This page is about the trigonometric functions of 

sine, cosine and tangent, what they are and how to

find the exact values of many angles.

Exact Trigonometric Function Values

What angles have an exact expression for their sines, cosines and tangents? You might know that
cos(60°)=1/2 and sin(60°)=√3/2 as well as tan(45°)=1, but are 30, 45 and 60 the only angles up to
90° with a formula for their trig values? No! There are lots more but not all angles have exact
expressions involving nothing more than square-roots.
Which angles do? What patterns are there in these expressions? This page shows expressions for
many angles and even solves the complete problem of which angles do and which don't have such
exact trig expressions.
Contents of this page

 1 A Table of Exact Trig values

 2 All the trig functions in one diagram
 2.1 Trig functions of Angles outside the range 0° to 90°
 3 Patterns
 3.1 The Simple Square-Root pattern
 3.2 The √2 ± √n pattern
 3.3 The √2 ± Phi pattern
 3.4 The Golden Ratio
 3.5 A more general pattern
 4 Proofs
 4.1 30° 45° and 60°
 4.2 36° and 54°, 18° and 72°
  4.3 15° and 75°
 4.4 Ailles Rectangle for 15° and 75°
 5 Trig Formulae
 6 A diagram to relate many angles and Phi
 6.1 You do the maths... 
 7 Other angles with exact trig expressions involving square-roots
 7.1 Halving
 7.2 Superimposing
 7.3 Do we know all the angles?
 7.4 The π/17 formula
 7.5 The π/15 formula
 8 A Trig Calculator using Decimal numbers of any length  
 9 References

1 A Table of Exact Trig values

that are expressible as simple terms involving square-roots.
a b
cos(a) tan(a)
radian sin(b) cot(b) radian
° °
s s

π
0 0 1 0 90
2
 6–√−3–√+2–
2+2+3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−− √−26-3+2-2
π 82. 11 π
7.5 =(2–√−1)(3–
24 −√22+2+32 5 24
√−2–√)=(2-1)(3-
2)

6–√+2–√4=12+3–√4−−−−−−−√=4+12−
2−3–√2-3
π −√8−−−−−−−−√6+24=12+34=4+128 5π
15 75
12 12
tan(15°) = [0; 3, 1,
2 ]
cos2(15°)=[0;1,13, 1,12]
tan2(15°) = [0;
13, 1, 12]
10+25–√−−−−−−−−√4=5+5–√8−−−−−− 1−25–√5−−−−

π −√10+254=5+58 −−−−√1-255 2π
18 72
10 5
tan2(18°) = [0;
cos2(18°) = [0; 1, 9, 2, 8]
9, 2,8]
 2+2–√−−−−−−√2=4+8–√8−−−−−−
2–√−12-1
−√2+22=4+88
π 22. 67. 3π
8 5 5 8
tan(22.5°) = [0; 2]
cos (22.5°) = [0; 1, 5, 1, 4]
2
tan2(22.5°) = [0;
5, 1, 4]
3–√232 3–√333
π tan(30°) = [ 0;
π
30 60
6 cos(30°) = [ 0; 1, 6, 2, 6 ] 3
1, 1, 2 ]
cos2(30°) = [0; 1, 3]
tan (30°) = [0; 3 ]
2

5−25–√−−−−−
5–√+14=3+5–√8−−−−−−−√5+14=3+58
π −−√5-25 3π
36 54
5 10
cos(36°) = [ 0; 1, 4 ] tan2(36°) = [ 0; 1,
cos (36°) = [ 0; 1, 1, 1, 8, 2 ]
2
1, 8, 2 ]
5π 37. 2+2−3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−− 6–√+3–√−2– 52. 7π
24 5 5 24
√−26+3-2-2
−√22+2-32
=(2–√+1)(3–
√−2–√)=(2+1)(3-
 2)

2–√222 11
π π
45 45
4 cos(45°) = [ 0; 1, 2 ] 4
cos2(45°) = [ 0; 2 ]
6–√−3–√−2–
√+26-3-2+2
7π 52. 2−2−3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−−√22- 37. 5π
24 5 =(2–√−1)(3– 5 24
2-32 √+2–√)=(2-1)
(3+2)

10−25–√−−−−−−−−√4=5−5–√8−−−−−− 5+25–√5−−−−

3π −√10-254=5-58 −−−−√5+255 π
54 36
10 5
tan2(54°) = [ 1;
cos2(54°) = [ 0; 2, 1, 8, 2 ]
1, 8, 2 ]
1212 3–√3
π tan(60°) = [ 1; 1,
π
60 cos(60°) = [0; 2] 30
3 6
2 ]
cos2(60°) = [0; 4]
tan (60°) = 3
2
 2−2–√−−−−−−√2=4−8–√8−−−−−−−√2- 1+2–√1+2
3π 67. 22=4-88 22. π
8 5 5 8
tan(67.5°) =
[ 2; 2 ]
cos2(67.5°) = [ 0; 6, 1, 4 ]
tan2(67.5°) =
[ 5; 1, 4 ]
5+25–√−−−−−
5–√−14=3−5–√8−−−−−−−√5-14=3-58
2π −−√5+25 π
72 18
5 10
cos(72°) = [ 0; 3, 4 ] tan2(72°) = [ 9; 2,
cos2(72°) = [ 0; 10, 2, 8 ] 8 ]
5π 75 15 π
12 6–√−2–√4=12−3–√4−−−−−−−√=4−12− 12

2+3–√2+3
−√8−−−−−−−−√6-24=12-34=4-128

cos2(75°) = [ 0; 14, 1, 12 ] tan(75°) = [ 3; 1,

2 ]
tan (75°) = [ 13; 1,
2
 12 ]
6–√+3–√+2–
√+26+3+2+2
11 π 82. 2−2+3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−−√22- 7.5
π
24 5 =(2–√+1)(3– 24
2+32 √+2–√)=(2+1)
(3+2)

π
2
90 00 ∞∞ 0 0

The Continued fraction [a; b, c, d, ...] is a shorthand notation for 

1
a+
1
b+
1
c+
d + ...

and the periodic continued fraction [a; b, c,   d, e,   d, e,   d, e, ...] is written as [ a; b, c, d, e ]
where any number before the semicolon (;) is the whole part and the line over the numbers indicates
the part that repeats for ever at the end.
See an Introduction to Continued Fractions.

2 All the trig functions in one diagram

Here is a really great Mathematica   demonstration of how all the 6 trigonometric functions are related,
in one interactive diagram. Here is a static image which is a useful diagram anyway:
However, the diagram is useful for seeing what is measured by the six functions but it does not give
any indication of the signs of the values.
The signs are chosen to make the trig formula see below consistent for all angles. Also, the next
section shows their graphs and from the basic SINE graph, all the others follow.
The sine function has many applications in mechanics (e.g. the motions of rotating objects),
electronics (e.g. alternating electric current and electromagnetic waves), ... .

2.1 Trig functions of Angles outside the range 0° to 90°

Here are diagrams of an angle in each of the four quadrants of a circle, snapshots from the
excellent How the Trigonometry Functions Are Related from the Wolfram Demonstrations Project by C.
Ormullion. Click in a quadrant to see a typical angle and all 6 trig functions.
Here is another visualization, by graphs:
A nice way to remember the SIGN to use for the functions in each quadrant is that they are All
positive in the first quadrants (0-90°) but in the other quadrants, only one of sin, cos or tan is
positive in the other quadrants:

Sine All
Tangent Cosine
   
You can see that it is written inside a big PLUS (+) sign and the only function(s) that have the plus
sign with its values in that quadrant is, in order of the angle side,
"All, Sine, Tangent, Cosine" and you can remember this with the silly rhyme "All Silver Tea Cups".
But why not make up your OWN phrase to remember the letters  ASTC?
If it's silly then you are more likely to remember it!
Once you remember the sign for these three functions, you can then use the same sign for their
reciprocal values Cosecant, Secant and Cotangent.
 The basic formulae here all reply on the SINE graph
as follows:

 The sine of an angle is defined by the vertical height of a point as it rotates around a unit

circle (that is, its radius is 1) measured from a horizontal line through the centre of the circle. So it
cannot be bigger than 1 or less than -1.
 the cosine of an angle is defined by the horizontal distance of a point as it rotates around
the unit circle measured from a vertical line through the centre of the circle. It too must be in the
range -1 to 1.
 From the diagram it is easy to see that the sine and cosine graphs are the same shape, but
displaced by a quarter turn (90°). In mathematical terms, we would say cosine(x) = sine(90°+x).
 The tangent of an angle measures the ratio of sine to cosine and so can take any value
whatsoever.
At multiples of 90° it becomes infinite or negatively infinite.

Click on the diagram to go to the Mathematica Demonstrations website for the free Computable

Document Format (CDF) version that plays in a free CDF Player and makes the animation live.
The Spinning Out Sine and Cosine Demonstration is by B Atwood and S Wagon.

The angles can be measured by several types of unit.

 Often this is degrees with a complete turn divided into 360 degrees

 If we define sine and cosine by distances (or coordinates) of a point on a unit circle, we can also
define the angle by a distance on that circle too: the distance on the circumference that a point
travels in turing through that angle. The circumference of a unit circle is 2 π. This measure is called
a radian.

Here is a converter to convert between the two:

3 Patterns
3.1 The Simple Square-Root pattern
Ernesto La Orden of Madrid pointed out the following neat way to connect and remember the easiest
of the sines (cosines):
° rad cosine
sine ° rad

0 0
√4
  =  1 90 π
2 2
3 π √3
60 π
0 6 2 3
4 π √2
  =  
1
45 π
5 4 2 √2 4
√
6 π 1   =  
1
30 π
0 3 6
2 2

9 π √0
  = 0 0 0
0 2 2

3.2 The √2 ± √n pattern

Ernesto La Orden also put many angles into this pattern:

cosine
sine

π9 √
  =   0
0 2 – √4 0
2 °
 2
5
π7 √
2 – √3 1
5
5
1 ° 2
2
3 6 2
√
π 7. 2 – √2 2
5 .
8 ° 2 5

π6 √
2 – √1
   1
3
0 = 
0
3 ° 2
 
2

π4 √
2 – √0
   1
4
5 = 
5
4 °  
2 √2

π3 √
2 + √1
   √3
6
0 = 
0
6 ° 2
 
2
2 6
π 2. √
2 + √2 7
5 .
8 ° 2 5

π1 7
 √2 + √3
5
1 5
°
2 2

√
0 2 + √4   =   9
0
° 1 0
2

3.3 The √2 ± Phi pattern

cosine
sine
2
2−Φ−−−−
π 72° 18°
5 −√22-Φ2
3
2−φ−−−−
π 54° 36°
10 −√22-φ2
π 2+φ−−−−
36° 54°
5 −√22+φ2
π 2+Φ−−−−
18° 72°
10 −√22+Φ2
 Φ=5–√+12=1.618033...=1+φΦ=5+12=1.618033...=1+φ
φ=5–√−12=0.618033..=Φ−1φ=5-12=0.618033..=Φ-1
Φ2=3+5–√2=2.618033..Φ2=3+52=2.618033..
φ2=3−5–√2=0.381966..φ2=3-52=0.381966..
3.4 The Golden Ratio

We can extend the previous pattern to include many angles which are simple fractions of π if we use
the the golden ratio values Phi (ΦΦ) and phi (φφ):
=
cos(9°= π/20) = 122+2+Φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√122+2+Φ
sin(81°)

122+2+φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√=122+Φ−−−− =
cos(18°=π/10) =
sin(72°)
−√122+2+φ=122+Φ
cos(27°=3π/20) =
122+2−φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√122+2-φ
= sin(63°)

122+2−Φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√=122+φ−−−− =
cos(36°=π/5) =
sin(54°)
−√=Φ2122+2-Φ=122+φ=Φ2
 =
cos(45°=π/4) = 122±2−2−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−√=2–√2122±2-2=22
sin(45°)

cos(54°=3π/10) 122−2−Φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√=122−φ−−−− =
= sin(36°)
−√122-2-Φ=122-φ
cos(63°=7π/20) =
122−2−φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√122-2-φ
= sin(27°)

122−2+φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√=122−Φ−−−− =
cos(72°=2π/5) =
sin(18°)
−√=φ2122-2+φ=122-Φ=φ2
cos(81°=9π/20)
122−2+Φ−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−√122-2+Φ = sin(9°)
=
This pattern uses the identities
ϕ=2−Φ−−−−−√ϕ=2-Φ and Φ=2+φ−−−−−√Φ=2+φ
3.5 A more general pattern

There is a more encompassing pattern here if we use all the following values under the innermost
square-root:
 2,3–√,Φ,1,φ,0,−φ,−1,−3–√,−Φ,−22,3,Φ,1,φ,0,-φ,-1,-3,-Φ,-2
or
2, 1.732..., 1.618..., 1, 0.618..., 0, -0.618..., -1, -1.618..., -1.732..., -2
together with the half-angle formula for cos(A/2) (see below) starting from cos(36)=Phi/2 and
cos(72)=phi/2. The pattern continues with the cosines of 4.5°, 13.5°, etc. and it includes the
following angles which are fractions of π too:
122+2+2−−−−−√−−−−−−−−
cos(0)   =   sin(90°)
−√=1122+2+2=1

122+2+3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−
cos(7.5°=π/24)   =   sin(82.5°)
−−√122+2+3

122+2−3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−
cos(37.5°=5π/24)   =   sin(52.5°)
−−√122+2-3
cos(45°=π/4)   =   sin(45°)
122±2−2−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−√=2–
 √2122±2-2=22
122−2−3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−
cos(52.5°=7π/24)   =   sin(37.5°)
−−√122-2-3

122−2+3–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−
cos(82.5°=11π/24)   =   sin(7.5°)
−−√122-2+3
122−2+2−−−−−√−−−−−−−−
cos(90°=π/2)   =   sin(0°)
−√=0122-2+2=0

4 Proofs
4.1 30° 45° and 60°

Here are two simple triangles which give us the formulae for the trig values of these three angles:-
This triangle is just a square cut along a diagonal. Here is an equilateral triangle where all sides and
If the sides are of length 1, the diagonal is length all angles are equal (to 60°). If the sides are of
√2. This gives the sin, cos and tan of 45°. length 2, then when we cut it in half as shown,
the two triangles have 60°, 30° and 90° angles
with a side of length 1 and a hypotenuse of length
2. The other side is therefore of length √3. So we
can read off the sin cos and tan of both 30° and
60°.

4.2 36° and 54°, 18° and 72°

For 36° and 72° we need some further work based on the geometry of a regular
pentagon which has angles of 36° and 72°. If the sides of the pentagon are of length 1,
the diagonals are of the golden section number in length Phi where:
Phi 1 + √5   1
=    =
=
1.61 2 1 Phi
8033
 988.. +

The upper triangle with angles 72°, 72° and 36° and sides of
lengths 1, Phi and Phi shows the trig values for 18° and 72°.

The lower triangle with angles of 36°, 36° and 108° and sides
of lengths 1, 1 and Phi shows the trig values of 36° and 54°.

4.3 15° and 75°

If we take the triangle on the left, we can calculate the length of the third side using the Cosine
Formula. If, in a triangle with sides a, b and c, we know both sides b and c and also the angle A
between sides b and c then we can compute the length of third side, a, as follows:

a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos(A)

For our triangle on the left, the known sides are b=2 and c=2 and the angle between them is A=30°. The
length of the third side, the base a, is therefore:
a2 = 22 + 22 – 2 x 2 x 2 x cos(30°)
= 8 – 4 √3
= 2 (4 – 2 √3)
But (√3 – 1)  = 3 + 1 – 2 √3 = 4 – 2 √3 and so
2
 a2 = 2 (√3 – 1)2
Taking the square-root:
a = √2 (√3 – 1) which we can also write as
= 2 (√3 – 1) / √2

Using this expressions for a, we can expand the triangle by a factor of √2, to get rid of the denominator.
Finally, we put in a line from the top of the triangle to the centre of the base a to make two right-angled
triangles. This will halve the side a and cut the triangle into two and gets rid of the factor 2 also. We then
arrive at the triangle on the right which shows the sines and cosines of 75° and 15°:

4.4 Ailles Rectangle for 15° and 75°

Show times √2
An alternative (easier) method for sine and cosine of 15° and 75° is
found in Ailles Rectangle (named after an Ontario high school teacher).
It is easy to remember because it is two green 45° right-angled
triangles stuck onto the sides of a white 30°-60°-90° triangle and the
rectangle completed with a yellow 15°-75°-90° triangle on the
hypotenuse of the 30°-60°-90° triangle as shown here.
The 30°-60°-90° sides are "as usual", namely 1, 2 and √3. From the two 45°-45°-90° triangles, it is
quite easy to see that xx is 3–√2–√32 and yy is 12–√12 from which we can read off the sines and
cosines of 15° and 75°. However we will get some nicer numbers on the triangles if we expand all
sides by a factor of √2. Click on the buttons underneath the image to see the (expanded) sizes.

5 Trig Formulae
Many symmetries and patterns are apparent in the table. They reflect some underlying identities such
as:

sin(x)=cos(90°−x)sin(x)=c   sin2(x)+cos2(x)=1sin2(x)+cos2(x)=1
sin(x)=ahsin(x)=a cos(x)=bhcos( os(90°-x)
h x)=bh tan(x)=sin(x)cos(x)tan(x)   cot(x)=1tan(x)=cos(x)sin(x)cot(x)=1t
cosec(x)=hacose sec(x)=hbsec( =sin(x)cos(x) an(x)=cos(x)sin(x)
c(x)=ha x)=hb tan2(x)
tan(x)=abtan(x)= cot(x)=bacot( +1=1cos2(x)tan2(x)   cot2(x)+1=1sin2(x)cot2(x)+1=1sin2(x)
ab x)=ba +1=1cos2(x)

If we know the value of a trig function on two angles aa and bb, we can determine the trig function
values of their sum and difference using the following identities:

sin(a+b)=sin(a)cos(b)     tan(a+b)=tan(a)

+cos(a)sin(b)sin(a+b)=sin(a)cos(b)+cos(a)sin(b) +tan(b)1−tan(a)tan(b)tan(a+b)=tan(a)+tan(b)1-
cos(a+b)=cos(a)cos(b) tan(a)tan(b)

−sin(a)sin(b)cos(a+b)=cos(a)cos(b)-sin(a)sin(b)
sin(a−b)=sin(a)cos(b)−cos(a)sin(b)sin(a- tan(a−b)=tan(a)
b)=sin(a)cos(b)-cos(a)sin(b)
cos(a−b)=cos(a)cos(b)+sin(a)sin(b)cos(a- −tan(b)1+tan(a)tan(b)tan(a-b)=tan(a)-
tan(b)1+tan(a)tan(b)
b)=cos(a)cos(b)+sin(a)sin(b)

If the two angles are the same (i.e. a=ba=b) we get the sines and cosines of double the angle.
Rearranging those formulae gives the formula for the sin or cosine of half an angle:

sin(2a)sin(2a) =2sin(a)cos(a)=2sin(a)cos(a) sin(a2)=1−cos(a)2−−−−−−−−−√sin(a2)=1-cos(a)2

cos(2a)cos(2a =1−2sin2(a)=1-2sin2(a)
)

=cos2(a)−sin2(a)=cos2(a)-   cos(a2)=1+cos(a)2−−−−−−−−−√cos(a2)=1+cos(a)2
sin2(a)

=2cos2(a)−1=2cos2(a)-1

2csc(2a)=tan(a)+cot(a)2csc(2a)=tan(a) tan(a2)=1−cos(a)sin(a)=sin(a)1+cos(a)tan(a2)=1-
+cot(a)
cos(a)sin(a)=sin(a)1+cos(a)

The following change a product of trig functions into a sum or difference and vice-versa:
sin(a)+sin(b)sin(a)   cos(a)+cos(b)cos(a)
+sin(b)
=2cos(a−b2)sin(a+b +cos(b)
=2cos(a−b2)cos(a+b
 2)=2cos(a-b2)sin(a+b2) 2)=2cos(a-b2)cos(a+b2)

=2sin(a−b2)cos(a+b =2sin(a−b2)sin(a+b
sin(a)−sin(b)sin(a)- cos(b)−cos(a)cos(b)-
sin(b) cos(a)
2)=2sin(a-b2)cos(a+b2) 2)=2sin(a-b2)sin(a+b2)

6 A diagram to relate many angles and Phi

Robert Gray's page on Coordinates for many regular solids has an amazing
diagram at the bottom which relates Phi to the angles of 18°, 30°, 36°,
45°, 54°, 60° and 72° according to their 3D coordinates in the solids.

Each of those angles is measured from the top most point of the circle
when a vertical line is turned through that angle.
Each line from the base point meets the circle at a point whose a height
is 1 (72°), 1+Phi (60°), 2+Phi (54°), 2+2 Phi (45°), 2+3 Phi (36°), 3+3
Phi (30°) or 3+4 Phi (18°).

Do look at his pages for more fascinating information on 120 3D solids,

of which we will also explore the most symmetrical 5 on our next page.

6.1 You do the maths... 

1. Suppose the origin of the circle is (0,0) and its radius is 2 + 2 Phi. Find the equation of the circle.
 2. Use your answer to the previous question to find the coordinates of each of the points on the circle with the
angles shown.
3. Compute the lengths of each of the red lines from the lowest point to the points shown on the circle.
4.

From any two points A and B on a circle, the angle AOB at the centre of a circle, O, is twice the
angle at any point on the circumference in the same sector.

In the diagram,all the red angles at the circumference are equal;

the red angles are half the blue angle AOB at the centre;
the red angles are to a point in the same sector of the circle as is the centre of the circle so they cannot be
in the grey sector.

Use the above theorem to find three points on Robert Gray's circle immediately before this "You Do The
Maths..." section where a line from the centre makes an angle with the vertical of
i. 2×18=36°
ii. 2×30=60°
iii. 2×36=72°

7 Other angles with exact trig expressions involving square-roots

Are there other angles with a simple exact expression for their cosine or sine?
Well it all depends upon what you mean by simple!

Carl Friedrich GAUSS (177 - 1855) looked at a similar problem which answers this question. He
investigated if there was a method of constructing a regular polygon of n sides using only a pair of
compasses (to draw circles) and a straight-edge (a ruler with no markings). We know we can
construct a regular polygon for all of the values of n=3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10.

7.1 Halving

There is a simple geometrical way to use compasses to divide an angle into two (angle bisection). So
all the angles in a regular n-gon can be split into two to make a regular 2n-gon. We can repeat the
process to get a 4n-gon, 8n-gon and in general a 2kn-gon for any k once we have a method of
constructing a regular n-gon.

The Trig Formula section above contains a formula for the cosine of half an angle in terms of the
cosine of the (whole) angle:

cos(A2)=1+cos(A)2−−−−−−−−−√=2+2cos(A)−−−−−−−−−
−√2cos(A2)=1+cos(A)2=2+2cos(A)2
As Mitch Wyatt pointed out to me, since we know that cos(90°) is 0 and 90° is π/2 radians, we can
use it to find the cosine of half that angle (45° or π/4 radians) and then halve that angle again and so
on. Each time we introduce another square root so we get a cascading or nested sequence of square
roots:
cos(π4)cos(π4) = 2–√222

cos(π8)cos(π8) = 2+2–√−−−−−−√22+22
cos(π16)cos(π16) = 2+2+2–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−−√22+2+22

cos(π32)cos(π32) = 2+2+2+2–√−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√22+2+2+22
However, this page is about sines and cosines which have simpler expressions, so we will not expand
on this except to say that it shows how we can always find an exact expression for the sine (or
cosine) of 12,14,18,...,12n12,14,18,...,12n of any angle for which we have an exact sine (or cosine) expression.

7.2 Superimposing

If we construct a regular triangle (3 sides) and with the same circle centre,
construct three regular pentagons (5 sides) with each having one vertex in
common with the triangle, we will have the 15 vertices of a regular 15-gon.
This is shown on the right with the 3 pentagons in blue on the same circle, each
having a vertex in common with the red triangle and the regular 15-gon appears in
yellow.
By superimposing two regular polygons like this, we can construct a regular P×Q-
gon (if P and Q have no factors in common otherwise more than one vertex of each
will coincide).

7.3 Do we know all the angles?

All this was known in Euclid's time, around the year 300 BC. So what about 7ths and 9ths? Is it possible
to find sines and cosines of all the multiples of 1/7 and 1/9 of a turn in exact terms (using square
roots)? What about 11ths and 12ths etc.?
 In the next 2000 years no one found an exact geometric method for 7-gons or 9-gons but also no one
had proved it was impossible to construct such regular polygons.

Then C F Gauss completely solved the problem while he was a student at Göttingen between 1795 and
1798. Gauss found the conditions on n and its prime factors to solve two equivalent problems:

 drawing a regular n-sided polygon using only a straight edge and compass and
 expressing the cos and sin of 360/n° using only square roots.

If we factor n as 2ap1bp2c..., i.e. a, b, c, ... are the powers of the prime factors of n: 2, p1, p2, ... (the prime's
power is 0 if it is not a factor of n) then both of the problems are solvable when

 b,c,... and all the powers except  a , the power of 2, must be 1, and

 the primes>2 that are factors of n (that is p1, p2, ...) must be of the form 22 +1 for some number k.
k

Both problems are solvable for these values of n and only for these values.

Prime numbers of the form 22 +1 are called Fermat primes. The series of numbers of the
k

form 22 +1 begins
k

22  + 1 = 3, 22  + 1 = 5, 22  + 1 = 17, 22  + 1 = 257, 22  + 1 = 65537, ...

0 1 2 3 4

However not every number of the form 22  + 1 is prime -- and it is only the prime ones that we must
k

have as factors of n.

The next one, 22  + 1 is 4294967297 and has a factor of 641 so it is not prime. In fact, we do not know
5

if there are any more primes of this form except the first 5 listed above.
 Such numbers, n, of the form Gauss describes are as follows, one per row, each a product of some of
the Fermat primes (but each prime at most once) followed by its multiples of two. For any number in
the table, its double is also in the table:

2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 ...

3 6 12 24 48 96 192 ...
5 10 20 40 80 160 ...
3×5= 15 30 60 120 240 ...
17 34 68 136 272 ...
3×17= 51 102 204 408 ...
5×17= 85 170 340 680 ...
3×5×17= 255 510 1020 2040 ...
257 514 1028 2056 ...
When put in order, we have
(1), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 24, 30, 32, 34, 40, 48, 51, 60, 64, 68, 80, 85, 96, 102...
which is Sloane's A003401.

The odd terms (the left hand column apart from 2) is the series

1, 3, 5, 15, 17, 51, 85, 255, 257, 771, 1285, 3855, 4369, 13107, 21845, 65535, 65537, 196611,
327685, 983055, 1114129, 3342387, 5570645, 16711935, 16843009, 50529027, 84215045,
252645135, 286331153, 858993459, 1431655765, 4294967295
which is A045544 since we do not know any more Fermat primes beyond the fifth (65537).

Some interesting facts about these odd numbers (we include 1 here too) are:

 all these 31 odd numbers are divisors of 22 –1 = 232 – 1 = 4294967295 (see A004729)

5
When written in binary they are all palindromic (are exactly the same when reversed).
If we continue the pattern, irrespective of whether 22 –1 is prime or not, what we find is the pattern of
k

the Sierpinski Triangle. This is a fractal - smaller versions of itself are contained in all the larger
versions. One way to form it is to picture the parity (the oddness and evenness) of the numbers in
Pascal's Triangle where every odd number in Pascal's triangle is represented by a black square and
every even number by a white one:

1 = 1 2

3 = 11 2

 1
5 = 101 2  1  1
 1  2  1
15 = 1111 2  1  3  3  1
 1  4  6  4  1
17 = 10001 2  1  5 10 10  5  1
 1  6 15 20 15  6  1
51 = 110011 2
 1  7 21 35 35 21  7  1

85 = 1010101 2

25
5 = 11111111 2

the odd numbers 8 16 32 64 128 rows

In Pascal's Triangle, we can start from a top row of 0's (white) with a single element of 1 (odd, black)
in it.
Then for the rows below we can use the rule that
 
1  4+ 6   1
4
every element is generated by adding together the two elements on the row above:
↓
the one directly above and the one to the right.  
1 5  10 10  1
5
In the diagrams here we only want an element's parity (whether it is odd or even), so we have the
simple rule that
if both the elements on the row above are the same if the two elements on the row above are
colour: different
both black (odd) or both white (even) one odd, one even
the element will be white (even) the element is black (odd)
od
odd odd even even d even even odd
eve od
n   even d   odd

7.4 The π/17 formula

The other small denominator fraction that we have not covered yet is the one Gauss proved had a
formula involving square-roots, for the cosines and sines of multiples of π17π17 radians.
The formulae, generated and simplified using Mathematica® are still quite complicated. For instance
here is cos(π17)cos(π17)
=15+17−−√+34−217−−√−−−−−−−−−√+68+1217−−√−4170+3817−−√−
cos(π −−−−−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√−−−−−−−−

17)cos( −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√42–
π17)
√=15+17+34-217+68+1217-4170+381742
=0.98297309968390177828194884485...=0.98297309968390177828194884485...
The multiples of this angle also involve variations of the same 4 expressions that we see here. Each of
the four forms, A, B, C, D, is the sum or difference of the same two terms.
We will use a subscript of + or - as an abbrevation for the sign used in each variation. Here they all
are:
A+=15+17−−√A+=15+17 A−=15−17−−√A-=15-17
B+=2–√17+17−−√−−−−−−−
B−=2–√17−17−−√−−−−−−−−√B-
−√B+=217+17 =217-17
 
C+=17+317−−√C+=17+317 C−=17−317−−√C-=17-317
D+=2–√85+1917−−√−−−−−−−−− D−=2–√85−1917−−√−−−−−−−−−
−√D+=285+1917 −√D-=285-1917
The expressions for the cosines and signs of multiples of angles π/17 = 33.2639222145..° up to 90° = π/2
radians are as follows:
a √32 cos2(a)

π17π17
A++B++2C+−D+−−−−−−−−√A+
+B++2C+-D+

2π172π1 A+−B−+2C++D+−−−−−−−−√A+-
7 B-+2C++D+
3π173π1 A−+B++2C−+D−−−−−−−−−√A-
 7 +B++2C-+D-

4π174π1 A++B−−2C+−D+−−−−−−−−√A+
7 +B--2C+-D+

5π175π1 A−+B+−2C−+D−−−−−−−−−√A-
7 +B+-2C-+D-

6π176π1 A−−B++2C−−D−−−−−−−−−√A--
7 B++2C--D-

7π177π1 A−−B+−2C−−D−−−−−−−−−√A--
7 B+-2C--D-

8π178π1 A+−B−−2C++D+−−−−−−−−√A+-
7 B--2C++D+
Phew!

The next value with an odd denominator is π/257 and the exact expression for cos(π/257) using
square-roots only will be even more complicated!

Tom Ace pointed out that there is more about this in chapter 15 of Oystein Ore's Number Theory
and Its History from 1948 and now available as a Dover book (1988).

7.5 The π/15 formula
If
A+=9+5–√A+=9+5 A−=9−5–√A-=9-5
B+=6(5+5–√)−−−−−−− B−=6(5−5–√)−−−−−−−
−√B+=6(5+5) −√B-=6(5-5)
then we have
a 4cos2(a)

 π A++B−A+
15 +B-

2π A−+B+A-
15 +B+

4π A+−B−A+-
15 B-

7π A−−B+A--
15 B+

8 A Trig Calculator using Decimal numbers of any length 

Here is a Calculator   that will let you check all the above results and more to as many decimal places
as you like as well as evaluating expressions and finding continued fractions.
For example, to check the cos(π17)cos(π17) formula above type
sqrt(15+sqrt(
 into the Expression to Evaluate input box and then press the conversion button (  ) and get
its decimal value which is 0.
cos(pi/8)

For other values, such as cos(π8)cos(π8), type in   and evaluate it first as a decimal and then

as a continued fraction showing that the CF is [0; 1, 12, 7, 3, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 20, 5, 3, 11, 1, 7, 7,

3,...]. Even looking ahead for many more terms there is no pattern here.
cos(pi/8)^

However, if we change the Expression to Evaluate to   the CF this time is [0; 1, 5, 1, 4, 1, 4, 1,
4, 1, 4, 1, 4,...].
There is a clear pattern here that goes on for many terms. If we delete the 1,4,1,4,... part and put it
into the recurring part input for the CF so that you have the CF [0; 1, 5, 1, 4] and then pressing the

convert-to-fraction-form button ( ) will show 2+2–√42+24 as the value of cos(π8)2cos(π8)2 and

so we deduce that (computationally) cos(π8)=2+2–√−−−−−−√2cos(π8)=2+22.

In this way we can experimentally discover many such expressions for trig forms using the ability of
this Calculator to quickly evaluate to many decimal places and to (accurately and exactly) convert
continued fractions to the form a±b√ca±bc. Then we can look for a mathematical proof that our
results are indeed true.
Change the Working Precision to 50, 100, or even 200 dps to see if patterns persist with more
computational accuracy.
 9 References
 66.41 Some Trigonometric Ratios in Surd Form J M H Peters The Mathematical Gazette Vol.
66, (1982), pages 296-299
though there are some errors in his formulae involving τ (our Phi) which are corrected in the
equations on this page.

Back to the Fascinating Flat Phi Facts page

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© 1996-2017 Dr Ron Knott    

updated 30 May 2017