Computer Architecture

Lecture 01
Architecture and Organization
• Architecture is the design of the system visible to the assembly level
programmer
• What instructions
• How many registers
• Memory addressing scheme
• Organization is how the architecture is implemented
• How much cache memory
• Implementation technology
Architecture and Organization
• Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to
a programmer or those attributes that have a direct impact on the
logical execution of a program.
• Architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to
represent various data types I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing
memory.
• eg: is there a multiplication instruction?
• Computer organization refers to the operational units and their
interconnections that realize the architectural specifications.
• Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the
programmer, such as control signals; interfaces between the computer and
peripherals; and the memory technology used.
• eg: is there a multiplication unit or is it done by repeated addition?
Same Architecture
Different Organization
• Almost every program that can run on an original Pentium (or 8088)
can run on an Intel i7.
• All computers in the Intel Pentium series have the same architecture.
• Each version of the Pentium has a different organization or
implementation.
Same Architecture
Different Organization
• The IBM 360 computer was released in several different models.
• All had the same architecture. A program compiled on one IBM 360
would run on all models.
• The different models had different implementations, speed and price.
Basic Computer Components

CPU I/O Device

Cache I/O Controller

Bus
Memory
Structure and Function
• Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated. There
are four main structural components of the computer:
• CPU
• Main Memory
• I/O
• System Interconnection
• Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the
structure. There are four basic functions that a computer can
perform:
• Data processing
• Data storage
• Data movement
• Control
Function
• There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
• Data processing
• Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of processing requirements is
broad
• Data storage
• Short-term
• Long-term
• Data movement
• Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to a device
(peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer
• Data communications – when data are moved over longer distances, to or from a
remote device
• Control
• A control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance
of its functional parts in response to instructions
Structure
• There are four main structural components of the computer:
• CPU – controls the operation of the computer and performs its data
processing functions
• Main Memory – stores data
• I/O – moves data between the computer and its external
environment
• System Interconnection – some mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O
CPU Major structural components
• Control Unit
• Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs the computer’s data processing function
• Registers
• Provide storage internal to the CPU
• CPU Interconnection
• Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit,
ALU, and registers
Cache Memory
• Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main memory
• Is smaller and faster than main memory
• Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache data from
main memory that is likely to be used in the near future
• A greater performance improvement may be obtained by using
multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the core and
additional levels (L2, L3, etc.) progressively farther from the core
History of Computer
• Before the 1960’s “Computer” was a job title, not a machine

• Underlying Technologies
• Some ideas are not feasible unless the underlying technologies are
sufficiently capable
• – Windows 10 will not run on my 8086 PC with only 640K of RAM, 10 MB disk
and a 4.77 MHz clock
• Improvements usually build on earlier work
 Ancient Computing
• Antikythera mechanism
designed to calculate
astronomical positions
• Built around 150 – 100 BC
• Pulled from the sea in 1901

Date Who What

~1000 BC ? Abacus
1621 William Oughtred Slide Rule
1642 Blaise Pascal Adding machine
 Punch Cards
• In 1804-05 Joseph-Marie Jacquard invented
a loom that used punch cards to specify the
pattern
 Tabulating Equipment
• In 1882 Herman Hollerith
created a punch card
tabulating machine. It was
used to calculate the 1890
census.
• Punched cards were used
through the late 1970s
 Charles Babbage
Charles Babbage built a mechanical computer
starting in 1822. He never completed the machine.
 Ada Lovelace

Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace,

was the daughter of Lord Byron and
friend of Charles Babbage. She is
considered the first computer
programmer.
 Alan Turing
• In 1936 Alan Turing invented the theoretical
Turing Machine
• With Alonzo Church developed the Turing-
Church thesis
“Every function which would naturally be
regarded as computable, can be computed
by a Turing machine”
• He broke the code of the German Enigma
machine in WWII
 ABC machine
• John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry
built the Atanasoff-Berry Computer
(ABC) in 1939
Computer Generations
• First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
• Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic
elements and memory.
• The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator And Computer), designed and
constructed at the University of
Pennsylvania, was the world’s first
general purpose electronic digital
computer.
ENIAC
• John Eckert and J. Presper Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania,
proposed to build a general-purpose computer using vacuum tubes
for the American Army’s Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL)’s
application. In 1943, the Army accepted this proposal, and work
began on the ENIAC.
• Finished in 1946, the resulting machine was enormous, weighing 30
tons, occupying 1500 square feet of floor space, and containing more
than 18,000 vacuum tubes. When operating, it consumed 140
kilowatts of power.
• It was also substantially faster than any electromechanical computer,
capable of 5000 additions per second.
ENIAC
• The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer), was a
decimal rather than a binary machine.
• That is, numbers were represented in decimal form, and arithmetic
was performed in the decimal system.
The Von Neumann Machine
• The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was
extremely tedious.
• The idea, known as the stored-program concept, is usually attributed
to the ENIAC designers, most notably the mathematician John von
Neumann.
• The first publication of the idea was in a 1945 proposal by von
Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Computer).
• Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers.
IAS computer
• In 1946, von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new
stored program computer, referred to as the IAS computer, at the
Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies.
• The IAS machine was the first electronic computer to be built at the Institute
for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey. It is sometimes called the
von Neumann machine, since the paper describing its design was edited by
John von Neumann, a mathematics professor at both Princeton University
and IAS.
• With rare exceptions, all of today’s computers have the same general
structure and function and are thus referred to as von Neumann
machines.
General Structure of the IAS computer
• It consists of:
• A main memory, which stores
both data and instructions.
• An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
capable of operating on binary
data.
• A control unit, which interprets
the instructions in memory and
causes them to be executed.
• Input and output (I/O) equipment
operated by the control unit.
• The control unit operates the IAS by fetching
instructions from memory and executing them one at
a time. This figure reveals that both the control unit
and the ALU contain storage locations, called registers
, defined as follows:
• Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to be
stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit, or is used to
receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit.
• Memory address register (MAR): Specifies the address
in memory of the word to be written from or read
into the MBR.
• Instruction register (IR ): Contains the 8-bit opcode
instruction being executed.
• Instruction buffer register (IBR): Employed to hold
temporarily the right-hand instruction from a word in
memory.
• Program counter (PC): Contains the address of the
next instruction pair to be fetched from memory.
• Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ):
Employed to hold temporarily operands and results of
ALU operations. For example, the result of multiplying
two 40-bit numbers is an 80-bit number; the most
significant 40 bits are stored in the AC and the least
significant in the MQ.
The Second Generation: Transistors
• A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material
usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
• Smaller
• Cheaper
• Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube
• Is a solid state device made from silicon
• Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947
• It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized computers were
commercially available
Second Generation Computers
• The second generation saw the introduction of more complex
arithmetic and logic units and control units.
• The use of high-level programming languages
• Provision of system software which provided the ability to:
• Load programs.
• Move data to peripherals .
• Libraries perform common computations.
• Similar to what modern operating systems like Windows and Linux do.
• Early second-generation computers contained about 10,000
transistors.
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits
• In 1958 came the achievement that revolutionized electronics and
started the era of microelectronics: the invention of the integrated
circuit. It is the integrated circuit that defines the third generation of
computers.
• An Integrated Circuit (IC) is a small wafer, usually made of silicon, that
can hold anywhere from hundreds to millions of transistors, resistors,
and capacitors.
• The early integrated circuits are referred to as small scale Integration
(SSI).
• As time went on, it became possible to pack more and more
Components on the same chip.
 LSI
Large
Scale
Later Integration

Generations
VLSI
Very Large
Scale
Integration

ULSI
Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large
Microprocessors Scale
Integration
Generations of Computer
Approximate Typical Speed
Generation Dates Technology (operations per second)
1 1946–1957 Vacuum tube 40,000
2 1957–1964 Transistor 200,000
3 1965–1971 Small and medium scale 1,000,000
integration
4 1972–1977 Large scale integration 10,000,000
5 1978–1991 Very large scale integration 100,000,000
6 1991- Ultra large scale integration >1,000,000,000
Thank You