CHAPTER ONE

Introduction
1.1 Back ground of the study

Agriculture is the back bone of Ethiopian economy the largest number of

population depends on farming. Agriculture has multifaceted
contribution as a source of input for industrial sector, as a source of
export and most importantly to provide sufficient food for the increasing
number of population. It is generally known that Ethiopia with
diversified agricultural resources, which are considered to be adequate
and favorable for development of agriculture and achievement of food
security, but it has not yet managed to be food self sufficient. It has
large agricultural labor force, land, livestock, ample water and other
resources which expand the potential of food production, but has failed
to produce enough food and contribute to poverty reduction and national
food security.

The committee on world food security, a body set up in 1975 by the

united nation world food conference to over see the developments in food
security adopted in the early 1980 there cognition of food security as a
tripartite concept, reflecting the criteria of availability, access and
stability (FAO,2003:5)

Developing countries are vulnerable to food insecurity since domestic

production capabilities are inadequate as a result of the low level of
accumulated investment in agriculture. Furthermore developing
countries lack of the purchasing power to import enough food to satisfy
domestic demands and are susceptible to even the smallest changes in
food price in world market.

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In this context, domestic agricultural production plays vital role as an
insurance against unstable movement of import price. Domestic
agricultural production also contributes to food security in the long term
by saving foreign exchanges and stimulating investment in
manufacturing sectors, which lead to rapid economic growth and
increased accessibility to foods. (Jaeok lee: 176).

Ethiopia has been structurally food deficient since 1980, in which the
gap rose from 0.75 million tons in 1979/80 to 5 million tons in 1983/84
falling to 2.4 million in 1995/6 deposited a record harvest (Befekadu and
Birhanu, 2000:176).

Since agriculture is the oldest tradition practice of people of Mana

woreda in Jimma zone and largest proportion of the people food
consumption depend on agricultural sector.

Mana woreda is surrounded by lalobilo in the North Hundatolii in the

west, Buturi Gabiso in the south and Dawaa in East. Mana is 22km far
from Jimma town. Mana woreda had around 14473 population, out of
this 7153 of them are males and 7320 of them are Females. Most of the
population of the woreda lived in rural area; Because of this most of t he
populations were depend on agriculture. The major obstacles of food
security in the woreda are, inadequate rain full degradation, climatic
change and tradition monocrop farming. From this obstacles traditional
monocrop farming play a great role to food insecurity in the woreda
(MWARDO).

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1.2 Statement of the problem
One of the consequences of the poor performance of Ethiopian
agriculture is wide spread of food insecurity. An estimated 50% to 60%
of the country’s population is food insecure. The number of drought
affected population between 1981 and 1995 range from a minimum of
2.53 million in 1987 to 7.85 million 1992 (Befekadu and Birhanu,
1999/00:176).

AS part of the country, the causes of food crises in Jimma zone especially
in Mana woreda is server varied and complex. The principal
determinates which brought about failure to adequately feed the
population include sever environmental degradation, rapid population
growth which exceeds agricultural growth, lack of shortage facilities,
limited access to infrastructure and basic services, low productivity of
agricultural resulting from insufficient fertilize use and poor performance
of agriculture. As regards, the general food situation in this Woreda the
gap between the yearly food production and food requirement at
household and Woreda levels has widening alarmingly. As Mana Worda
agricultural and rural development office pointed out that the main
Socio-economic cones quinces of food insecurity are hunger and human
disease, cattle loss, human death beggin sale of their productive are
some of them (MWARDO).

In addition to this, the reason that initiated the researcher to conduct

study on this specific area was address the following basic research
question.
 What are socio- economic consequence of food shortage?

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 What are the limitation in solving the problem of food insecurity in
Mana woreda.
 How alleviating the problem of food insecurity in mana Worda?

1.3 Objective of the study

1.3.1 General objective
To assess the causes and consequence of food insecurity in Mana
Woreda
1.3.2 Specific objectives
 To examine the socio- economic conditions (I.e educational
level, land holding size, farming mechanism in Mana Woreda).
 To identify the major causes of food shortage.
 To assess the role of government and NGOs in alleviating the
problem

 To forward conclusion and recommendation.

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1.4 Methodology of the study
1.4.1 Data sources
The data to be used for this study was gathered from two sources of
information. The primary data was gathered from a population of
selected farmer in the woreda. Secondary data was gathered from
published and un published documents about the problem as well as
from relevant institution such as Mana woreda agricultural and rural
development office. In addition to this secondary data was gathered form
different research papers that have been done on food insecurity.

1.4.2 Methods of data collection

The primary data was collected using self administered and structured
and interviews. This types of questioner is selected due to the following
two reasons.

First, it is structured to design question as per the data need of the

research and to minimize respondents biasness. Second it is self
administered to easily understand and provided intended response. On
the other hand, these secondary data was collected by referring to
different published and un published documents.

1.4.3 Sampling Techniques

The types of data employed were both primary and secondary data. The
primary data has been collected through randomly selected household by
interview questionnaires. Secondary data has been collected from
different publication and up publication document. Regarding to

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questionnaires. First, two kebeles which have 500 households were
selected randomly. From 18 kebeles found in the woreda, then 50 house
holds were selected from the two kebeles which believes to share their
socio-economic variables commonly and it is economically convenient.
The size of sample has been limited to 50 because of shortage of logistic
and time. The total number of data has been collected from Mana
Woreda and Jimma Zone agricultural and rural development office

1.4.4 Method of data analysis

The researcher uses descriptive methods of analysis first the collected
data categorized, next tabulation of the data followed and then the data
analysis using qualitative means of analysis. The quantitative analysis
has been organized describing and systematically interpreting the
collected data while quantitative analysis to be used in this research is
statically analysis such as organizing the collected data in tabular forms
interims of frequency and percentage.

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1.5 Hypothesis of the study
Farm households face reasonable food shortage because they fail to
produce adequate grain to cover all year consumption requirements
thus, the study hypothesis is that:-
 Large family size with in one household negatively affect the
societies food security.
 Labor on plots of land is over employed, there fore, holding size is
expected to play significant role influencing household’s food
security.
 Environmental degradation also negatively treats house holds
food security.

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1.6 Scope of the study
The focus of the study is an assessment of causes, the role of
government and economic consequences of food shortage in Mana area.
More over, the study address one of the main consequences of
agricultural performance, supply and demand gap for the food since
1992.

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1.7 Significance of the study
The result of this study is important for identifying the different problems
that face food insecurity in Mana Woreda and propose the problem to the
concerned governmental bodies to search solution for the problem. It
adds to the knowledge and understanding of the individual by providing
information in relation to the Woreda. This could add to the extensive
Literature of food insecurity in Ethiopia as a whole, and could help
enlighten concerned house hold about the status of the area.

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1.8 Limitation to the study
The main limitation of the study are:- absence of well organized
information, shortage of break time to fill the questionnaire, limited
number of studies on this topic to get sufficient information, difficulty of
getting reference books and in accessibility of internet, reluctance of
officials and farm house holds to give responses and data may not be
found in desired manner.

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1.9 Organization of the study
The paper contains four chapters. The first chapter comes up with the
introduction part of the research. The second chapter deals with the
literature review. The third chapter is the main part which present the
finding and discussion of the study and the final chapter is concerned
with conclusion ideas and recommendation.

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 CHAPTER TWO
Literature review
2.1 Theoretical literature
2.1.1 Theoretical development of food security
The concept the helps to faster an integrated approach to food and
nutrition problems is that of food insecurity. There have been many
definitions of food security in the literature over the years. However, the
definition that is now a days in widely accepted as capturing the sprit of
the concept is that defined by the World Bank (1986). Food security is
the access by all people at all times enough food for an active, healthy
life. Its essentials are the availability of food and the ability to acquire it.
As embodied is the World Bank definition, these principles may be
distinguished as follows.

First the definition emphasizes access to food rather than supply of food
this is considered with the concept of food entitlement and it focuses
whether people have sufficient command over food. Second, the
definition emphasizes the access to food by all people employing that an
aggregate view is insufficient; the situation of individuals and social
groups at risk critical importance. Third, definition refers to both
availability versus food entitlement distinction model (Meller J, 1988).

Food insecurity, intern, is the lack of access to enough food. The World
Bank definition of food security also makes an important distinction
between transistor food insecurity and chronic food insecurity.
Transistor food in security is defined as temporary decline in house holds

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access to enough food. Chronic food insecurity is defined as
continuously in adequate diet caused by the persistent inability to a
quire enough food (ibid).

On the contrary some countries that were food deficit were able to
exercise considerable level of national food security, as they were able to
import food through generating sufficient foreign exchange and
improving the efficiency of the marketing system. Hence, food self
sufficiency or adequate food production alone does not necessarily imply
the achievement of food security particularly at house hold or community
level (ibid).

Conventionally, food security is defined as the access by all people, at all

times, to enough or sufficient food for an active healthy life (World Bank
1986). There are four distinct concepts in this definition:-
1, ‘Sufficiency’ indicates enough supply of calorie including necessary
intake of proteins and macro nutrients.
2, ‘Access’ marks the ability of house holds to get command over food
through production, purchase, exchange or gift.
3, ‘Security’ securing access to sufficient food is associated with the
existence of risk which vary from natural to manmade factors. As
indicated, security is related to minimizing the risk of in accessibility to
sufficient food, by all people, at all times deterioration in natural
resources, disruption in food system and distortion in state policies and
socialites are some of the risk conditions that contribute to the
worsening of food entitlement.
4, the ‘Time’ dimension describes the intensity and characteristics of
household food insecurity. That is, food in security can be chronic or
transitory. A constant failure to food access is considered as transitory

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food insecurity. Transitory food insecurity implies short term
unavailability in production or income (ibid).

Food insecurity is not an single sector issue, but rather a complex multi
spectral development issue. The widely quoted definition of food security
is ‘access by all people at all times to sufficient food needed for healthy
life” (World Bank, 1986). This definition has three components, food
availability, food access and food utilization. Food availability refers to
the need to produce sufficient food in away that generates income for
small scale producers while not depending on the natural resources
base, and to the need to get this food in markets for sale at prices that
consumer can afford.

Peoples ability (which is constrained by income) to get economic assess

to this food is the second component. If rural household can not
generate sufficient income to purchase the food, they lack entitlement to
that food. The third component is the individual’s ability to use food
consumed for growth, nutrition and health. In other words, on food
factors such as education, health care, child care, clean water and
sanitation are of critical importance in the equation of food security
(Wolday Amaha, 2004:225).

Addressing food insecurity in Ethiopia requires a clear understanding of

the nature, level of magnitude and determinates of food security at
federal, regional, woreda, house hold, and individual levels (Wolday
Amaha, 2004:225).

At the house hold level, a distinction is drawing between transitory food

insecurity and chronic food insecurity. Chronic food insecurity is along
term and continues in adequate food in take caused by inability to

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acquire food, and food, and is more closely linked to poverty. This is the
result of lack of human and productive resources to produce of acquire
sufficient food. Transitory food insecurity is a temporary decline (short
term) in houses holds access to enough food. This is the result of
episodic events such as, drought, civil disturbance, instability in food
production, prices, incomes, etc. however if the poor have to cope
repeatedly with transitory food insecurity the income and productive
base deplete more and more and many result in chronic food insecurity.
(Ibid: 226). Generally, the demand for agricultural commodities not
elastic with respect to price changes because consumers consume
certain amounts of food, regard less of the price. The supply of
agricultural products also, especially in the short term, price inelastic
since agricultural production can’t respond quickly to changing price
mainly because of time lags in production. As a result of the demand
and supply characteristics of agricultural products, small changes in
agricultural production, caused by exogenous factors such as changes in
natural and climatic conditions could lead to large fluctuations of price.
In the case of basic foods, market prices and thus farmer incomes are
especially unstable. The continues concerns about food security reflect
the high price volatility of agricultural commodities and uncertainties in
food supply (FAO ROA, session 6:116).
In recognition of the importance of food security, the World food summit
that was sponsored by FAO in 1996 adopted the following definition in
its action plan “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have
physical and economic assess to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy
life (Ibide).

2.1.2 The classical School

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The basic arguments of the classical theory of development, as
exemplified by Thomas Maltuhus can be summarized as follows (Ghatak
and Ingersent 1984). First increased population causes a parallel
increase in demand for food. Second the increase demand for food can
be met either by cultivating the existing land more intensively (i.e by
applying more labor) or by binging new land in to cultivation. The former
type of response to population pressure in referred to as
“Intensive margin” of cultivation. While the later is referred to as
“extensive margin” of cultivation (Dejene Aredo, 2007).

According to the classical School, both types of responses will give no

solution to the problem of food supply. The limitation of the intensive
margin arises from the operation of the low of diminishing returns.
Since diminishing marginal returns to agricultural labour are inevitable
and unavoidable, food production will always tend to grow less rapid
than population. Continuous population growth will depress per capita
food out put and consumption which lead to food insecurity. Eventually
the average product of labour will fall below the level of subsistent
requirement. According to the classical theory, the agricultural
production function is continues through time (i.e there is no shift of
production function). For the classical school, technological progress is
not apart of the debate on population growth and food supplies (Ibid).

Population is taken as a proxy for labour. Consistent to the low of

diminishing marginal returns, as population increases. Total product
(TP) will eventually fall below the total consumption. This concides with
the falling average product and minimum subsistence requirement. The
classical theory assumes that land is not only scarce (i.e limited supply)
but also variable infertility. In this context fertility is synonymous with
productivity. In addition, productivity declines due to the operation of

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the low of diminishing returns as in the case of the intensive margin.
Consequently, food supplies tend to lag behind population growth thus,
giving rise to food shortage or food insecurity and possible starvation.
(Ibid).

2.1.3 Determinants of food security

According to Garrent and Ruelnutriti and status Mozambique Wd 27 n
11 factors that determine food and nutrition security in both rural and
urban are:-
1, Calorie availability: the access that a house holds has enough income
to purchase food at prevailing price or has sufficient land and other
resources to grow its own food. Factors other than income and price can
also affect household calorie availability, mostly by influencing
preferences. These factors include house hold demographic structure,
education levels of house hold members, and location.
2, Nutritional status: in addition to factors that affect the house hold’s
access to food, which can affect an individual’s own dietary intake, a
child’s nutritional status will also affected by the hygienic condition of
the house hold.
3, General: the value of total households consumption (also refereed to
by many, including us household consumption expenditure).
Expenditures are a better representation than income of total resource
save liable to the household because house hold typically try to sooth
consumption over time in face of fluctuations in income. Consumption
expenditure includes value for all current consumption, imputing values
where necessary for items such as rent or home grown food. Factors
specific to each community, such as price, could also affect calorie
availability and nutritional status (Garrent and ruel 1957).

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The state of household food security is generally affected by two major
determinates, availability of food and accessibility to it. The farmer is fur
their influenced by the different sources of food and handling patterns
which facilitate the time dimension food availability in the household
(Mulat et.al, 1995:9).

2.1.4 Elements of food security

Several important elements of food security can be derived from the
definition discussed above. The major elements of food security are:-
I, Availability of food: sufficient food supply should be secured in a
sustainable manner that responds to the growing world population and
changing dietary habits.
II, Accessibility of food:- food security can be attained only when both
physical and economic access to food are guaranteed. While the factors
that influence physical accessibility, such as wars, export embargoes and
problems with transportation, are common to both developed and
developing countries, the factor that determine economic accessibility are
especially serious developing countries.
III, Stability of food supply: food should be supplied at reasonable prices
in a stable manner stability of food supplies is particularly important to
developing countries that depend on foreign imports for a large portion of
their food supply, with in the limitation of foreign exchanges.
IV, Food safety (quality and preference): the final important element of
food security is that safe, good quality food must be supplied, in order to
satisfy the dietary needs and preferences of consumers (FAO ROA
session 6:177).

2.1.5 Measurement and indicators of food security

Indicators for measurement of food security

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FAO has played a leading role developing and applying food security
indicators and uses seven indicators to measure the global food situation
since the mid 1970s. In 1999, the organization adopted two food
security indicators (average per capita diet [GDP] for the measurement of
longer term trends in food security and nutritional well- being which are
directly related to food availability and food access (FAO, 2000). FAO has
also selected seven vulnerability indicators (rural population as a share
of total population, arable and per capita, share of agriculture in GDP,
population of roads that are paved, yields per hectare for major cereal
crops, proportion of countries that have experienced an emergency
situation, and mortality rate for children under five years of age (FAO
RoA, session 6:181).

Indicators based on the elements of food security

 Food availability
 Natural condition of agriculture
 Average temperature, rain fall, day light hours
 Number of cropping seasons
 Factor endowment
 Agricultural and ;fertility, proportion of irrigated
land
 Intermediate inputs : capacity to produce
fertilizer, pesticides and agricultural machines
 Agricultural labor force: average and educational
level of farmers
 Production function
 Economies of large scale: average farm size
 Management skill

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  Production technologies: investment in research
and development Rand D, work force and extension of
agriculture
 Institutional system of production: ownership of
land, collectivism.
 Gender relations in agriculture (women share in
land ownership)
 Infrastructure
 Tele communications e-commerce system,
transportation

 Accessibility to food
 GDP per capita balance of payment
 Consumer price and importing price
 Economic accessibility to household: non farm
income of farmers.
 Womens and girl’s accessibility to food (women’s
and girl’s share of food consumption).
 Physical accessibility
 Imports: monopolistic nature of the world
agriculture market (proportion of total exports
accounted for by top five exporters). Export
embargoes, export tax.
 Domestic production: transportation system and
costs, storage facilities, civil wars and conflicts.
 Food deficit regions with in the state (national)
area (monopoly and inter liked markets).
The factors and variables that are believed to influence elements of food
security are closely related to each other and the effect of each variable

20
on food security differs according to the peculiar production function and
agricultural situation of each country (ibid).

2.1.6 Indicators of food insecurity

Assessment of food insecurity is difficult issues as that are no universally
established indicators which serve as measuring tools. Food insecurity
requires amuletidimensional consideration since it is influenced by
different interrelated socio- economic, environmental and political
factors. Because of this problem, assessing, analyzing and monitoring
food insecurity follows diversified approaches, ranging, from a more
quantitative to combination of both quantitative and qualitative
measurements (Mulate et.al 1995:9) Indicators of food insecurity can be
classified in to two main categories
i, Process indicators
ii, Out come indicators
I, Process indicators provide an estimate of food supply and food access
situation. The major indicators in this regard are:-
A, Supply indicators
 Metro logical data
 Information on natural resource
 Agricultural production data
 Food price trends
 Food balance on sheets
 Information of past damage
 Regional conflict /war
B, Food access indicators
 Land use practical
 Dietary change
 Diversification of income sources
 Live stock sales

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  Sale of production

II Out come indicator serves as proxies for food consumption.

Out come indicators include
 House hold budget and expenditure
 Food consumption frequency
 Subsistence potential
 Nutritional status, etc.

2.2 Empirical Literature

2.2.1 The cause of food insecurity in developing country
A person is food secure when he or she accessed at all times to enough
food for an active, health life. Accordingly, people are food secure when
the consumption of food is sufficient, secure (not vulnerable to
consumption short falls) and sustainable (max wall, 1996). The list
cause of food insecurity in long and multifaceted they range from
political instability war and civil strife, Macro economic imbalances and
trade dislocation to environmental degradation, poverty, population
growth, gender inequality, in adequate education and poor healthy. All,
however can be related in some fashion to two basic causes insufficient
national food availability and insufficient access to food by house holds
and individuals (smith et al 2000:200)

2.2.2 Food security sources and causes of food insecurity

in Ethiopia

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 According to world vision Ethiopia, specific source of household food
security (food economy) in Ethiopia include.
A, food production (manly based on crop and livestock house bandary),
B, Cash in come from different sources (manly market Based),
 Domestic trade (including petty trading)
 Sales of family labor (wage employment)
 Rental income
 International trade
C, Reserve of food (stocks) or other assets,
D, Institutional assistance program (including credit/financial support,
food aid/ relief, employment generation schemes (EGS), food for
worker (FFW) and related support program),
E, Remittance and gifts, and
F, Wild food (wild plants and animals including fish) (world vision, 2002).
In the Ethiopian situation, poor agricultural growth, un equal
distribution of productivity resource and income, rapid population
growth and urbanization are the important (underlying) causes for the
growing chronic food security and poverty problems. Drought, war and
growing refugee problem are also the main causes of transitory food
insecurity in Ethiopia like in many of there African countries in
appropriate policies of government and or do nor agricultural have also
been important factors contributing to both chronic and transitory food
insecurity in most African countries including Ethiopia (Ibdi).
Per capita food production in sub Saharan Africa (SSA) including
Ethiopia has been declining over the last three decades. Production
growth rates during these decades stagnated around- 0,6 percent in
1980-83 and gradually declined to-6.2 percent in 1990 (FAO,1990).
Despite the available resources and the efforts made by governments in
SSA, food insecurity remained one of the most crucial issues. For
instance, at the beginning of the 1980, consumption of basic stable

23
exceeded production by about 8 million metric tons (birhanu and paulio,
1990 pa 83).

As quoted in Mulat et al (1995), the international food policy research

institute (IFPRI) projected that by the year 2020, SSA will have food
shortages and the imports of basic stable is estimated to be as high as 9-
27 metric tons. This clearly calls for the formulation of appropriate
strategies and policies to ensure food security for the growing population.
The gap between production and consumption in most SSA countries
including by the slow down of the agricultural production growth rates
the major causes for the slow growth of agriculture include various
factors such as unfavorable climatic conditions, under developed
infrastructure, in appropriate in agricultural policies and predominantly
traditional production systems (Ibid).

2.2.3 Summary of Ethiopia’s vulnerability

The world vision Ethiopia presented the summery of Ethiopia
vulnerability for the year 1987-1990 as follows:
A, 1987/88 (vulnerability to famine increased in northern Ethiopia)
 Civil war replacing drought are the major cause of increasing
national vulnerability to famine.
 Lack of water and food supplies complicated by logistics and
management problems have affected children’s nutritional
status among Somali’s and Sudan’s inrefugee, comps in
Ethiopia.
 2.4 million People in Eretria, Tigray, Wollo and Gonder
received food aid each month.
 Flood in North and West caused crop loss in Gonder and
Tigray
 Eritrea and Tigray were not able to meet there food

24
  Requirements in 1998, their Continuing vulnerability to famine
was mainly due to war fare
 Locusts caused limited local damage indifferent areas of Tigray
and Eritrea.
 Rains were below average in the west, then late on set affected
the long cycle maize and sorghum crops.
 Late and low rain fall affected Gojjam, Wollega, Ilubabor and
Kefa in the west where production was about 5% less than
1987.
 Gonder and Wello suffered from insufficient rain fall and
flooding in different areas.
B, 1988/89 (server food shortage threatened Ethiopia)
 In 1990 Ethiopia was expected to have a short fall of about 1.6
million metric tons of cereals, pluses and seeds.
 In 1990 emerged food assistance requirements were estimated at
about 750,000 metrication.
 3.5 to5 millions people required emergency food assistance
 People have increased production and consumption of root,
tubers and livestock products due to recurrent drought.
 Drought again reduced production sharply in North Eastern
Ethiopia.
 The major agricultural seasons crop production had failed totally
in major areas of Tigray.
 Major production short fall also occurred in Wollo, Gonder and
Hararghe regions.
 A deficit of almost 1 million metric tons of cereals, puleses and
oil seeds was for Northern Ethiopia in 1990.
C, 1989/90 (sever drought and crop faller in Eritrea, Tigray and Wollo
regions of Northern and Eastern Ethiopia
 Rain fall levels and distribution were the worst of decade

25
  About 4.4 million people were in need of 839, 000 metrication of
emergency food relief.
 Water sources dried, causing un precedent shortage of drinking
water for people and livestock.
 Shortage of pasture has led to serve decrease in the number,
condition and value of live stock.
 High grain prices and low livestock prices constrained the farmers
important croping strategy of selling or trading of grain (world
vision, 2002).

CHAPER THREE

FINDINGS AND DISGUSSION

3.1 Socio Economic conditions (situations)
As many studies indicates in Ethiopia, small holding, or family farmers
provide almost all the agricultural real out put, and employ large
number of population. The low level of productivity of the society’s
linked with the size of land holding, illiteracy of the society and the
mechanism of production they engaged in

Table 3.1 the educational level of the sample unit

Alternating
Educational Ill iterated 1-4 5-8 9-12 higher Total
level educational
level
sample unit 23 14 8 4 1 50

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Percentage 46 28 16 8 2 80
Source: own survey 2012

As shown in the table above, 46% of the respondents were illiterate, I,e
thy cannot write and read, 28% can only attended grade ranged from
1-4 and 8 % of them only attended grad ranged from 9-12(high school).

It’s over all implication is that the studied farmers fell that their low
level of education has adiversely affected their production which is
manifested in their poor and traditional performance most farmers are
illiterates, this in turn, leads the farmer to use resource improperly and
insufficiently so that, these and others leads to food insecurity .

Another indicator of low productive performance of the societies is family

size on which the woreda has recorded the highest average family of 8
person per household. The family size for the selected respond was
found to be between 5-10 person per house hold.

Table 3.2 the numbers of respondents on family size

Family size Sample unit Percentage
1-5 18 36
5-10 25 50
Above 10 7 14
Total 50 100
Source: own survey, 2012

The above table shows that 50% of respondent answered that their
family size ranged between 5to 10 person per house hold. In addition,
some respondents said that one person marries two or more than two
women in the area and each house ruled by one husband. There fore, its
possible to understand how much difficult is to feed this high family size
with in one household by only one family head of which most of them are

27
children and they are unable to produce adequate food for their basic
needs.

3.1.1 Employment Opportunity and Source of income

Agriculture is the dominant source of income of people living in rural
area of mana wereda. The result of population census in 1997 E.c show
that 87 percent of the total population lives in rural area while the
reaming percent reside in the urban areas. And have the employment
opportunity of the people in one way or the other mainly depends upon
agriculture.
Although reliable records are not available discussion in the woreda food
security office indicates that some personae traders participate in petty
trading such as grain and levies took. Their supplementary economic
activities to cover the growing food shortages as a result of farm
inadequacy and disaster induced to cover the growing headed house
holds and house wives also engaged in petty trading such as coffee and
chart many on market days in their locality because of partially survive
of food insecurity that area.

Table 3.3 the economic activities of sample unit

Economic activity Samples unit Percentage
Agriculture 30 60
Trade 6 12
Daily work 5 10
Civil servant 5 10
Other paid activity 4 8

As the above tables show that almost all of the respondents engaged in
agriculture, in addition to this, some of them are working in trade
activities those who have better education skills compare to other they
involve in daily works and other paid activity to generate some more
income for their family.

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But all agriculture system is their mainstay of their subsistence way of
living.

3.1.2 Land holding Size

Land holding size is considered as a critical production factors that
determine that type of crops grown and the type of size of crop harvest.
About 80%of the increase of agricultural out put in Africa has been
attained through the expansion of cultivated land (Degefa, 2000). Due to
population pressure, the size of land ownd by each individual household
is declining over time. As a result, one can easily observe, areas which
are steep sloped and recommended for farming purpose are put to
cultivation, although there is some attempt to use structural soil
conservation methods. The problem seems very serious in high land
(dega and woindega) climate zone. This mainly due to high population
pressure (density) and high irregular to popraphy of the high land are as
than kola. Thus holding are large in kola agro ecological zone as
compared to that of the dega and woinadega areas for instance, the
available data obtained from mana woreda of agricultural and rural
development office indicats that in dega ranged between 1-175 hectars.
In contrast the range in the woinadega area is 0.5-1 hectares.

Table 3.4 the sample respondents on land holding size

Size of land holding in Number of sample unit Percentage
hectares
0-0.25 7 14
0.25-0.75 12 24

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 0.75-1.5 16 32
1.5-2.00 11 22
Above 2 4 8
Total 50 100

Source; own survey 2012

The size of land holding discussed above, tell us that 14% of the sample
unit have a land size of below 0.25 hectares per household, 32% have
between the class intervals 0.75 to 1.5 hectares, and only 8% have above
2 hectares per household. This shows that farmer’s who have a land
with less than two hectares do not have access to their food
requirements due to the insufficiency of land in comparison to household
member, size so that, it is impossible to attain their food sufficiency.
There fore, under subsistence agriculture, holding size is expected to
play a significant role influencing farm households food security. And
hence, even if animal product (keeping) is also their important source of
food, they have no significant private grazing land.
As 64% of the respondents answered, they have a private grazing land
below 0.25 hectares. In addition, most farmers use low technical base
for animal production, in breeding, feeding in proving health care, all
these negatively treat the society food securit

Table 3.5 land size employed only for grazing

Land size employed only for Number of sample Percentage
grazing in hectares unit
0-0.25 32 64
0.25-0.5 10 20
0.5-1.0 6 12
1.-1.5 2 4
1.5-2.0 0 0
Above 2 0 0
Total 50 100

Source: own survey 2012

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 The table below indicates that almost all population use traditional and
small-scale farming system, using their hand and small power. As 54%
of respondents reflect they use both hand and oxen for ploughing. And
30% of small holders in the study area use their hand or stick for
threshing their crops, specially for their important crop like maize and
teff, also animal power used for threshing of crops 12% of the respondent
use oxen and 46% use both hand and oxen.

Table 3.6 the farming mechanism of households

Types of plough Sample Percentage Types of Sample Percentage
tools unit threshing tools unit
Hand dug 9 18 Hand and stick 15 30
Oxen 14 28 Oxen 12 24
Both hand dug 27 54 Used hand and 23 46
and oxen oxen
Both 0 0 Using 0 0
oxen/mechanized mechanized and
tools oxen
Mechanize tools 0 0 Mechanized 0 0
only tools only
total 50 100 50 100
Source: own survey 2012

The other problem faced in the study area is the prevalence of crop
disease and insufficient provision of agricultural services to the farmers
on the right time. That is even it is supplied at a time, it is not distribute
on time, as a result input stayed in the storage. Fur ther more, in some
remote and there is not available of road in kebeles, the supply of
fertilizer and other input is low due to weak infrastructural set up
(especially road).

Table 3.7 Agricultural production services

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Agricultural sector Sample unit Percentage
Private (other farmers) 13 26
Government 34 68
NGOs 3 6
Total 50 100
Source: own survey 2012
According to the same respondents there is prevalence of crop disease in
the woreda. These disease reduce the total yield from crop production and
their value in the market and in turn it causes shortage of food the study
area seriously suffers from insects pests and others. In addition from the
above table 68% of the respondents replied their get agricultural service
from government institution and 26% receive assistance form private/
other farmers by agreeing to replay by additional amount in the next
harvest time and only 6% of the get service from NGOs, this show that
there is no significant number of NGos in the study area.

3.2 climatic conditions /Agro-economical Zones

Mana Worda encompasses three agro-ecological Zone namely Kola, Dega
and woinadega covering 24, 12 and 63 percent of the total surface area of
the world respectively. Rural household are reliant up on “Belg” and
Meher” traditional production season depending on their agro ecological
zone. The dega areas predominantly cultivate Belg crops while the Kola
areas are more reliant up on keremt rains and subsequent Mahar harvest
House holds in woina dga grow both belg and meher crops. In a good year,
the belg rains will begin February and household will harvest in June. The
Meher rains will take place between June and September and the major of
crops will be harvested in November and December. The altitudinal range
of woreda is between 1410 and 2610 m above sea level. The area has
average annual rain fall of 1467 mm and the mean annual minimum and
maximum temperature of 13 an 24.8 respectively.

3.2.1 Rain fall and crop production

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Agriculture is the oldest traditional practice of the people of Mana area and
the largest proportion of people engaged in this sector. The largest portion
of the land is cultivated in the area by small households. The area is known
by its production of coffee, chart, maize, since small holder subsistence
farming is the base of the economy of the are farming is almost excessively
rain fed and production can be categorized as mixed farming so that
cropping goes hand to with animal husbandry. The main rain rainy season
of the area is summer (keremt) and the area gets, its maximum rainfall
during this season. Belg is also the rainy seasons that helps for the
production of crops that needs long duration of rain fall. The activity of
production of farmers of an area goes variation and distribution of rain fall.
At the time of good rain fall distribution, there is high yield of agricultural
production and vice versa. As a result of this Unevenness and in
sufficiency and rain fall of un wanted time affect the production of out put
and this lead to shortage of food crop and make the people to depend on
food aid.

Generally rain has major impact on crop yield variability in addition to

back ward agricultural practices and unskilled labor and high population
pressure leads to seed with low yield.

3.2.2 Land degradation and conservation measures

Some studies show that farming land above 5 percent slope can be
endanger heavy loss of soil. According to Mana Woreda Agricultural and
rural development office data of report each year agricultural yield declines
for this the woreda’s ARDO create extension, checkdam construction,
programs and other measures discussed below for the following reasons.
The major reasons identified for the environmental degradation are:-
A. Topographic factors: the topography of the rural area is
vulnerable to erosion

33
B. Climatic factor: high rainfall in short period of time on mountains is a
means of high incidence fro gully erosion
C. Grazing: overgrazing of the land is one factor for erosion.
D. Population: as population of the farm family increase, deforestation
takes place for the search of new area for settlmetn and crop production.
This will leave farmlands exponed to erosion followed by massive land
degradation. The agricultural out put from this eroded land become
unsatis factory and farmers were not obtained what they expect.
And this leads agricultural performance and out put of an area low. As a
result, over cultivation of land coupled with topographic vulnerability of
the area and climatic factors are causing land degradation in almost all
areas. More over they distribute land degradation in almost all areas.
More over they distribute forest seedlings to individual farmers and
community to improve the forest cover of the area. But due to high man
power needs, to do physical social conservation structures, absence of well
organized land use guidelines and lack of effective maintenance to the
conservation under takings impacts are vary minimal. And also shortage
of rain and lack of follow up are the main problems which highly effect the
growth of planted forests seedlings and thus limit the effects of a
forestation programs.

3.2.3 Pre and post harvest crop losses

Per and post harvest loss causes by insect pests and disease weeds,
climatic and natural hazards (uneven oreratic distribution of rainfall,
storm and food) and storage pest have contributed much to the decline of
agricultural production that brought about food insecurity in the study
area coupled wish the problem of land degradation and limited
infrastructure.

34
The study area seriously suffers from insect pest and weed (such as
Parthenon hystophrous) plant diseases also contributes significantly to
decline production per unit area.
Per harvest crop loss caused by insect pests and diseases, weed and other
climatic and natural hazards for different year is summarized below in
table 3.8. Although per harvest crop loss in Mana Woreda show decling
trend (for instance 58.2 percent in 1992/93 cropping year to 47.5 percent
in 1998/99). On average there is 50.06 percent pre harvest crop loss,
which means more than half of the expected production had been lost
before harvest.

With regard to post harvest loss, caused by storage pests (such as weevil)
poor threshing and storage facility there about an estimated 15 percent
crop loss as stated by MWARD office crop protection expert during
discussion on post harvest crop loss.

35
 Table 3.8 expected yield and crop loss from 1992-2001 E.c

Crop Prehar vest crop loss

In quintal In percent
Cropping year Expected production from the
total cultivated land in quintal
1992/3 328626 191416 58.2
1993/4 333626 188165 56.4
1994/5 340629 186431 54.7
1995/6 345851 179843 52.0
1996/7 361198 178793 49.5
1997/8 349782 16994 48.6
1998/9 390592 185531 47.5
1999/00 295275 138826 46
2000/01 435275 194785 44.75
2001/02 603998 259672 43
Average 187045.6 50.06

Source: MWARDO

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3.2.4 Productive Assets/Resources
One of the root causes for the growing food insufficiency and poverty in
our country is indicated to be shortage of productive assets/resources
(including land, oxen, other animas, capital in puts, etc). This is similar in
the area under the study. More over, in the literature review part of its
paper, Befekadu and Berhanu classified house holds experiencing storage
of draft animal, and cash to buy seed and fertilizer as chronic food
insecurity. Even though data are not available on other components of
productive assets, in this sub topic we will look at plough oxen ownership
position of households in Mana area

Table 3.9 plough oxen owner ship of household in Mana area

No of oxen No of HHS Percentage from
total HHS
Only one oxen 4137 28.5
Only two oxen 2250 15.5
More than two oxen 750 5.0
Total 7137 49.0
Source: MWARD office Note: HHS- households

The total number household in the study Woreda 14473. Among these
only 28.5 percent have one oxen, 15.5 percent have two oxen and 5
percent have more than two oxen, other words 49 percent of the woreda’s
households have their oxen. Those who have plough oxen have advantage
in carrying out agricultural activities timely resulting in the higher yield
from their own land and they also able to rent in the land of those who do
not have plough oxen on the basis of crop share are arrangement. So
ownership oxen greatly affect the amount of production of peasant
household.

3.3 Socio economic consequences

37
Although recorded data are not available on socio economic consequences or
serious disaster, food shortages, survey under taken and stated by MWARDO
during discussion held indicated /identified the main
Consequence generally as follows:
1. Hunger and human disease (particularly diseases associated with
malnutrition on children).
2. Cattle cost: house holds might loss their cattled due to animal feed and
water shortage.
3. Sale of productive assets: to cope with the problem of food shortage
house holds, dispose their productive assets such as cattle, donkeys
and sheep farm implements etc to purchase food from market. This
in turn partly has contributed to the shortage of plough animals in
the study area.
4. Migration and family separation: even though, this is the last phase of
food insecurity in house hold member as household leave their area
in seasonal migration.
5. Shortage of farm in puts: disaster induced food shortage has made
many house holds unable to purchase in puts like fertilizers and
results in shortage of seeds because they use it for consumption.
6. Dependency: peasants households have developed dependency as the
result of food aid provision during disaster induced food shortage

3.4 The role of the government

The main source of agricultural credit service in Mana Woreda was
governmental financial institutions especially micro finance institutions
MWARDO has a great role in facilitating the process of credit arrangement.

Table 3.10 the amount of birr lend and number of

38
 borrowers from the area for the year 1992-2001 E.c
year Credit source in MWARD office
loan in birr No of borrowers
1992 5370.35 125
1993 6720.42 160
1994 6825.84 210
1995 9045.32 295
1996 12380.4 310
1997 14380.4 145
1998 154800.75 290
1999 103308.88 236
2000 28587.33 830
2001 2001 2864.59 200
Source: MWARD office

Note: Source of loan provided by MWARD office is obtained from revolving

fund given by NGOS and credit from government financial institutions. As a
mater of the fact, government is engaged in provision of dryration and
supplementary feeding so as to maintain the lives of those affected
moderately and severely. Besides, the government is running a project called
safety net dealing with cash provision recurrently drought areas. As we have
seen in the previous section, past attack is one of the contributing factors to
the decline of food production in the study area. In times of serious pest
attack, veterinary professionals provide vaccination to project animals from
diseases. Including these activities and other such as forest seedling and
improved animals distribution accomplished by these government in Mana
Woreda.

CHAPTER FOUR
4. Conclusion and recommendation
4.1 Conclusion

39
From finding of the study, agriculture has played a great role and
economical aspects of people by creating employment opportunities and
supplying food.

Even though agricultural productivity is low. This is because, most of the

farmers are illiterate and use low technical base for crop production. In
addition, in the study area poor infrastructural development is another
factor for the low productivity of agriculture. More over, the presence of
high level of house hold members with poor skills and most of them are
children and, fragmented land, also negatively tract the society’s food
security.

Peasant house hold in the mana area relies on mostly two seasons: belg
and meher. The minimum kola areas which are found in the area
dominantly reliant up on meher harvest while the dega area on belg
harvest. As we have seen in dtail, relying on one production season
coupled with the problem of rain fed agriculture has made household,
highly prone to disaster induced food shortage in bad years.

Due to population pressure, the size of land owned by each household is

declining over time as a result, steep areas, which are not recommended
for farming purpose, are put to cultivation. This problem with some
topographic vulnerability of the area, climatic factors and over grazing of
the area. Thus in appropriate land use practice has led to the decline of
crop production and deforestation is one of the major problems. Pre and
post harvest crop losses caused by insect a pest and disease, weed,
climatic and natural hazards have contributed much to the post harvest
crop less is estimated to be the cause for the growing food insufficiency
and poverty. Although data are not available on the components of

40
productive assets on average in the area currently only 49 percent
households, have their own plough oxen.

Agriculture is the dominant source of income of the people living in the

rural areas of the woreda. Because of limited opportunities of farm un
employment for their subsistence requirement of this family.

Thus disaster related food shortages in Mana area have resulted in serious
socio economic problems as hunger and human diseases, cattle loss and
human death of productive assets migration and family separation,
shortage of frame inputs, sale of wood and dependency of food aid.
Finally the paper tried to look at measures taken by the government and
NGOs to improve the problem of food insecurity. As a matter of the fact
the government in the study area engaged in activity of supplementary
feeding. Moreover, in times of serious pest attack, chemical have been
distributed free of charge.

4.2 RECOMMENDATION

41
The agriculture is an engine of one economy, it contributes much for the
further growth of the country. Nearly all of the population of Ethiopia
either directly or indirectly depends of agricultural food in all parts of the
country. Thus, the improvement and modernization of agriculture
through different measures will enable the country to agriculture through
food. Based on the discussion made through out this paper and the
observed food insecurity problem in the study area, the following
recommendation are for warded.

 Attention should be given to intensive farming in order to

increases productivity per unit area through provision of
agricultural in put (such as fertilized appropriated improved
seeds, oxen improved farm implement Etc.
 Promoting agricultural extension based on water harvesting
techniques and providing technical support to improve
traditional irrigation system in order to use existing water
resource potential efficiently through small scale irrigation
scheme.
 Agricultural development office should give attention to
physical and biological conservation measures creating
awareness and developing skills among peasants household to
protect soil from erosion is important.
 The government and other concerned bodies should give
attention to promote income generation activities
(diversification of source of income) through creating micro
enterprise in rural area.
 Provision of intensive training of agricultural to the
development of human resource capacity.
 The government has to design land use policy and implements
in order to minimize the current un wise utilization of resource.

42
 The Woreda’s health center should aware the society about
family planning to reduce number of fertility in the Woreda and
educated the society how to use birth control such as,
sexuality education prevention and contraceptional method to
reduce number of children birth in the Woreda. This can
indirectly bring food security in the Woreda.

BIBILIOGRAPHY

43
 Befekadu and Berihanu Nega (1999/2000). The Ethiopian
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 Jesok lee (2002), sinor fellow and research director: Korea
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 L.C Smirth et.al (1995), International food policy research
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45