GM FOODS – ARE THEY USEFUL OR HARMFUL?

ABSTRACT

Genetic modification is a special set of gene technology that alters the genetic
machinery of such living organisms as animals, plants or microorganisms.
Combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA
technology and the resulting organism is said to be ‘Genetically modified
(GM)’, ‘Genetically engineered’ or ‘Transgenic’. The principal transgenic crops
grown commercially in field are herbicide and insecticide resistant soybeans,
corn, cotton and canola. Other crops grown commercially and/or field-tested are
sweet potato resistant to a virus that could destroy most of the African harvest,
rice with increased iron and vitamins that may alleviate chronic malnutrition in
Asian countries and a variety of plants that are able to survive weather
extremes. There are bananas that produce human vaccines against infectious
diseases such as hepatitis B, fish that mature more quickly, fruit and nut trees
that yield years earlier and plants that produce new plastics with unique
properties. Technologies for genetically modifying foods offer dramatic
promise for meeting some areas of greatest challenge for the 21st century. Like
all new technologies, they also pose some risks, both known and unknown.
Controversies and public concern surrounding GM foods and crops commonly
focus on human and environmental safety, labelling and consumer choice,
intellectual property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction and
environmental conservation. With this new technology on gene manipulation
what are the risks of “tampering with Mother Nature”?, what effects will this
have on the environment?, what are the health concerns that consumers should
be aware of? and is recombinant technology really beneficial? This review will
also address some major concerns about the safety, environmental and
ecological risks and health hazards involved with GM foods and recombinant
technology.

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INTRODUCTION

Genetically modified foods (GM foods), also known as genetically

engineered foods (GE foods), or bioengineered foods are foods produced
from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the
methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the
introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared
to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994,

when Calgene first marketed its unsuccessful Flavr Savr delayed-ripening
tomato. Most food modifications have primarily focused on cash crops in high
demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton. Genetically
modified crops have been engineered for resistance
to pathogens and herbicides and for better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have
been developed, although, as of November 2013, none were on the market.

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There is a scientific consensusthat currently available food derived from GM
crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that
each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.
Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to
perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies
by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others
permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.
However, there are ongoing public concerns related to food safety, regulation,
labelling, environmental impact, research methods, and the fact that some GM
seeds, along with all new plant varieties, are subject to plant breeders'
rights owned by corporations

DEFINITION

Genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had
changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering as
opposed to traditional cross breeding. In the U.S., the Department of
Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) favor the
use of the term genetic engineering over genetic modification as being more
precise; the USDA defines genetic modification to include "genetic engineering
or other more traditional methods".

According to the World Health Organization, "genetically modified organisms

(GM) can be defined as organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) in
which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur
naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. The technology is often
called 'modern biotechnology' or 'gene technology', sometimes also
'recombinant DNA technology' or 'genetic engineering'. ... Foods produced from
or using GM organisms are often referred to as GM foods."

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HISTORY

Human-directed genetic manipulation of food began with the domestication of

plants and animals through artificial selection at about 10,500 to 10,100 BC.
The process of selective breeding, in which organisms with desired traits (and
thus with the desired genes) are used to breed the next generation and organisms
lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic
modification (GM). With the discovery of DNA in the early 1900s and various
advancements in genetic techniques through the 1970s[32] it became possible to
directly alter the DNA and genes within food.

The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1983, using an antibiotic-
resistant tobacco plant. Genetically modified microbial enzymes were the first
application of genetically modified organisms in food production and were
approved in 1988 by the US Food and Drug Administration. In the early 1990s,
recombinant chymosin was approved for use in several countries. Cheese had
typically been made using the enzyme complex rennet that had been extracted
from cows' stomach lining. Scientists modified bacteria to produce chymosin,
which was also able to clot milk, resulting in cheese curds.

The first genetically modified food approved for release was the Flavr
Savr tomato in 1994. Developed by Calgene, it was engineered to have a longer
shelf life by inserting an antisense gene that delayed ripening. China was the
first country to commercialize a transgenic crop in 1993 with the introduction of
virus-resistant tobacco. In 1995, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Potato was
approved for cultivation, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be
approved in the US. Other genetically modified crops receiving marketing
approval in 1995 were: canola with modified oil composition, Bt maize, cotton
resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, Bt cotton, glyphosate-tolerant soybeans,
virus resistant squash, and another delayed ripening tomato.

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GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS: HELPFUL OR HARMFUL?

A great deal of controversy surrounds foods that contain genetically modified

organisms or GM. Are they safe? Not safe? Should they be regulated or not
regulated? Two things are certain: these foods are hitting the market at a rapid
pace and they are found in most processed foods. Staying informed on what
they are, how they may affect your body, and what foods contain them, is all a
part of living a healthy, balanced life.

WHAT ARE GM?

GM have actually been in our food supply for more than 20 years. They are
made by scientists who have genetically introduced new traits or characteristics
to an organism, allowing it to grow faster, look better, taste sweeter, resist
herbicides, etc. While the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates foods
and ingredients made from genetically engineered plants and animals to help
ensure that they are safe to eat, some argue that the effects they have on the
human body are not fully understood.

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"GM are not natural and could never happen naturally," says Jennifer Teems,
MS, RD, LD, a clinical dietitian at Piedmont Atlanta Hospital. "But it's
important to remember that foods and products today are held to much higher
standards than ever before in history." 

WHY ARE GM FOODS PRODUCED?

GM foods are developed – and marketed – because there is some perceived

advantage either to the producer or consumer of these foods. This is meant to
translate into a product with a lower price, greater benefit (in terms of
durability or nutritional value) or both. Initially GM seed developers wanted
their products to be accepted by producers and have concentrated on
innovations that bring direct benefit to farmers (and the food industry
generally).

One of the objectives for developing plants based on GM organisms is to

improve crop protection. The GM crops currently on the market are mainly
aimed at an increased level of crop protection through the introduction of

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resistance against plant diseases caused by insects or viruses or through
increased tolerance towards herbicides.

Resistance against insects is achieved by incorporating into the food plant the
gene for toxin production from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
This toxin is currently used as a conventional insecticide in agriculture and is
safe for human consumption. GM crops that inherently produce this toxin
have been shown to require lower quantities of insecticides in specific
situations, e.g. where pest pressure is high. Virus resistance is achieved
through the introduction of a gene from certain viruses which cause disease
in plants. Virus resistance makes plants less susceptible to diseases caused by
such viruses, resulting in higher crop yields.
Herbicide tolerance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from a
bacterium conveying resistance to some herbicides. In situations where weed
pressure is high, the use of such crops has resulted in a reduction in the
quantity of the herbicides used.

HOW DO GM AFFECT THE BODY?

According to the American Academy of Environmental Medicine (AAEM),

there are no human clinical trials of GMO foods, but those done with animals
indicate serious health risks linked to GM. These include infertility, immune
problems, accelerated aging, faulty insulin regulations, as well as changes to
major organs and the gastrointestinal system.

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 Another concern is that because these
foods are engineered to withstand
herbicides, more of the toxic substances
are sprayed on the plants, which ultimately
increases the trace amounts of herbicides
found in foods.

"Food is so complex that it’s hard to study

it and determine the ramifications of GM,"
says Teems. "I tell my patients not to
fixate on avoiding GM, because that’s
nearly impossible. Instead, concentrate on eating a heart-healthy diet that is high
in fruits and veggies, and low in added sugar and processed foods.”

WHICH FOODS HAVE GM?

The most common genetically modified crops in the U.S. are corn, soy, cotton,
canola, sugar beets, papaya, zucchini and yellow squash. Products derived from
these foods, including oils, all contain traces of GM. The GMO epidemic is
making it harder to eat chemical-free, whole foods.

The 10 most popular foods that contain GM are:

1. Carbonated soft drinks (high fructose corn syrup made from sugar beets)
2. Milk (cows are fed genetically modified soy products)
3. Meat (farm animals are raised with genetically modified feed containing soy
products)
4. Tofu (GMO soy beans)

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5. Vegetable and canola oils (rapeseed - canola oil, soybean, corn, sunflower,
safflower)
6. Cereals (corn and soy products and non-cane sugars)
7. Sweetened juices (corn-based and sugar beet sweeteners)
8. Baby formula (GMO corn, sugar beets, and soy)
9. Frozen foods (starch is added from GM corn, fats and oils from GM plants,
citric acid made from GM microorganisms)
10. Canned soups (corn-based thickeners and flavoring enhancements)

HOW TO AVOID GM

Food manufacturers are not required to label if their food is genetically

modified, but GMO labeling advocates continue to raise concerns surrounding
this issue. Until laws change, there is some hope for steering clear of GM if you
wish to do so. The following guidelines may help you keep the GM in your diet
to a minimum:

1. Buy food that is labeled 100 percent organic. It has no GM.

2. Buy beef that is labeled as grass-fed only.
3. Look for "non-GMO" or "GMO-free" labels.
4. Shop at local farmers markets. These are much less likely to carry
genetically-altered foods.
5. Buy whole foods that you can prepare yourself instead of processed or
prepackaged foods.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN ISSUES OF CONCERN FOR HUMAN

HEALTH?
While theoretical discussions have covered a broad range of aspects, the
three main issues debated are the potentials to provoke allergic reaction
(allergenicity), gene transfer and outcrossing.

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Allergenicity
As a matter of principle, the transfer of genes from commonly allergenic
organisms to non-allergic organisms is discouraged unless it can be
demonstrated that the protein product of the transferred gene is not
allergenic. While foods developed using traditional breeding methods are not
generally tested for allergenicity, protocols for the testing of GM foods have
been evaluated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) and WHO. No allergic effects have been found relative to
GM foods currently on the market.

Gene transfer
Gene transfer from GM foods to cells of the body or to bacteria in the
gastrointestinal tract would cause concern if the transferred genetic material
adversely affects human health. This would be particularly relevant if
antibiotic resistance genes, used as markers when creating GMOs, were to be
transferred. Although the probability of transfer is low, the use of gene
transfer technology that does not involve antibiotic resistance genes is
encouraged.

Outcrossing
The migration of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or related
species in the wild (referred to as “outcrossing”), as well as the mixing of
crops derived from conventional seeds with GM crops, may have an indirect
effect on food safety and food security. Cases have been reported where GM
crops approved for animal feed or industrial use were detected at low levels
in the products intended for human consumption. Several countries have
adopted strategies to reduce mixing, including a clear separation of the fields
within which GM crops and conventional crops are grown.

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IS IT SAFE TO EAT GM CROPS?

Yes. There is no evidence that a crop is dangerous to eat just because it is GM.
There could be risks associated with the specific new gene introduced, which is
why each crop with a new characteristic introduced by GM is subject to close
scrutiny. Since the first widespread commercialisation of GM produce 18 years
ago there has been no evidence of ill effects linked to the consumption of any
approved GM crop.

Before any food produced using GM technology is permitted onto the market, a
variety of tests have to be completed. The results from these tests, including
results from animal feeding trials, are considered by the authorities responsible
for determining the safety of each new GM product (see Q18). This makes new
GM crop varieties at least as safe to eat as new non GM varieties, which are not
tested in this way.

There have been a few studies claiming damage to human or animal health from
specific foods that have been developed using GM. The claims were not about
the GM method itself, but about the specific gene introduced into the crop, or

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about agricultural practices associated with the crop, such as herbicide
treatments. The statistical analysis and methodology of these studies have been
challenged. All reliable evidence produced to date shows that currently
available GM food is at least as safe to eat as non-GM food.

An animal feeding trial of GM tomatoes modified to produce high levels of

antioxidants showed the GM tomatoes reduced the levels of cancer. This is not
because the tomatoes are GM, but rather because they produce antioxidants,
which are known to reduce cancer.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GENETICALLY

MODIFIED FOODS

Genetically modified foods, often classified as GMOs, have changed the way
that people view their food. Although genetic modifications have occurred
throughout history with selective breeding and growing methods, scientific
advances have allowed this practice to advance to the genetic level. In the
modern GMO, plants can be resistant to specific pesticides and herbicides while
becoming adaptive to changing environmental conditions.
The primary advantage of genetically modified foods is that crop yields become
more consistent and productive, allowing more people to be fed. According to
Oxfam, the world currently produced about 20% more food calories than what
is required for every human being to be healthy.

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WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED
FOODS?

1. Food supplies become predictable.

When crop yields become predictable, then the food supply becomes
predictable at the same time. This gives us the ability to reduce the presence of
food deserts around the world, providing a greater population with a well-
rounded nutritional opportunity that may not have existed in the past.

2. Nutritional content can be improved.

Genetic modifications do more than add pest resistance or weather resistance to
GMO crops. The nutritional content of the crops can be altered as well,
providing a denser nutritional profile than what previous generations were able
to enjoy. This means people in the future could gain the same nutrition from
lower levels of food consumption. The UN Food and Agricultural Organization
notes that rice, genetically modified to produce high levels of Vitamin A, have
helped to reduce global vitamin deficiencies.

3. Genetically modified foods can have a longer shelf life.

Instead of relying on preservatives to maintain food freshness while it sits on a
shelf, genetically modified foods make it possible to extend food life by
enhancing the natural qualities of the food itself. According to Environmental
Nutrition, certain preservatives are associated with a higher carcinogen, heart
disease, and allergy risk.

4. We receive medical benefits from GMO crops.

Through a process called “pharming,” it is possible to produce certain proteins
and vaccines, along with other pharmaceutical goods, thanks to the use of
genetic modifications. This practice offers cheaper methods of improving

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personal health and could change how certain medications are provided to
patients in the future. Imagine being able to eat your dinner to get a tetanus
booster instead of receiving a shot in the arm – that’s the future of this
technology.

5. It creates foods that are more appealing to eat.

Colors can be changed or improved with genetically modified foods so they
become more pleasing to eat. Spoon University reports that deeper colors in
foods changes how the brain perceives what is being eaten. Deeper red colors
make food seem to be sweeter, even if it is not. Brighter foods are associated
with better nutrition and improved flavors.

WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED

FOODS?

1. GMO crops may cause antibiotic resistance.

Iowa State University research shows that when crops are modified to include
antibiotics and other items that kill germs and pests, it reduces the effectiveness
of an antibiotic or other medication when it is needed in the traditional sense.
Because the foods contain trace amounts of the antibiotic when consumed, any
organisms that would be affected by a prescription antibiotic have built an
immunity to it, which can cause an illness to be more difficult to cure.

2. Farmers growing genetically modified foods have a greater legal liability.

Crops that are genetically modified will create seeds that are genetically
modified. Cross-pollination is possible between GMO crops and non-GMO
crops as well, even when specified farming practices are followed. Because

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many of the crops and seeds that produce GMO crops are patented, farmers that
aren’t even involved in growing these foods are subjected to a higher level of
legal liability. Farmers that do grow GMO crops could also face liabilities for
letting seeds go to other fields or allowing cross-pollination to occur.

3. Genes go into different plant species.

Crops share fields with other plants, including weeds. Genetic migrations are
known to occur. What happens when the genes from an herbicide-resistant crop
get into the weeds it is designed to kill? Interactions at the cellular level could
create unforeseen complications to future crop growth where even the benefits
of genetically modified foods may not outweigh the problems that they cause.
One example: dozens of weed species are already resistant to atrazine.

4. Some genetically modified foods may present a carcinogen exposure risk.

A paper that has been twice-published, but retracted once as well, showed that
crops tolerant to commercial pesticides greatly increased the risk of cancer
development in rats. The information from this research study, though limited,
has been widely circulated and creates the impression that all GMO foods are
potentially hazardous.

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REFERENCES

 https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-
genetically-modified-food/en/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food#Definition
 https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/gm-plants/is-it-safe-to-eat-
gm-crops/
 https://www.piedmont.org/living-better/genetically-modified-foods-
helpful-or-harmful
 http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/GM-Crops-1-
Chapter-8-Conclusions-and-recommendations.pdf

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we reaffirm our view that GM crops represent an important new

technology which ought to have the potential to do much good in the world
provided that proper safeguards are maintained or introduced. All those who are
involved in developing the new technology, whether they are researchers in the
public sector, in agrochemical or agricultural businesses or farmers, or food
manufacturers and retailers need to recognise and accept a very broad
responsibility to the public. They need to ensure that ethical concerns are taken
account of, that their new technologies and products are safe for human
consumption and avoid further harm to the environment, that the potential of
GM technology is harnessed to meet the most urgent food needs of the world as
well as commercial benefit, that impartial information is made widely available
to the public and that consumer choice is fully respected.

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