OH Acid

d. HCOOH (formic acid) Acid

e. H2 SO4 Acid

f. HF Acid

g. Ba OH Base

3.

a. Carbondioxide (CO2) Non – polar substance

O =C=O

b. Carbontetradloride (CCI4) Polar stubstance

Cl

Cl - C – CI

Cl
c. Hydrochlorica acid (HCl) Polar substance

15
 H+ - Cl-

d. Ammonia (NH3) Polar substance

e.

Tyrosine chemical structure

ii

Seine chemical structure

16
 iii

Threonine chemical structure

i. Funtional group of typrosine Phenol group
ii. Functional group of serine Hydroxyl group
iii. Functional group of Thjreonime Hydroxyl group

Undergoes hydrogendoading

Threoqine

Tyrosine undergoes hydrogen bonding

17
5a.

HC2 H3 O2 + H2 O H3O+ + C2 H3 O2 – acetic acid

HC2 H3 O2 + H2 O H3 O+ + CH3 COO-

Acid Conjugate base

Acetic acid, KA =1.7 X 10-5

H3O+ , concentration = 1 x 10-7

KA = ¿ ¿

1.7 X 10-5= ¿ ¿ X 1 X 10-7

1.7 ×10−5
=¿ ¿
1× 10−7

Applying the henderson Hasselbach equation

pH= pk A + log ¿ ¿

−log [ 1 ×10−7 ]=pk A +log [ 1.7 ×107 ]

7=Pk A +2.2304

pK A = 7 – 2.2304

pK A = 4.77

C6 H5 COOH + H2 0 H3 0+ C6 H5 COO- Benzoci Acid

Benzoic acid, kA = 6.3 x 10-5

kA = ¿ ¿
18
6.3× 10−5
=¿
1× 10−7

pH = pkA + log ¿

-log (1x10-7) = PkA + log [ 6.3 ×10−2 ]

7 = pKA + 2.7993

pKA = 4.2

5c.

HC6 H4 NO2 + H20 H3 O+ + C6H4NO2-

KA = ¿

1.4 ×10−5
¿
1× 10−7

−¿log [ 1 x 10-7] = pkA + LOG [ 1.4 X 102]

7=pk A +2.146

pk A +2.146

pk A =4.85

Therefore, according to pkA, the strongest is benzoic acid then acetic acid than

nicotinic acid.

6.

pH = -log10 [H+]

pH of stomach acid = 1.0

19
1= -log10 [H+]

-1 = log10 [H+]

10-1 = [H+]

[H+] = 0.1M

pH of blood = 7

7 = log10 [H+]

-7 = log10 [H+]

10-7M = H+

HF H + + F-

kA = 6.8 X10-4

Ph = pkA + log ¿

k A =¿ ¿

6.8 X 10-4 = ¿ ¿

6.8 X 10-4 X 0.45 = [H+] [F-]

[H+] [F-] = 3.06 X 10-4

[H+] = √ 3.06 ×10−4 = 0.0175N

F −¿ 0.0175
Degree of dissociation = = =0.0389 ¿
HF 0.45

Ph = -log10[H+] = -log10 [0.0175]

20
pH = -1.757 x -1 = 1.757

CH3 COOH CH3COO- + H+

Ph = 2.85

pH = -log10 [H+]

2.885 = log10 [H+]

H+ = 10-2.885 = 1.303 x 10-3 M

dissociation constant = ¿ ¿

kA = ¿ ¿ ¿

2
[ 1.303 ×10−3 ]
kA
0.1

k A =1.698 ×10−5

CHAPTER THREE

QUESTION 1

DNA and RNA synthesis are both unfavorable reactions that requires energy that

is produced from the hydrolysis of the tri-phosphate of the in amino nucleotides

acid subsequent hydrolysis of the resulting hydro-phosphate in order for the

21
reaction to occur. Because the energy needed is produced in this manner, they

react to the 31 hydroxyl of the old nucleotide ensuring that the reaction only occurs

in the 51 to 31 direction.

QUESTION 2

A plasmid vector is a small circular molecule composed double stranded DNA.

These as derived from natural plasmids which can occur in normal bacterial cells.

The significance of these Plasmid vectors is that a piece of DNA can be inserted

DNA goes through a series of process while and result is to produce a new

plasmid that can be introduced into bacterial cells that can now produce may

copies of the inserted DNA.

QUESTION 3

The first sequence CGCAGAAGGCAA could be located either in a DNA or RNA

moleculs because all the bases of the nucleotids present in the sequence (I.e CGA)

are present in both ktypes of nucleic acids.

The record sequence can only be located is a DNA molecule because of the

presence of the nucleotide with the base thymine (T) which is absent is RNA and

occurs = DNA. The base thymine is replaced by uracil is RNA.

QUESTION 4

a. Sequence 1 has four amino acids

b. Sequence 2 has three amino acids.

22
CCCCTACGCTTT

QUESTION 6

Gel electrophoresis uses the positive and charges to separate charged particles. An

electric current travels through a buffer solution from the cathode to the anode.

DNA is negatively charged, so kif travels to the positive electrode when electric

cuirrent is applied, DNA fragments will travel varying distances with smaller

fragments travelling than larger ones.

QUESTION 7

The gene provides information about where functional genes are. This map can be

used with other data about genetic linkage to identify genes that may be involved

with a disease.

QUESTION 8

Within the same primary transcript of RNA, sequences may be recognized as

either errors or istions under different condition. An advantages of alternative

splicing that it creates a diversity of proteins without increasing genome size.

QUESTION 9

23
DNA synthesis takes place in a 5 1 to 31 direction. The lagging strands must be

synthesized continuously to satisfy the 51 to 31 constraint creating okazaki

fragments. The fragments and their spaces are the filled by DNA ligases.

PROBLEMS 1

DNA Untranscribe T G T G C A C G T

d
DNA Transcribed A C A C G T G C A
Mrna U G U G C N C G U

Non – mutated strand

mRNA is formed during transcription

51-G-A-A-U-G-U-A-C-G-C-U-A-C-A-G-G-C-C-C-A-U-G-A-31

Sequence of amino acids: Methionine, Tyrosine, Alanize, Threonine – Mutated

strand.

51-G-A-A-U-G-U-A-C-G-C-U-A-C-A-G-G-C-C-C-A-U-G-A-31

Sequence of amino acidi : Methionine, Tyrosine, Alamine, Hustodine glycinen.

(1)

number of genes
Density =
total number of bases∈ genome

100,000 genes
Human = 9
=0.00003 genes /base
3 ×10 bases

24
 6000
Yeast = =0.00043 genes /base
14 ×106

3500
Bacteria = =0.0012 genes /base
3× 106

number of genes ׿ genes

Fractional genome =
total unmber of bases∈geneome

100,000× 3000
Human = =0.1=10 %
3 ×10 9

6000× 1200
Yeast = =0.51=51 %
11 × 106

3500× 1100
Bacteria = =1.28=128 %
3 ×106

(7)

Chromosome size = 100 million bases

Speed of replication fork = 200 bases per second

Time limit = 8hours => 3600 X 8 = 28,800 SECS

Number of replication fork = x

100,000000
x × 28800=
200

108
x =17.36
200 ×28800

(9)

Taznsimted: GUA

25
 Autication Trna sequence: CAT

(10)

DNA sequence: TGCTACGTGGATATTGGG

Mrna sequence: ACGAUGCACCUAUAUAACCC

Amino acid sequence: methiorine, histidene, lencine

CHAPTER FOUR

Proteins have four structurse. The primary structures is the amino acid sequence mof a

polypeptide. This structure has direct rality ad has an amino terminus and carboxyl

26
chain. Bthe structuce in certain parts of the polypetide chain. The structure jcan either

include the <- helizer or the B sheet. The tertiary structure of a protein decribes its 3-D

structure of the entire moleaule.

A quetenary structure is created from two or more polypeptide chain that comes together

to form a protein.

(2)

Post – transtational lmodification of proteins reveals the complexity of protein ad protein

synthesis ad the delicate ad intricate ways in which they operate. Not only is the process

of translation engineered to most kquickly ed efficiently create a protein, but the process

takes into account that the protein might not go into immedrate use or should not go into

immediate use. This planning ahead testifies to the advanced state of the design in our

bodys engineering system.

(3)

The hydrophobic effect is that property which describes the tending for non- polar

nolecules to self associate in an aqueious environment. This phenomenon of clustering

together reduces the overall surface area lkof non-polar groups and therefore shoulds

them from con tact with an aqueous medium. Addition to hydrogen bonding interaction,

the native or tertiary structure that results jfrom protein folding is dependent on

hydroplutic / hydrophobic forces. Since hydrophobic molecules is proteins will exclude

water this increases entropy or state of randomness is water molecules. The increase in

27
the entropy of water is larger than the decrease in the cutropy kof the molecules,

yielding7 an koverall thermdynamically favourable protein folding reaction.

(4)

The lock amd key model is a model where the substrate and enzyme fit perfectly into

each other as a lock and key would. Once the enzyme and substrate fit together, the

enzyme would facilitate lkis forming the product. The individed fit model is the model in

which the substrate and enzyme kboth alter their shape a bit in order to fit to each other.

The induced fir model may be more appropriate ;lin describing enzyme substrate

interactions because lkthe substrate is more similar to its lintermediate transition state in

the induced model.the strain caused by the alteration in shape may facilitate chemical c

hanges that need to happen.

(5)

Drugs may perve as competition inlubitors, such as sulfanilamide, or as irreversible

inhibitors such aas flourouracil. Pathways unique to pathogenic bacteria, viruses ad on

are rare, so drugs are developed that are merely less harmful to the host than the target

cell because of differences in cell permeability, metabolic rate, and so onj. Drug

resistence can arise through gene amplification in the patient, k the can occur with

methrotrexate.

(6)

28
Quatenary structure consists of a specific non covalent association of subunits having

their own tertiary structures. Only haemoglobin has quatenary structure myogolobin is a

single polypeptide chain. Insulin, chymotrypsin and an dymotrypsin are multi c hain

proteing covalently joined by cysteine bonds

PROBLEMS

RGD Peptide structure

(5a)
Dissociation of glutamic acid
NH3 CHCOOH – (CH2)2 . COOH +H2O
NH3 CHCOOH – (CH2)2 COO –+ H3 O+
Weak acid: NH3 CHCOOH – (CH2)2 COOH
Conjugate base: NH3 CHCOOH – (CH2)2 COO-
(5b)
Glutamic acid (E) ==>
COOH (pKa =4.3)  7.4 = 4.3 + log (A-/HA)
 3.1 log (A-/HA)

29
An enzyme speeds up a reaction by ireducing the activation energy that reaction

moleaules must have in ohrder to overcome the barrier to initiate a chemical reaction. In

doing so, the transition state or activated complex, which has the highest free energy is

stabilized by the eneyme.

(b)

No, the aibbs free energy of the reaction is not affceted by the

Presence of a eazyme. The eazyme will only change the pgibbs free energy between

transition state ad the substrate molecules, which is the activation energy. Hence, the

enzymes will only catalyze reactions that are thermodynamically favourable.

(9)

Assume the reaction proceeds linearly because concentration is much larger than k m

(840993 NM>>1000NM) so the concentration remains ouncharged. 2 5% after 10

seconds, 75% after seconds ad 100% aftter seconds.

30
 CHAPTER FIVE

QUESTIONS

1. Count the total number of cells in your field of vision, diside by the area of the

field then you get an avergae cell per odensity area. Multiply the answer by the

surface of the flask.

2. Sodium bicarbonate dissolves in solution to Na+ ad bieearbonate (HCO3).

BIcarbonate is amptoteric i.e it is able to accept or donate a protein and so can act

as eikther an acid or base which is useful in abuffer solution to balance pH

changes.

3. Cell cultures are done in urto ad so do not vexactly replicate conditions of the

human body. Cells lgrow on plastic dishes and are not exposed lto all of the same

factors that exist inside of an organism.

4. Prokanyotes have a cell pwall, while eukary otes have a cell membrance.

Eukaryotes have nudeus and organelles, prokaryotes do not have nucleus and

organelles. Prokaryotes are also much smaller than eukaryotes.

5. The major difference between mitosis and meiosis is that mitomsis is involved in

the division of somatic j cells a nd results in the prepoduction of 2 identifical

daughter cells. It can be used for cell reproduction and general growth and repair

in the body. No chromosomal cross – over occurs WHILE Meiosis involves the

division of germ cell and results in N haploid cells, i.e the number of

31
 chromosomes are reduced by half during division. It can be used for sexual

reproduction and chromosomes can cross – over.

6. Organism must both repenish cells in order to combat injury and tissues damage.

Cells naturally die or may exper ience trauma leading to cell death. Therefore,

constant cell p,roliferation is needded in order to repair damaged tissue that may

arise from enternal injury or natural jcell deaths. In this instance, the krate of cell

proliferation must at least be equal to the rate of cell death inorder to maintain

homeostasis, also, in order for an organism to grow, there must be greater cellular

proliferation than cellular death so that new tissues can be formed.

7. Active transport relies on the use of energy in the form of ATP to transport

material against concentration gradients. Facilated diffusion does not require

energy input, substances bind to the membrane protein and cause conformational

changes allowing them to enter the intracellular environment. These substances

travel down concentration gradients (high or low) but require assistance to pass

through the membrane as they are often too large oto pass through on their own.

8. While all somatic cells contain the same genetic information once a cell

differentiates into a specific type, its genetic expression becomes highly regulated.

Due to levels of DNA methylation and actylation certain aeas of Ho DHA

becomes in accessible and transcription ad so only proteins can be expressed.

9. Adaptation might eventually occur amongst the cells ad the best adapted cell will

dominate the culture.

32
 PROBLEMS

4 3
1. V = πr
3

d=10 μ m=¿=5 μ m=5 ×10−6 m

4 22 3
v= × × ( 5 ×10−6 ) =5.24 × 10−16 m 3
3 7

−16 3 1016 cm 3 1 ml −10 ❑

¿ 5.24 ×10 m × 3
× 3∂
=5.24 ×10 ml
1m 1 cm

20 mg
5.24 ×10−10 ml × =1.0 ×10−8 mg
1 ml

1g 1 mol
1.0 ×10−8 mg × × ×6.02 ×1023 molecules
3
10 mg 50000 g

¿ 1.20 ×108 molecules

3a. Assuming one’s weight is purely cellular;

70 kg
−12
=7 ×1013 cells
1× 10 kg

if a person’s blood is approximately 75% cellular 0.75 x 7.x1013 = 5.25 x 102 cells

3b. Assuming bodys enitre volume is celler and average human volume to be no 65l

65 L
4 × 10 /¿=1.63 ×101−3 cell ¿
12

5a. For sphere

4
v= μ r 3 , v=1 mm3=¿ r =6.20× 10−7 m
3

˙ 2
Surafce area = 4 μr

33
 = 4 × μ́ ×6.2 ×10−7

= 4.83 × 10−7 m2

Volume: area => 4.83 μm2 :1 μ m3=¿ 4.83

For cylinder

V = μ́2 h

v=1018 m3 r=6.2 ×10−7

∴ h=8.28 × 10−7 m

S . A=2 πR (r +h)

¿ 2 × π × 6.2× 10−7 ( 6.2 ×10−7 + 8.28× 10−7 )

= 5.64 x 10-6m

SA :V =¿ 5.64 μm2 :1 μ m3

= 5.64

5c.

A given weight of small cells would kbe more active because the smaller cells have

higher surface area to volume rations. Therefore nutrients and molecules could pass

through the cells inembrance faster ad more keffectively. With larger cells, there would

be ferver cells ad the proteins ad molecules would take time to travel.

5d.

34
It would change because an hequal lnumber of cells could mean that the same number of

small and large cells would be working on metabolic processes.

7a.

HOURS FIBROBLASTS ENDOTHELICAL TOTAL % FIBOBLASTS

0 10 10 20 50%
29 20
40 40 20 60 66.7%
60 80
80 160 40 200 80%
100 320
120 640 80 720 88.9%
140 1280
160 2560 160 2720 94.1%
180 5120
200 10204 320 10524 96.96%

Fibroblasts double every 20 hours

10 x 2 = 20 fibroblasts in 20hours

Since endothelial cells double jevery 40 hours

10x2 = 20 endothelial cells = 40 hours

35
 From graph, time required for 90% fibroblast is 130 hours

(9)

4 3
Volume of cell μ v = π r
3

r =175 μ m 3

X =X O e μt

doubling time of pciz cell=shows

μ=rate constant

Mass of mouse = 250g

Ratio of mouse head to

36
 1
overall mass of mouse =
10

1
Ration of nouse brain mass to hea mass =
5

Dopamize requirement = 0.1g/kg brainmass / day

4 3
Volume of cell = πr
3

4 22 3
¿ × × ( 1.75 ×10−4 )
3 7

¿ 2.24×10 7 μ m 3

Rate constante

¿2
8 hours =
μ

¿2
μ=
8 hours

μ=0.0866/hours

Dopamire quantity required = mass of mouse x ratio of mouse head to overall mass of

mouse x ratio of mouse to brain mass to headmass x dopramise requirement.

1 1 1 kg 0.1 g
250 g × × × × =5 ×10−4 g
10 5 1000 g 1 kg

Total number of cells needed for dopamine

5.0 ×10−4 ×107=5 × 103 cells=5000 cells

Cells/capsule = 5000 cells/50 capsules = 100 cells/ capsules

37
Time

×=X o e μt

100=22.45× e 0.0866t

100
=e 0.0866t
22.45

¿ 4.45=¿ e 0.0866t

1.4929=0.0866 t

1.4929
t= =17.24 hours
0.0866

CHAPTER SIX
38
QUESTION

The action potential involves a series of stages of depolariation, repolarization ad

refractory period. At the refractory perido, voltage gated alart close while 1 st voltage

gated is releasing Kt to the outside lof the cell.

This process of closing kthe voltage gated Nat i.e refractory period ensures the onle –

direction movement of action potential.

The structural features involves the aton terminal where jthe action potential gets to b

efore transfer to neghboving neuron via dendrites.

Synapses i.e gap junctions created between two icells for action potential transfer is

involved.

Also neurotransmitters transfer those action potentials from presyraptie neuron to

pstsynaptioneuron neighbouring nevron.

4.

Type I diabetes is a autoiumune implies that the immiune system is mistakely

attacking the body instead of protecting it.

The immunie system attacks the glucose receptors as it does not recognize then, so the

body can it break down glucose therby leading to high blood glucose levels.

6.

39
Mutations is as can trigger the signaling and therby create a response by sending out

a transcription jfactor that would allow normal cells to divided continuously.

8.

It is important to charactize the MHC type of aperson before bonemarrow or organ

transplantation to know if the organ transplattion is biocompatible with the person

else complication may arise in the person or the person’s body may reject the

transplant.

B 10 μM

PROBLEMS

C O=120m M ,C i=?

V =39μ V

R = 1.987cal/knol

T = 298k

Z = -1

F = 23.062 x103 cal/mol v

12T Co
V= ∈( )
zF Ci

1.987 ×298 × 1000 120

39=
−1× 23062
×∈( )
x

39=0.0257 ×∈ ( 120x )
40
 39 120
−0.0257 ×1000
=¿
x ( )
−1.517=¿ ( 120x )
120
e−1.511 =
x

0.22 x=120

120
x= =545.45 m19
0.22

(4) (b)

C2
V nemst =58 mlog ( )
C1

V
K+¿=58 m Vlog (101 )=−58 V ¿
m

V
NA+¿=58 m Vlog ( 101 )=58 V ¿
m

KA, mouse = 4.75 x 108 M-1

kA, human = 1.3 x 1010 M

mouse,

1 1
k D= = =2.11 × 109 × τ 9
k A 4.75 ×10 19
8 −1

1 1
k D human= = =7.69 ×10−11 × τ 9
k A 1.3 ×1010

41
42