MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS 25-1. DIRECSION OF LINES 25-2. TMTERTOR ANGLES 25-3. DEFLECTION ANGLES 25-4. ANGLES TO THE RIGHT 25-5. ” BEARINGS 25-6. FORWARD AND BACK BEARINGS 25-7. AZIMATHS 25-8. FORWARD AND BACK AZIMLTHS 25-9, ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 1. Determining Angtes From Bearings 2. Determining Anges From Azénuths 3. Converting Bearings To Azimitha 2 4. Converting Azcmtis To Bearings ‘Lesson 2525-1. DIRECTION OF LINES. The direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes with an established line of reference. There are’ various kinds of angles which can be used to describe the direction of lines. In syrveying practice, directions may be defined by means of: ‘interior angles, deflection angles, angles to the right, bearings, and azimuths. Angles are measured or laid off directly in the field by using devices such as a compass, transit, theodolite, sextant, 8 by plane table and alidade. The steel tape may also be used to lay off or measure angles. -These angular quantities are said to be observed when obtained directly in the field with a measuring instrument and calculated when obtained indirectly by computations. Angles are computed by means of their relationship to known quantities in a triangle or other geometric figures. The conversion from one method of expressing angles and directions tc another is a simple matter. ‘There are no hard and fast rules for making such conversions. The best approach is always to draw a good sketch showing the related quantities and then visualizing the required computations. Fig. 25-1. Incencor angtes. Fig. 15-2. Extertor angles. 25-2. INTERIOR ANGLES. The angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon are called interior angles. In Figure 25-1, the interjor angles are a, dy, de %, and $y. These angles may be’ measu! clockwise’ or’ counterclockwise. when the ‘value of an interior angle is greater than 180 degrees it is referred to as a re-entrant angle. One such example is the interior angle at station E or ,. It should be remembered that £0r any closed polygon the sum of the interior angles is equal fol tn-2)100 degrees, “nore 1s! tne nome of eides. SFOE e polygon shown in Figure 25-1 e tExterior angles are located outside a closed pclygon and are referred to as explements vt interior angles. ,An explement is the difference between 360 degrees and any Sne angle. These angles are often measured in surveying ~ work and used as a check, since the sum of the interior and exterior angles at any station or point must equal to 340 degrees. In Figure 25-2, the exterior angles are ©, ,2yZer Ly and ©. Fig. 25-3. Detection angles. 25-3. DEFLECTION ANGLES. i A The angle between a line and the prolongation of the pre~ ceding line is called a deflection angle. It may be turned to the right (clockwise) or to the left (counterclockwise) and it is always necessary to append the letters R or L to the numerical value to define the direction in which the angle has been turned. Right deflections are considered to have signs opposite to left deflections. Usually a positive sign is used to define a deflection angle to the Tight and a negative sign for deflection angles to the left. . In Figure 25-3, the deflection angies at stations B, ¢, and Dare W,(R), w,(L), and wyiR), respectively. These Gngles may have values between 0and 180 degrees, but often they are not used for angles greater than 90 degrees. In any closed polygon the algebraic sum of the deflection angles should always equal to 360 degre¢s. Fég. 25-4, Angles £0 the right. a 25-4. ANGLES TO THE RIGdT. Angles to the right are measured clgckwise from the preced=ing line to the succeeding line. In figure 25-4, tne angi to the right at stations B, C, and D aré 4), 8, and g, respectively. These angles are also referred to as azimuths from back line. 25-5. BEARINGS. The direction of a line may bp described by giving its bearing. The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the line. a quadrantal system (Fig. 25-5) 1s used to specify bearings such that a .line may fall under one of the following quadrants: NE, 88, NW, and sW. Bach quadrant is numbered from 0 to 90 degrees from either the north or south end of the meridian to the east or west end of the reference Parallel (ox the E-W Line). The fact that bearing angles Hever exceed 90 degrees is an advantage when extracting values of their trigonometric functions for use in computa tions. 25-3. Gindnantal ayeten dor defining bresings. 8 _ |__netarance aseteron ; i ee ss vonni-veet | nonru - cast aT | 2 eon | wo" \—-Rotarance Paratiol (E-W Line} SOUTH-WEST SOUTH-EAST (sw; (8) quepaant QUADRANT dither the letters N des the bearing angle ana “the letters E or W follows the indicated value of the langle. It is never done ine other way around. Therefore, to locate a line it is always necessary to know the directio- nal quadrant: in which it lies as well as the angle it makes with the reference meridian. The line could lie in any 9 the four quadrants if only the bearing angle of the line 1s known. Bearings may also be designated in a different manner when the direction of a line lies in the same direction as the reference meridian-or reference parallel. Tf the lin lies parallel to the meridian and south, it 1s written as @ue south; if perpendicular to the meridian and east, it 1swritten as due east. In Figure 25-6, the bearings of si lines oriainating from point p are given. Fig. 15-6. Betammining beatings. t " BEARING OF LINES N44°30'E 850° 1S'E Due South 360° 18'w Due West "20° 40'w Line pa When bearings are employed to define the direction oa lines it is important to identify the meridian used as reference. Depending, therefore, on the reference meridian being used, bearings may be true, magnetic, grid, oF. assumed. True bearings are measured from the local astronomic or true meridian. When directions are measured from the local magnetit meridian they are called magnetic bearings. such bearings can be obtained in the field by observing a magne- tic needle in a compass box. Most of our early land survey ly were made in terms of magnetic bearings. They are used on: for surveys which need to be accomplished in a short period of time and when only a low order of precision is required. In addition, magnetic bearings may be used for rerunning old property lines whose directions were originally deter- mimed ‘by compass, or for checking more precise surveys... Grid bearings are measured from the appropriate grid meri ian whereas assumed bearings are measured from an arbitra rilY chosen meridian. 28-6. FORWARD AMD BACK HEARINGS. : Usihg the quadrantal system, any line,Bn the surface of the earth may be defined by two directions which differ fro: each other by exactly 186 degrees... The direction wil] depend on which end the Tine is obser¥ed. When the bearin of a line is observed in the direction in which the burve} progresses, it is referred to as a forward bearing, if thi Dearing of the same line 1 observed in an gpposite direc:Fig. 15-7. Found and beck beatings. . N LINE | FORWARD BEARING BACK BEARING AB Naaae'e 344738 W Bc $42°30'E N42*30'W co Nse°so'e. 856°50'W oc StsiZte Nig12'W tion it is called the back bearing. In Figure 25-7, assume a compass is set up successively at stations A, B, C, Dy and E, and beariags read on lines AB, BA, BC, CB, CD, DC, DE, and ED. The observed bearings of lines AB, BC, CD, and DE are calluc forward bearings; those of BA, CB, DC, and ED are back bearings. From the illustrated directions given in Figure 25-7, it can be readily seen that back bearings can be obtained from the forward bearings by simply changing the letter N to S and also changing E to W, and vice versa. 25-7. AZIMUTHS. Another common method used in designating the direction of a line is by the use of azimuths. The azimuth of a line 18 its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and the line measured in a clockwise direction from either the north or south branch of the meridian. Agimuths ar usually preferred over bearings by most surveyors because they are more convenient to work with such as in computing traverse data by electronic digital computers. The azimuth of a line may range from 0 to 360 degrees and letters are not required to identify quadrants. For anY particular survey the direction of zero azimuth is’ either always north or always south. Some surveyors reckon azi- muths from the south and some from the north branch of whatever meridian is selected as a reference., Usually @ particular agency or organization will consistently use one or the other. Since both the north and south branches of the meridian are used, it is important to always specifY and record ‘which branch is used whenever azimuths are recorded yi =In practice, azimuths are generally measured from the north branch of the reference meridian for ordinary.. plane surveys. For large scale geodetic surveys and in astronomi- cal observations azimuths are measured from the south branch of the meridian. Figure 25-8 shows uifferent lines whose azimuths are measured from the north branch of the reference meridian. Azimuths measured from the south branch of the meridian are shown in Figure 25-9. Fig. 25-8. Arémuths (tom nota. Fig. 25-9, Azimuths (om south. 4 342%48" | ’ 3 AZIMUTH (FROM NORTH) OF LINES: AZIMUTH (FROM SOUTH) OF LINES: a Line pa = s6°18" Line po = atta" Line pb = 185t4a! Line pb = 148°0S Line pe = 228°29" Line pe = 230°52! Line pd = 270°00' Line pd + 342° 48: Line pe = 325°0s' Azimuths may be called true, magnetic, assumed, or grid, depending on the reference meridian from which they: have been measured. They are referred to as true azimuths when measured from the true or astronomic meridian, magne- tic azimuths when measured from the magnetic meridian, grid azimuths when referred to the central meridian in a grid system, and assumed azimuths when referred to an arbitrari- ly selected line. To avoid confusion in the interpretation and use of observed directions, it is important to always clearly specify in the field notes the type of reference Meridian used. 25-8. FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS. Any line established on the earth's surface has’ two azi~ muths - a forward azimuth and a back azimuth. Depending onwhict end of the line is considered, these directions dig- fer by 180 degrees from each other since the back azimuth is the exact reverse of the forward azimuth. To determine the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is known, the following rules are used: RULE 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 160 deg., subtract 180 deg. to obtain the back azi- math. RULE 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 160 deg., add 180 deg. to determine the back azimuth, Shown in Figure 25-10 are four successive lines whose azimuths have been observed. Tabulated immediately below the figure are the observed forward and back azimuths (rec- koned from south) of lines AB, BC, CD, and DE. The tabula- tion also shows the calculated forward and back azimuths of each line as reckoned from the north branch of the refe- rence meridian. By applying Rules 1 and 2, the student should be able to determine: how the tabulated back azimuths have been determined. Fig. 25-10. Fonwnad and back exéruths. 1 3 08S AZIM FROM SOUTH | CAL AZIM FROM NORTH | LINE [FORWARD | BACK FORWARO | BACK ‘aa | 230%00' | sctoo! sooo | “230%00' ac siatoo' | 13atoo' | 134700' | 314*00! co 255*00' | 75*o0' 75700' | 255*00! oe te5t00' | sastoo' | sastoo' | 165"00' It should, however, be understood that although the above stated rules are useful, there are actually no hard — and fast rules to observe in determining back azimuths oFwhen converting azimuths from one branch of the meridian to the other. To visualize the needed computations, the most important thing to do is just to make a good sketch which will show the related quantities. The rest will réquire only simplified analysis. 25-9. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 1. DETERMINING ANGLES FROM BEARINGS. Compute the angles AOB COD, EOF, and GOH from the following set of lines whose magnetic bearings are given a) OA,N39°25'E and OB, N 75°50'E b) OC ,N34°I4'E and OD, N 53°22'W c) OF, S 15°O4'E and OF , S 36°00'W 4) 0G,N70°15'W and OH, S52°0s'w Be AST Solution. 9) Determining Angle AOB. Let ©, = Bearing angle of OA or 39°25' 2 = Bearing angle of OB or 75°50 = Angle AoB @2- O11 = 75°60'- 39°25! 36°25) b) Determining Angle COD Bearing angle of OC or 34°14! Bearing angle of OD or 53°22! Angle COD 8, Oy, + Op = 34°14) 4 53°22" 87°36" ¢) Determining Angle EOF. Bearing angle of OE or 15°04! 82 = Bearing angle of OF or 36°00! Angle EOF a ® 8, ©1+ 2 = 15°04! + 36°00! 51°04! 4) Determining Angle GOH Bearing angle of OG or 70715! @ Bearing angle of OHor 52°05' Angle GOH Fig. 15-14. os 180° - (9, + 6) tg0°- (70°15! + 52°05') 87°40! 82. DETERMINING ANGLES FROM AZIMUTHS, Compute the angles APB, CPD, and EPF from the following set of lines whose azimuths are given a) AZIM, of Line PA = 39°48' , AZIM, of Line PB = M1 5%29" b) AZIM, of Line PC = 320°22' , AZIM, of Line PD: = 62t16) ¢) AZIM, of Line PE = 2/9°02' ; AZIM, of Line PF = I54°16 Solution. ' 4 a Fag. 15-15. @) Let A, = Azimuth from north of line PA or 39°48" Ag= Azimuth from north of line PB or 11 5°29) © = Angle APB Az> Ay = (15°29! - 39°48! 75°41" 7 Azimuth from south of line PC or 320°22' Ag= Azimuth from south of line PD or 62°16! © = Angle CPO wt & A, + (360°- A) = 62°16! + (360° - 320°22') 1's! ©) Let A = Azimuth trom north of line PE or 219°02" Ag= Azimutp from south of line PF, or patie” 7 Angle EPF Ap = (ay 180°) 18416" - (219°02' - 180°) 11s%i4! > 3. CONVERTING BEARINGS TO AZIMUTHS. Convert the following bearings to equivalent azimuths. ) - AB, N25°28'W ©) CD, SSO°10'E e) EF, N66°30'W b) BC, Due East d) DE, $45°50' W Solution. ©) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line AB. Let @ = Bearifig angle of AB or 25°25" A, = Azimuth from south of AB Ag = Azimuth from north of AB | = 10°00! + «& = 180%00! + 28°28) = 205°25' a= 25°25! ‘£ Fig. 25-18. ?bv) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Lin Fig. 25-19. t 520, Bearing angle of BC or 90°OO' A, = Azimuth from ‘south of BC Az = Azimuth from north of BC. A, = 180°00! “+ ‘c= 180°00' +90°0d = 270°00! . a A, = & = 90°00! ©) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line CO. Fig. 50 20. Letcc = Bearing. angle of CD or 50°10! A, = Azimuth from soutty of CD Ag = Azimuth from north of CD Ay = 360°00' - & = 360°00! - 50°10" = 309°50' Az = 180° - 50°10! = 129°5C 4) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line Fag, 25-21. Bearing ot ve or 45°50! Azimuth from south of DE Azimuth from north of OE a, = = 45°50! > 2 180°00' +a = 180°00' + 45°50! 225°50' ©) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line EF. Fag. 15-22. Let = Bearing angie of EF or 66°30! A, = Azimuth from south of EF Az = ‘Azimuth from north of EF A, = 180°00' - oc = 1 ado! - 66°30! 13°30! Az + 360°00' - cc = 360°00!' - 66? 0! = 293°30' 4. CONVERTING AZIMUTHS TQ BEARINGS. Convert the following azt- muths to equivalent bearings 9) AZIM, ch AZIM, Solution, aera < of Line £8 DI AZIM, of Gine BC of Line cD = Azimuth from’ south of AB or 230°30' Bearing of AB 230°30' = @) AZIM, of Line DE = 228718! 11246! e) AZIM, of Line EF = 135%00! 270°00Fig. 5-13. = A ~ 180° = 230°30' - 180° 7 = 50°30! (or bearing of AB Is ay N 50°30'E) Fig. 25-24. = Azimuth trom north of BC or 12°46! ei = Bearing of BC w- = 180°- A = 180°-122°46' = 57°14 (or pearing, of BC Is S$ 57°14'E) Fég. 25-85. ¢) Let A= Azimuth from south of CO or 270°00' & = Bearing of AB & = A ~ 180°00' = 270°00' - 80°00" = 90°00! (or bearing of CD Is Due East) Fig. 25-06. 4) Let A = Azimuth from north of DE or 28°15" © = Bearing of DE v1 @ = A = 180°00' = 228°15! - 10°00! 48°15" (or bearing of DE is Z S48"15'w) Fig. 25-27, F. @) Let A= Azimuth from south of EF or 1'35%00! 2 > Bearing of EF & = 180°00'~ A » |80°00' - 135°00! a 45°00! (or bearing of EF is . N.45°00! w)