Dept.

of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Paper III - Abstract Algebra

Unit I - Groups (Index: 2.3.3.1)
Handout
Binary operation:

Definition: Let S be a non-empty set. If 𝑓: 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆 is a mapping, then 𝑓 is called

binary operation or binary composition in S(or on S).

Example: Addition(+), multiplication(× 𝑜𝑟 . ),subtraction(-) are binary operation in R

and division (÷) is not a binary operation in R.

Algebraic structure:

Let G be a non-empty set equipped with one or more binary operations is

called an algebraic structure.

EX: 1) (N,+,∙) is an algebraic structure.

2) (Z,+,∙) is an algebraic structure .

3) (Q,+) is an algebraic structure.

Definition of a group:

Let G be a non-empty set associated with a binary operation(𝑜) then (G,𝑜) is

said to be a group if it follows the following conditions:

 Associative law: Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎 𝑜(𝑏 𝑜𝑐 ) = (𝑎 𝑜 𝑏)𝑜 𝑐 ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺

 Identity law : Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎 𝑜 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑜 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Here 𝑒 is the identity element in 𝐺.
 Inverse law : Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺,𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎 𝑜 𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑜 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∀𝑎, 𝑏, ∈ 𝐺

Here a is inverse of b & b is inverse element of a.

EXAMPLE: i) (𝒁, +) is a group.

ii) (𝑹, +) is a group.

iii) (𝑵, +) is not a group.

Since 0∉ 𝑵, identity law fails.

iv) (𝑹,⋅) is not a group.

Since 0 does not have inverse . So, inverse property fails.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

ABELIAN GROUP (OR)COMMUTATIVE GROUP:

Let (𝐺, 𝑜) is a group if it satisfies the commutative law i.e.,∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑎 𝑜 𝑏 =

𝑏 𝑜 𝑎 then (𝐺, 𝑜) is said to be an abelian group (Or) commutative group.

EXAMPLE: (𝒁, +), (𝑸, +), (𝑹, +) are abelian groups.

(𝑵, −), (𝒁, −), (𝑹, −) are not abelian groups.

Groupoid(quasi-group):

Any non-empty set 𝐺 associated with a binary operation is said to be a

“Groupoid”.

Ex: (𝑵, +), (𝒁, +), (𝑹,∙)

Semigroup:

A groupoid which satisfies associative law is called a semigroup.

Ex: (𝑵, +), (𝒁,∙), (𝑹,∙)

Monoid:

A semigroup which satisfies identity law is called monoid.

Ex: (𝒁, +), (𝑸,∙), (𝑹, +)

Finite group and infinite group:

A group consisting of finite no.of elements is called a finite group.

Otherwise, it is infinite group.

Ex: {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 }, {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} w.r.to multiplication are finite groups.

(𝒁, +), (𝑸, +), (𝑹, +) are infinite groups.

Trivial group:

Any group having identity element alone is called a trivial group.

Ex:({0}, +), ({1},∙)

Order of a group:

The number of elements in a group 𝐺 is called the order of that group .It is denoted
by 𝑂(𝐺) or |𝐺|.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Cancellation laws:

Let 𝐺 be a non empty set for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑎 ≠ 0

i) 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐 (left cancellation law)

ii) 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐 (right cancellation law) are called cancellation laws.

Note: cancellation laws in addition

∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑎 ≠ 0

𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐 (left cancellation law)

𝑏 + 𝑎 = 𝑐 + 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐 (right cancellation law)

Theorem: In a group 𝑮, identity element is unique.

Proof: if possible,let 𝑒1 𝑒2 be two identity elements in the group (𝐺, 𝑜)

∴ 𝑒1 𝑒2 = 𝑒2 𝑒1 = 𝑒2 is an identity in 𝐺

and 𝑒2 𝑒1 = 𝑒1𝑒2 = 𝑒1 is an identity in 𝐺.

∴ 𝑒1 = 𝑒2 .

Hence, in a group identity element is unique.

Theorem: In a group 𝑮, inverse of any element is unique.

Proof: Let 𝑒 be the identity element in the group (𝐺,∙).

If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎 will have an inverse.

If Possible, let 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 be two inverses of 𝑎 in 𝐺.

∴ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑒 and 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎 = 𝑒

∴ 𝑐 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑐 (𝑒) = 𝑐 ...........(1)

and 𝑐 (𝑎𝑏) = (𝑐𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑒. 𝑏 = 𝑏 .............(2)

from (1)&(2) 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Problem: show that the set 𝑄+ of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group
under the composition defined by 𝑜 such that 𝑎𝑜𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)/3 for , 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+ .

Solution: Given that 𝑄+ is set of all positive rational numbers

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

1 1 2
i.e., 𝑄+ = {0, , , , … … … … }.
2 3 3

𝑎𝑏
‘𝑜’ is composition defined by 𝑎𝑜𝑏 = ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+
3

We need to prove that (𝑄+ , 𝑜) is an abelian group.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑄+

I) Closure law:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+
𝑎𝑏
⟹ ∈ 𝑄+
3
⟹ 𝑎𝑜𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+

∴ ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+ ⟹ 𝑎𝑜𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+
Hence, closure law holds.
II) Associative law:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑄+ ⟹ (𝑎𝑜𝑏)𝑜𝑐 = 𝑎𝑜 (𝑏𝑜𝑐 )
𝑎𝑏
𝑎𝑏 { .𝑐} 𝑎 𝑏𝑐 𝑎
3
Since (𝑎𝑜𝑏)𝑜𝑐 = ( ) 𝑜𝑐 = = { } = (𝑏𝑜𝑐 ) = 𝑎𝑜(𝑏𝑜𝑐)
3 3 𝑏 3 3
III) Existence of identity:
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄+ .
𝑒𝑎
Let 𝑒 ∈ 𝑄+ such that 𝑒𝑜𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑖. 𝑒. , =𝑎
3
i.e. 𝑒𝑎 − 3𝑎 = 0 i.e. 𝑎(𝑒 − 3) = 0
i.e. 𝑒 − 3 = 0 (∴ 𝑎 ≠ 0)
i.e. 𝑒 = 3.
𝑒𝑎 𝑎
Cleary 𝑎𝑜𝑒 = = ×3=𝑎
3 3

∴ 𝑒 is an element in 𝑄+such that 𝑒𝑜𝑎 = 𝑎𝑜𝑒 = 𝑎.

i.e. e=3 is the identity element in 𝑄+

IV) Existence of inverse:

𝑎𝑏 9
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄+ . Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+ such that 𝑎𝑜𝑏 = 𝑒 i.e., = 3 i.e., (∵ 𝑎 ≠ 0)
3 𝑎
9 9 9
∴ For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄+ ∃ ∈ 𝑄+ such that 𝑎𝑜 = 𝑜𝑎 = 𝑒.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
V) Commutativity:

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑎
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄+ ⟹ 𝑎𝑜𝑏 = 𝑏𝑜𝑎. Since 𝑎𝑜𝑏 = = = 𝑏𝑜𝑎.
3 3
∴(𝑄+ ,∙) is an infinite abelian group.

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Problem: Prove that the set of matrices 𝐴𝛼 = [ ] 𝛼 ∈ 𝑹 forms a group
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
w.r.to matrix multiplication if 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝜙.
Solution: let 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝑹 and G = {𝐴𝛼 /𝛼 ∈ 𝑹}.
Let 𝐴𝛼 , 𝐴𝛽 , 𝐴𝛾 ∈ 𝑮 ⟹ 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝑹
Consider 𝐴𝛼 . 𝐴𝛽

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

=[ ].[ ]
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

=[ ]
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

cos(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽)
=[ ]
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽) cos(𝛼 + 𝛽 )

=𝐴(𝛼+𝛽)

∴ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑹 ⟹ 𝐴𝛼 . 𝐴𝛽 = 𝐴(𝛼+𝛽)

I) Closure law:
Let 𝐴𝛼 , 𝐴𝛽 ∈ 𝑮 ⟹ 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑹
⟹ 𝛼+𝛽 ∈𝑹
⟹ 𝐴(𝛼+𝛽) ∈ 𝑮
⟹ 𝐴𝛼 . 𝐴𝛽 ∈ 𝑮
∴ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝛼 , 𝐴𝛽 ∈ 𝑮 ⟹ 𝐴𝛼 . 𝐴𝛽 ∈ 𝑮.
Hence closure law holds.
II) Associative law:
Let 𝐴𝛼 , 𝐴𝛽 , 𝐴𝛾 ∈ 𝑮 ⟹ 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝑹
Consider 𝐴𝛼 (𝐴𝛽 . 𝐴𝛾 ) = 𝐴𝛼 (𝐴𝛽+𝛾 )
= 𝐴𝛼+(𝛽+𝛾)
= 𝐴(𝛼+𝛽)+𝛾 (∵ associativity holds in R w.r.to ⋅)
= 𝐴(𝛼+𝛽). 𝐴𝛾
= (𝐴𝛼 . 𝐴𝛽 ). 𝐴𝛾

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

∴ 𝐴𝛼 (𝐴𝛽 . 𝐴𝛾 ) = (𝐴𝛼 . 𝐴𝛽 ). 𝐴𝛾 ∀𝐴𝛼 , 𝐴𝛽 , 𝐴𝛾 ∈ 𝑮 .

Hence associative law holds.
III) Existence of identity:
𝑐𝑜𝑠0 −𝑠𝑖𝑛0 1 0
𝐴0 = [ ]=[ ]=𝑰∈𝑮
𝑠𝑖𝑛0 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 0 1
Clearly 𝐴𝛼 𝐴0 = 𝐴0 𝐴𝛼 = 𝐴𝛼
∴ 𝐴0 = 𝑰 is the identity element in 𝑮.
IV) Existence of inverse:
Since |𝐴𝛼 |=𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝛼 =1, 𝐴𝛼 is non-singular.
1
∴Inverse of 𝐴𝛼 exists in 𝑮 and it is 𝐴𝛼 −1 = | (𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝐴𝛼 )
𝐴𝛼 |
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 cos(−𝛼 ) − sin(−𝛼 )
= [ ]=[ ]
1 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 sin(−𝛼 ) cos(−𝛼 )

= 𝐴−𝛼
∴ 𝐴−𝛼 ∈ 𝑮 such that 𝐴𝛼 𝐴−𝛼 = 𝐴−𝛼 𝐴𝛼 = 𝐴0.
∴ 𝑮 is a group under matrix multiplication.
Problem: Prove that the set G of rational numbers other than 1 with operation
∗ such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ G is an abelian group. Hence show
3
that 𝑥 = is a solution of the equation 4 ∗ 5 ∗ 𝑥 = 7.
2
Solution: G is the set of rational numbers other than 1.
* is the operation considered on G as 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏
for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ G.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ G and so 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑏 ≠ 1, 𝑐 ≠ 1.
I. Closure law:
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ G ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ Q,𝑎𝑏 ∈ Q
⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 ∈ Q

We need to show that 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 1

Assume that 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 = 1
𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 − 1 = 0
(𝑎 − 1) − 𝑏(𝑎 − 1) = 0
(𝑎 − 1)(1 − 𝑏) = 0
𝑎 = 1 (or) 𝑏 = 1-------(⨂)(a,contradiction)
This is contradiction to our assumption that 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑏 ≠ 1.
∴ Our assumption is wrong.
∴ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 1&𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑄
⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

By the definition of ‘*’ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Hence closure law holds.
II. Associativity:
Consider (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 − (𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏) 𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 )
= 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 )
= 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 )
III. Existence of identity:
Let 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺
𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑒 + 𝑎 − 𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑒(1 − 𝑎) = 0 ⟹ 𝑒 = 0(∵ 𝑎 ≠ 1)
∴ Identity exists and 𝑒 = 0 is the identity.
IV. Existence of inverse:
Let b∈ 𝐺
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏(1 − 𝑎) = −𝑎
𝑎
⟹𝑏= (∵ 𝑎 ≠ 1)
𝑎−1
𝑎
Also 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 ⟹ 𝑏 + 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑎 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏 = (∵ 𝑎 ≠ 1)
𝑎−1
𝑎
∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 0 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ⟹ Inverse of 𝑎 exists and it is .
𝑎−1
V. Commutativity:
Also 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
Hence (𝐺,∗) is an abelian group.
Hence 4 ∗ 5 ∗ 𝑥 = 7 ⟹ (4 ∗ 5) ∗ 𝑥 = 7
⟹ (4 + 4 − 4(5)) ∗ 𝑥 = 7
⟹ −11 ∗ 𝑥 = 7
⟹ −11 + 𝑥 + 11𝑥 = 7
3
⟹ 𝑥= .
2
Related problems for practice:
 Show that the set of integers is an abelian group with respect to 𝑜 where 𝑜
is defined 𝑎𝑜𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍.
 Prove that the set of all integers form an abelian group w.r.to the operation is
defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 .
 Show that the set 𝐺 = {𝑥 = 𝑥 ⁄2𝑎 3𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍} is a group under multiplication.
𝑏 √2
 Prove that the set 𝑮 = {𝑎 + , 𝑏 ∈ 𝑸} is a commutative group w.r.to addition.
𝑎

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Theorem: Let G be a group. Prove that for 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮,(𝒂𝒃)−𝟏 = 𝒃−𝟏 𝒂−𝟏 .

Proof: G is a group.

Let 𝑒 be the identity in 𝐺.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐺

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑏 −1𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺

Now 𝑎𝑏 (𝑏−1𝑎−1) = 𝑎[𝑏(𝑏 −1𝑎−1)]

= 𝑎[(𝑏𝑏−1)𝑎−1 ]

= 𝑎[𝑒𝑎−1]

= 𝑎𝑎−1

=𝑒

Also 𝑏−1𝑎−1 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑏 −1[𝑎−1(𝑎𝑏)]

= 𝑏−1[(𝑎−1𝑎)𝑏]

= 𝑏−1[𝑒𝑏]

= 𝑏−1𝑏

= 𝑒.

∴ (𝑎𝑏)𝑏−1𝑎−1 = 𝑏−1𝑎−1 (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑒

∴ (𝑎𝑏) −1 = 𝑏 −1𝑎−1.

Theorem: cancellation laws hold in a group.

Let 𝑮 be a group. Then for 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑮, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 ⇒⟺ 𝑏 = 𝑐

and 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Proof: 𝑮 is a group.

Let 𝑒 be the identity in 𝑮.

For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑮, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Pre multiply the above equation with 𝑎 −1 on both sides.

Consider 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐

⇒ 𝑎−1(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 −1(𝑎𝑐 )

⇒ (𝑎 −1𝑎)𝑏 = (𝑎−1𝑎)𝑐

⇒ 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑒𝑐

⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Similarly 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⇒ (𝑏𝑎 )𝑎−1 = (𝑐𝑎)𝑎−1 ⇒ 𝑏 (𝑎𝑎−1) = 𝑐(𝑎𝑎−1)

⇒ 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑐𝑒 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Hence cancellation laws holds in a group.

Theorem: In a group 𝑮(≠ 𝝓), 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑮, the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 and

𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 have unique solutions.

Proof: Given 𝑮 is a group and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑮

Given equations 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 & 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏

Let 𝑒 be the identity element in 𝑮

For 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑮

Consider 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏

Pre-multiply with 𝑎−1 on both sides of the above equation

𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 −1(𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑎−1𝑏

⇒ (𝑎−1𝑎)𝑥 = 𝑎−1(𝑏)

⇒ 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑎−1𝑏

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 −1𝑏

Put 𝑥 = 𝑎−1𝑏 in 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏

⇒ 𝑎[𝑎−1𝑏]

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

⇒ [𝑎𝑎−1]𝑏

⇒ [𝑒]𝑏 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑥 = 𝑎−1𝑏 is solution for 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏.

Uniqueness:

Let 𝑥1, 𝑥2 be two solutions of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏

Since 𝑥1 is solution 𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑏 − − − (1)

𝑥2 is solution 𝑎𝑥2 = 𝑏 − − − (2)

From (1)&(2)

𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 (by left cancellation law)

∴ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has unique solution.

Again consider 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏

Post multiply with 𝑎−1 on both sides of the above equation

Consider 𝑦𝑎 (𝑎−1) = 𝑏(𝑎−1)

⇒ 𝑦(𝑎𝑎−1) = 𝑏𝑎 −1

⇒ 𝑦(𝑒) = 𝑏𝑎 −1

⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎 −1

Replace 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎−1 in 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏

⇒ 𝑏𝑎−1(𝑎)

⇒ 𝑏(𝑎−1𝑎)

⇒ 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎−1 is solution for 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Uniqueness:

Let 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 are solutions of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏

Since 𝑦1 is solution of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏

⇒ 𝑦1 𝑎 = 𝑏 − − − (3)

𝑦2 is solution of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏

⇒ 𝑦2 𝑎 = 𝑏 − − − (4)

From (3) & (4)

𝑦1𝑎 = 𝑦2 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 ( by right cancellation law)

∴ 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 has unique solution.

Commutator of the ordered pair (a,b) where (G,∙) a group.

Definition: Let (G,∙) be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. The element 𝑎𝑏𝑎−1𝑏−1 is called

the commutator of the ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏) in group 𝐺 .

Note:

 (𝑮 ≠ 𝝓,∙) is an algebraic structure. Then (𝑮,∙) is a group iff

i) 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝑏𝑐 )
ii) 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 have unique solutions in 𝑮 for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 .
 A semi-group (𝐺,∙) is a group if the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 have unique
solutions in 𝐺 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. This is the another definition of a group.

Theorem: A finite semi-group (𝑮,∙) satisfying the cancellation laws is a

group.

(OR)

A finite set 𝑮 with a binary composition is a group if ‘∙’ is associative and the
cancellation laws hold in 𝑮

Proof: Given 𝑮 = {𝑎1, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑛 } is finite set of distinct elements of order

‘n’.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Given (𝑮,∙) is a semi-group and it satisfies cancellation laws.

We need to prove that (𝑮,∙) is a group.

In order to prove that (𝑮,∙) is a group, it is enough to prove that the equations
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 has unique solutions in 𝑮 for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮.

Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮

Since ‘∙’ is closure 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝑮

Assume 𝑎𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑗 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

⇒ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑗 (by left cancellation laws)

This is contradiction to (𝑎𝑖 ≠ 𝑎𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗)

(or)

𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑛 are distinct elements.

∴ Our assumption is wrong .

∴ 𝑎𝑎1, 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑎𝑛 are distinct products in 𝑮 of some order
‘𝑛’

𝑮 = {𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑎𝑛 } = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑛 }

Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮

∃ unique 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑮 ∋ 𝑎𝑎𝑖 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑎𝑖 is the unique solution of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏

Consider right products 𝑎1𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑎, 𝑎3 𝑎, − − − − 𝑎𝑛 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮

Assume 𝑎𝑖 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑗 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑗 (by right cancellation law)

This is contradiction to 𝑎𝑖 ≠ 𝑎𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

(or)

𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑛 are distinct elements

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

∴ Our assumption is wrong

𝑎1 𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑎, 𝑎3 𝑎, − − − − 𝑎𝑛 𝑎 are distinct products in 𝑮 of some order ‘𝑛’

𝑮 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , − − −−, 𝑎𝑛 }= {𝑎1𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑎, 𝑎3 𝑎, − − − − 𝑎𝑛 𝑎}

Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮

∃ unique 𝑎𝑗 ∈ 𝑮 ∋ 𝑎𝑗 𝑎 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑎𝑗 is the unique solution of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 have unique solutions in 𝑮

By the definition of a group (𝑮,∙) is a group.

Theorem: If every element of a group (𝑮,∙) is its own inverse. Show that (𝑮,∙) is an
abelian group.

Proof: Given (𝑮,∙) is a group.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮

We need to prove that (𝑮,∙) is an abelian group.

i.e., 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎.

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 ( since by closure law)

By hypothesis, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑎−1 -----------(1)

𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑏−1 -----------(2)

𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 ⇒ (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎𝑏 --------(3)

But we know that (𝑎𝑏)−1 =𝑏 −1𝑎−1

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 ( from (1),(2),(3))

∴ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮.

Hence (𝑮,∙) is an abelian group.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Related theorem for practice:

 In a group 𝑮 , for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮, 𝑎2 = 𝑒. prove that 𝑮 is an abelian group.

Problem: show that the fourth roots of unity forms an abelian group w.r.to
multiplication.

Solution: The fourth roots of unity are {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}

Let 𝑮 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} . The composition table for multiplication is

∙ 1 -1 𝒊 −𝒊

1 1 -1 𝒊 −𝒊

-1 -1 1 −𝒊 𝒊

𝒊 𝒊 −𝒊 -1 1

−𝒊 −𝒊 𝒊 1 -1
i) Since all entries in the
composition table are elements in 𝑮.
Hence closure law holds in 𝑮
ii) Clearly 𝑮 is associative w.r.to multiplication.
iii) 1 is the identity element in 𝑮
iv) Inverse of 1 is 1
Inverse of -1 is -1
Inverse of 𝒊 is – 𝒊
Inverse of – 𝒊 is 𝒊
v) Cleary 𝑮 is commutative w.r.to multiplication.
Hence (𝑮,∙) is an abelian group.
Related problems for practice:
 Show that the fourth roots of unity forms an abelian group w.r.to
multiplication.
 All groups of order 4 and less are commutative.
 Prove that the set of 𝑛𝑡ℎ roots of unity under multiplication forms a finite group.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

ADDITION MODULO 𝒎:
Definition: let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝒁 and 𝑚 be a fixed positive integer. If 𝑟 is the
reminder(0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚) when 𝑎 + 𝑏 is divided by 𝑚, we define ‘𝑎+𝑚 𝑏’= 𝑟
and we read 𝑎+𝑚 𝑏 as 𝑎 ‘addition modulo 𝑚’𝑏.
Examples:
i. 20 +65 = 1 since 20+5=4(6)+1 i.e., 1 is the remainder when
20+5 is divided by 6.
ii. 24 +54 = 3.
iii. 2 +73 = 5
iv. -32+45 = 1 since -32+5=(-7)(4)=1.
CONGRUENCES:
Definition: Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝒁 and 𝑚 be a fixed positive integer. If 𝑎 − 𝑏 is divisible by 𝑚
we say that 𝑎 is congruent to 𝑏 modulo 𝑚 and we write it as 𝑎 ≡
𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚). This relation between the integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 is called congruence
modulo 𝑚.

Thus : 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ⟺ 𝑚⁄𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑚⁄𝑏 − 𝑎

𝑜𝑟 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑞𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑞 ∈ 𝒁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≢ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ⇔ 𝑚 does not
divide 𝑎 − 𝑏 or 𝑎 − 𝑏 ≠ 𝑘𝑚 for 𝑘 ∈ 𝒁
NOTE:
 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), then we get same remainder if 𝑎and 𝑏 are separately divided by
𝑚.
e.g. if 22 ≡ 13(mod 3), then 1 is the remainder when 22 and 13 are separately
divided by 3.
Definition: 𝒛𝑚 ={0,1,2,3,......(𝑚 − 1)} is called the complete set of least positive
residues modulo 𝑚 or simply set of residues modulo 𝑚.

Problem: prove that set 𝑮 = {0,1,2,3,4} is an abelian group of order 5 w.r.to addition
modulo 5.
Solution: Given 𝑮 = {0,1,2,3,4}
The composition table for 𝑮 w.r.to +5 is as follows:

+5 0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4
0

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

1 2 3 4 0
1
2 3 4 0 1
2
3 4 0 1 2
3
4 0 1 2 3
4

i) Since all entries in the composition table are elements in 𝑮.

Hence closure law holds in 𝑮
ii) Clearly 𝑮 is associative w.r.to +5.
iii) 0 is the identity element in 𝑮
iv) Inverse of 0 is 0
Inverse of 1 is 4
Inverse of 2 is 3
Inverse of 3 is 2
Inverse of 4 is 1
v) Cleary 𝑮 is commutative w.r.to +5.
Hence (𝑮, +5) is an abelian group.

MULTIPLICATION MODULO 𝒎:
Definition: If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers and 𝑝 is a fixed positive integer and 𝑎𝑏 is divided by
𝑝 such that 𝑟 is the remainder (0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑝).we define
𝑎 ×𝑝 𝑏 = 𝑟.we read 𝑎 ×𝑝 𝑏 as 𝑎 “multiplication modulo 𝑝" 𝑏.
Examples:
i. 20 ×6 5 = 4( since 20× 5=100=16(6)+4
i.e., 4 is the remainder when 100 is divided by 6).
ii.24 ×5 4 = 1.
iii.2 ×7 3=6.
PROBLEM: prove that the set 𝑮 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔} is a finite abelian group of
order 6 w.r.to. ×7.
Solution: Given 𝑮 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
The composition table for 𝑮 w.r.to ×7 is as follows:

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

×7 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2 4 6 1 3 5
2
3 6 2 5 1 4
3
4 1 5 2 6 3
4
5 3 1 6 4 2
5
6 5 4 3 2 1
6

i) Since all entries in the composition table are elements in 𝑮.

Hence closure law holds in 𝑮
ii) Clearly 𝑮 is associative w.r.to ×7.
iii) 1 is the identity element in 𝑮
iv) Inverse of 1 is 1
Inverse of 2 is 4
Inverse of 3 is 5
Inverse of 4 is 2
Inverse of 5 is 3
Inverse of 6 is 6
v) Cleary 𝑮 is commutative w.r.to ×7 .
Hence (𝑮,×7) is an abelian group.

THEOREM: Show that in a group 𝑮 for 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮, (𝒂𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 ⟺ 𝑮 is abelian.

Proof: Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 and (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏2. To prove that 𝑮 is abelian.
Consider (𝑎𝑏) 2 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 ⇒ (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏) = (𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏)
⇒ 𝑎 (𝑏𝑎) 𝑏 = 𝑎 (𝑎𝑏)𝑏
⇒ 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏( by cancellation laws)
⇒ 𝑮 is abelian.
Let 𝑮 be abelian. Now we need to prove that (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 .

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Then (𝑎𝑏) 2 = (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏)

= 𝑎(𝑏𝑎)𝑏
= 𝑎(𝑎𝑏)𝑏 (since G is abelian)
= (𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏)
= 𝑎2 𝑏 2 .
THEOREM: If 𝑮 is a group such that (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚 for three consecutive integers 𝑚
for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮 .Show that 𝑮 is an abelian.
Proof: Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑮. Let 𝑚, 𝑚 + 1, 𝑚 + 2 be three consecutive integers.
By hypothesis (𝑎𝑏) 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚
(𝑎𝑏)𝑚+1 = 𝑎𝑚+1𝑏𝑚+1
(𝑎𝑏)𝑚+2 = 𝑎𝑚+2𝑏𝑚+2
∴ (𝑎𝑏) 𝑚+2 = (𝑎𝑏 )𝑚+1(𝑎𝑏)
⇒ 𝑎𝑚+2𝑏 𝑚+2 = 𝑎𝑚+1𝑏𝑚+1(𝑎𝑏)
⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑚+1 𝑏𝑚+1𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑏
⇒ 𝑎𝑚+1𝑏 𝑚+1=𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑎
⇒ (𝑎𝑏)𝑚+1 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 (𝑏𝑎)
⇒ (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 (𝑎𝑏) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 (𝑏𝑎)
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
⇒ 𝑮 is abelian.
Order of an element of a group:
Definition: Let (𝑮,∙) be a group and 𝑎 be any element of 𝑮 . Then the order of the
element 𝑎 is defined as the least positive integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒.
If there exists no positive integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒, then we say that 𝑎
is of infinite order or zero order.
We denote the order of 𝑎 by 𝑶(𝒂) or |𝑎|.
Example:
 If 𝐺 = {1, −1} then 𝐺 is a finite group under usual multiplication. Here 𝑶(𝟏) = 𝟏
& 𝑶(−𝟏) = 𝟐 since (−1)2 = 1.

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

 If 𝐺 = {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 } then 𝐺 is a finite group under usual multiplication. Here 𝑶(𝟏) =

𝟏 & 𝑶(𝝎) = 𝟑 (∵ (𝜔)3 = 1 and 𝑶(𝝎𝟐 ) = 𝟏(∵ (𝜔2 )3 = 1)

POINTS TO REMEMBER:

 The order of every element of a finite group is finite and is less than or equal to
the order of the group.
 In a group 𝑮, if 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮, then 𝑶(𝒂) = 𝑶(𝒂−𝟏 ).
 If 𝑎 is an element of a group 𝑮 such that 𝑶(𝒂) = 𝒏 then
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑛⁄𝑚

Problem : The order of every element of a finite group is finite and is less than or
equal to the order of the group.

Proof : Let (𝐺, . ) be a finite group ,let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑮, by closure law we have

𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , … … . ∈ 𝐺 since 𝐺 is finite ,all the positive integral powers of 𝑎.

Let 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑠 where r,s ∈ 𝑁and r>s

∴ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑠 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟−𝑠 = 𝑎0 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 where r-s=m

Since 𝑟 > 𝑠, 𝑚 is a positive integers
∴ ∃ a positive integers 𝑚 such that 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒
Hence if 𝑛 is the positive integral value of m such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 ,then 𝑂(𝑎 ) = 𝑛
∴ 𝑂 (𝑎) is finite .
Now to prove that 𝑂 (𝑎) ≤ 𝑂(𝐺)
If possible let 𝑂(𝑎) > 𝑂(𝐺).
Let 𝑂 (𝑎) = 𝑛 by closure we have 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , … … . ∈ 𝐺
No those two elements are equal ,for if possible Let 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑠 then 𝑎𝑟−𝑠 = 𝑒 since
O< 𝑟 − 𝑠 < 𝑛, 𝑂(𝑎) < 𝑛 which is contradiction
Hence the n elements 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , … … . ∈ 𝐺 are distinct elements of 𝐺
Hence 𝑂(𝑎) ≤ 𝑂(𝐺)

Abstract Algebra
Dept. of Mathematics, PRGC (A) Kakinada Sem-III/ Paper-III /Unit-I

Theorem: The order of any positive integral power of an element 𝑎 in a group 𝐺

cannot exceed the order of 𝑎 i.e in a group 𝐺,𝑂(am) ≤ O (a), 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑚 ∈
N.
Proof :Let 𝑂(𝑎) = 𝑛. if 𝑚 is a positive integer ,then 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐺.𝑂 (𝑎) = 𝑛,𝑎𝑛 =
𝑒⇒(𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝑒 𝑚 ⇒ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 = 𝑒 ⇒ (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑒
∴ 𝑂 (𝑎𝑚 ) ≤ 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑂 (𝑎𝑚 ) ≤ 𝑂 (𝑎)

Exercise Problems:
 For any two elements a,b € G where G is a group then O(a) =O(b-1ab)
 Show that all groups of order 4 and less are commutative.
 If 𝑎is an element of a group 𝐺 such that 𝑂(𝑎 ) = 𝑛, then 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 iff 𝑛/𝑚

References:
1. A Text Book of B.Sc. Mathematics, Vol-II, S. Chand & Co.
2. Abstract Algebra by J.B.Fraleigh
3. https://prgc.ac.in/department-5-studyresources
4. http://ccelms.ap.gov.in/rusa/

Abstract Algebra