Induction Machine Notes

Induction Machine
By
Dr. Krishna Roy
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
NITR
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Three phase induction motor:
Construction and principle of operation
Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram
Torque-slip characteristics
No load and blocked rotor test
Starting and speed control.
Single phase induction motor:
Principle of operation
Starting methods.
Introduction
3
Introduction
4
Introduction
Three-phase induction motors are the most common and
frequently used machines in industry
-simple design, rugged, low-price, low maintenance
-wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to
10 MW
-runs essentially at constant speed from no-load to full
load
Disadvantages
-Essentially a “fixed-speed” machine
-Speed is determined by the supply frequency
-To vary its speed a variable frequency supply is
required
5
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Construction
8
Construction
An induction motor has two main parts
-a stationary stator
•consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow,
cylindrical core
•core, constructed from stacked laminations , having a
number of evenly spaced slots, providing the space for the
stator winding
Stator of IM
9
Construction
– a revolving rotor:
the induction motor has two types of
rotors
i) the squirrel cage rotor
ii) the wound rotor
Both types of rotors

composed of punched
laminations, stacked to
create a series of rotor
slots, providing space for
the rotor winding.
10
Construction
Squirrel cage rotor:
Rotor winding is composed

of copper or aluminum bars
embedded in the rotor slots
and shorted at both end by
end rings.
11
Construction
Squirrel cage rotor:
12
Construction
Wound rotor:
Rotor winding is wound by wires.
The winding terminals can be connected to external
circuits through slip rings and brushes.
slip rings
13
Construction
Wound rotor:
14
Construction
Wound rotor:
Slip rings
Cutaway in a
typical wound-
rotor IM.
15
Brushes
Principle of rotating magnetic
field
16
Principle of rotating magnetic field
 Balanced three phase windings, i.e.
electrically displaced 120 degrees
form each other, fed by balanced
three phase source.
 A rotating magnetic field with
constant magnitude is produced,
rotating with a speed
120 f
Ns 
p
Where f is the supply frequency and
P is the no. of poles and Ns is called
the synchronous speed in rpm
17
Synchronous speed:
P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
18
 When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase
supply, a rotating magnetic field is produced.
 This field is such that its poles do not remain in a fixed
position on the stator but go on shifting their positions
around the stator.
 For this reason, it is called a rotating field.
 It can be shown that magnitude of this rotating field is
constant and is equal to 1.5 Φm,
Where, Φm is the maximum flux due to any phase.
19
Three phase current waveform
20
The fluxes produced by
three phase currents are
given by:
 A   m sin t
 B   m sin(t  120 )
 C   m sin(t  120 )
Phasor diagram of the three fluxes
21
At instant 1, t  0.
Therefore, the three fluxes are given by:
 A   m sin 0  0
3
 B   m sin(120 )  

m
2
3
 C   m sin(120 ) 

m
2
Resultant flux,
3 60
R  2   m cos( )  1.5 m
2 2
22
23
At instant 2, t  60 .

3
 A   m sin 60 
m
2
3
 B   m sin(60 )  

m
2
 C   m sin(180 )  0
Resultant flux,
3 60
R  2   m cos( )  1.5 m
2 2
24
25
3
 A   m sin(120 )  
m
2
 B   m sin 0  0
3
 C   m sin(240 )  

m
2
Resultant flux,
3 60
R  2   m cos( )  1.5 m
2 2
26
27
 A   m sin(180 )  0
3
 B   m sin(60 )  m
2
3
 C   m sin(300 )  

m
2
Resultant flux,
3 60
R  2   m cos( )  1.5 m
2 2
28
29
RMF GIF.mp4
30
Principle of operation
31
When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase
supply, a rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates round
the stator at synchronous speed
120 f
Ns 
p
The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the
rotor conductors, which as yet, are stationary.
Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the
stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors.
Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, currents start
flowing in the rotor conductors.
32
The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the
magnetic field produced by the stator.
Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor
conductors.
The sum of the mechanical forces on all the rotor
conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor
in the same direction as the rotating field.
The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e.,
rotor moves in the direction of stator field) can be explained
by Lenz’s law.
According to this law, the direction of rotor currents will be
such that they tend to oppose the cause producing them.
33
Now, the cause
producing the rotor
currents is the relative
speed between the
rotating field and the
stationary rotor
conductors.
Hence to reduce this
relative speed, the rotor
starts running in the same
direction as that of stator
field and tries to catch it.
34
Induction motor speed
At what speed will the IM run?
•Can the IM run at the synchronous speed?
When the stator of a 3-phase induction motor is energized

by a balanced 3-phase supply, the rotor rapidly accelerates in
the direction of rotating field.
In practice, the rotor can never reach the speed of stator
flux.
If it did, there would be no relative speed between the stator
field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents and,
therefore, no torque to drive the rotor.
35
At what speed will the IM run?
•Can the IM run at the synchronous speed?
The friction and windage would immediately cause the rotor

to slow down.
Hence, the rotor speed (Nr) is always less than the stator
field speed (Ns).
This difference in speed depends upon load on the motor.
36
So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than the
synchronous speed or the speed of the rotating magnetic field.
The difference between the rotor speed and the synchronous
speed is called the Slip speed
N slip  N s  N r
Where, Ns - Nr = slip speed

Ns = speed of the magnetic field
Nr = rotor speed of the motor
37
The Slip
Slip speed expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed is
called the slip.
Ns  Nr
s
Ns
Where,
s is the slip
If the rotor runs at synchronous speed, s = 0
If the rotor is stationary, s = 1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the
above equation by 100.
38
Induction Motors and Transformers
Both IM and transformer works on the principle of induced
voltage
-Transformer: voltage applied to the primary windings
produces an induced voltage in the secondary windings.
-Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator windings
produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings.
-The difference is that, in the case of the induction motor,
the secondary windings can move.
-Due to the rotation of the rotor (the secondary winding
of the IM), the induced voltage in it does not have the
same frequency of the stator (the primary) voltage.
39
Rotor Current Frequency
The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the
relative speed between a winding and a magnetic field is
given by the general formula
NP
frequency 
120
where N = Relative speed between magnetic field and the
winding
P = Number of poles
Ns  Nr
s
Therefore, the rotor current frequency is given by. Ns
( N s  N r )  P sN s P
f2    sf
120 120
40
Rotor Current Frequency
f 2  sf
When the rotor is blocked (s=1), the frequency of the

induced voltage is equal to the supply frequency.
On the other hand, if the rotor runs at synchronous speed (s =
0), the frequency will be zero.
41
Rotor emf, Current and Power
42
At standstill,
the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor
conductors  N s
let the per phase rotor induced emf under this condition be E2
When the rotor rotates with a slip of s,
the per phase rotor induced emf  sE2
43
Rotor leakage reactance at
standstill, X 2  2 fL2
where L2 is the rotor leakage
inductance
Rotor leakage reactance at any
slip s,  2 f 2 L2  2 sfL2  sX 2
Rotor leakage impedance at
standstill,  R22  X 22
Rotor leakage impedance at any
slip s,  R22   sX 2 2
44
Per phase rotor current at
standstill  E2
R22  X 22
Per phase rotor current at any

slip s, sE2
I2 
R2   sX 2 
2 2
E2

R2
( ) 2  X 22
s
45
The rotor current lags the rotor E2
I2 
voltage by rotor pf angle θ2 R2
( ) 2  X 22
given by s
1 sX 2
 2  tan
R2
The circuit representation of the
current equation is shown in the
figure.
46
From the per phase rotor
equivalent circuit it can be seen
that the per phase power input to
rotor, Pg  E2 I 2 cos 2
R2
Now, cos 2  s
R2
( )2  X 22
s
R2
Therefore, Pg  E2 I 2 s R
 I 22 2
R2 2 s
( )  X2
2
s
Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air
gap and hence it is called the air-gap power.
47
The expression of Pg may be
written as
2 R2 1 s
Pg  I 2  I 22 R2  I 22 R2 ( )
s s
= rotor ohmic loss (PRCu) + internal
mechanical power developed in
rotor (Pm).
Therefore, Pm  I 22 R2 (1  s )  (1  s ) Pg
s
PRCu  I 22 R2  sPg
48
Internal Torque developed
Internal Torque developed per phase is given by
Internal mechanical power developed in rotor
Te 
Rotor speed in mechanical rad per sec.
Pm (1  s ) Pg Pg
Te   
r (1  s )s s
NS
Here  s  2 ns is the synchronous speed in rad/s and ns 
60
Therefore,
Pg 1 I 22 R2
Te   
2 ns 2 ns s
49
Output or Shaft power
Psh  Pm  mechanical losses
 Pg  rotor ohmic loss-friction and windage losses
Psh Psh
Therefore, Tsh  
r (1  s )s
 Pg  Stator input power  stator ohmic loss- stator core loss
50
Power relations
Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 V ph I ph cos 
PSCu  3 I12 R1
R2 P
Pg  Pin  ( PSCu  Pcore )  Pm  PRCu  3I 22  RCu
s s
PRCu  3I 22 R2
R2 (1  s) P (1  s )
Pm  Pg  PRCu  3I 22  RCu
s s
Pm  (1  s) Pg
Psh  Pm  Pf  w
Pm (1  s ) Pg
Te  
r (1  s )s
51
Power relations
Pg : PRCu : Pm
1 : s : 1-s
52
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Equivalent Circuit
55
Equivalent Circuit
Stator equivalent circuit:
The rotating air-gap flux
generates counter emfs in all the 3
phases of stator (or the primary)
winding.
The stator terminal voltage V1
has to overcome counter emf V’1(=
-E1) and the stator leakage
Fig. 1: Stator equivalent
impedance drop I1(R1+jX1). circuit
Therefore, just like a
transformer, the stator or primary
voltage is given by,
V1  V1'  I1  R1  jX 1 
56
Equivalent Circuit
As in the case of a transformer,
the stator current I1 consists of two
components.
One component is I’1, is the load
component and counteract the
rotor mmf completely.
The other component is the
exciting current Ie, whose function circuit
is to create the resultant air-gap
flux Φ and to provide the core loss.
57
Equivalent Circuit
As in a transformer, the exciting
current Ie can be resolved into two
components, core-loss component
Ic in phase with V’1 and a
magnetizing component Im lagging
V’1 by 90°.
In the equivalent circuit, Ic and
Im are accounted for by a shunt circuit
branch, consisting of core loss
resistance Rc in parallel with Rc 
V1'
Xm 
V1'
magnetizing reactance Xm as Ic Im
shown in the figure.

58
Equivalent Circuit
Rotor equivalent circuit: I2 R2

The per phase rotor current is
given by, sE2
jsX 2
sE2
I2 
frequency, sf

R22   sX 2 
2
Fig.2(a): Actual rotor circuit
E2 jX 2

I2

R2
( ) 2  X 22
s E2 R2
s
frequency, f

Fig.2(b): Equivalent rotor circuit
59
Equivalent Circuit
Rotor equivalent circuit:
R2 I2 jX 2
I2
 
sE2 E2 R2
jsX 2 s
frequency, f

frequency, sf 
Fig.2(a): Actual rotor circuit Fig.2(b): Equivalent rotor circuit

 N 
I2  2  jX 2
 N1 

 N 
E2  1   E1 R2
 N 2  s
frequency, f

Fig.2(c): Equivalent rotor circuit referred to stator

60
Equivalent Circuit
 N 
I2  2  jX 2
 N1 

 N 
E2  1   E1 R2
 N 2  s
frequency, f

Fig.2(c): Equivalent rotor circuit

Fig. 1: Stator equivalent circuit referred to stator
 N 
R1 jX 1 I2  2  jX 2
 N1  a
 Ie
I1 Im
Ic
R2
V1 V1   E1 Rc jX m E  N1  s
2 
 N 2 

b
Fig. 3: Exact equivalent circuit 61
Equivalent Circuit
 N 2 
R1 jX 1 I2   jX 2
N 
 1 a
 Ie
I1 Im
Ic
R2
V1 V1   E1 Rc jX m E  N1 
2  s
N
 2

b
Fig. 3: Exact equivalent circuit
62
General Equivalent Circuit
R1 X1 I2 X2
 Ie
I1 Im
Ic
R2
V1 Rc Xm s

Fig. 4: General equivalent circuit
R2 R2
 R2  R2 
s s
 1 
 R2  R2   1
s 
1 s 
 R2  R2  
 s 
63
General Equivalent Circuit
R2 1 s 
 R2  R2  
s  s 
R1 X1 I2 R2 X2
 Ie
I1 Im
Ic
V1 Rc Xm  1 s 
R2  
 s 
Actual rotor
resistance Resistance equivalent to
mechanical load
Fig. 4: Modified equivalent circuit
64
Phasor Diagram
65
Phasor Diagrams
At standstill:
i) The flux Φ is common to both the V1
jx1 I1
stator and rotor windings. r1 I1
ii) The induced e.m.fs E1 and E2 lag Φ V1   E1
by 900. I1
iii) The exciting current I e  I c  I m

I1'
1
iv) At standstill, Ie
E2  I 2  r2  jx2 
Ic
r2 I 2 Im 
90
2
v) Due to I2 in the rotor, a current I’1

I2 E2
jx2 I 2
flows in the stator, which is in phase
opposition to I2.
E1
vi) Total stator current I1  I1'  I e
66
Phasor Diagrams
At standstill:
vii) The stator applied voltage V1 must V1
jx1 I1
balance the stator counter emf V’1(= - r1 I1
E1) and the stator leakage impedance V1   E1
drop, so that I1
V1  V1 I1  r1  jx1 
I1'
1
Ie
viii) The power factor angle θ1 at the r2 I 2 Im
Ic

stator terminals is very high, i.e. stator 2
90
power factor is very poor at the time of I2

jx2 I 2
E2
starting a 3-phase induction motor.

E1
67
Phasor Diagrams
At any slip s:
V1 jx1 I1
i) At normal operating speed, the slip s
is very small. r1 I1
(ii) Therefore, the rotor voltage V1   E1 I1

equation becomes
sE2  I 2  r2  jsx2 
I1'
1
Ie
iii) The exciting current I e  I fc  I m I fc
where, Ifc is the friction, windage and 90
Im 
core loss component of exciting r2 I 2


current. E2
I2
jsx2 I 2 E
1
68
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Torque-slip characteristics
71
Torque-slip (or speed) characteristic
V1 ( jX m )
VTh 
R1  j ( X 1  X m )
ZTh 
 R1  jX 1  ( jX m )  RTh  jX Th
R1  j ( X 1  X m )
72
For most induction motors,
X 1  X m  R1
V1 X m
VTh 
X1  X m
R1 X X
ZTh  RTh  jX Th  j 1 m
X1  X m X1  X m
Now, the rotor current is given by,

VTh
I2 
  j  X 2  X Th 
 R2 
R
 Th 
 s 
73
Now, the total torque is given by,
3 2 R2
Te   I 2 
s s
Tm
3 VTh2 R
   2
s 
 RTh     X 2  X Th 
R2  s
2
B
2
 s 
Kt R2 Tst
 
TL

 
R2  s
2
R
 Th    X  X
2
 s 
2 Th
3VTh2
where, Kt  smt
s
74
Tst = Starting torque

(torque at zero speed)
Tm
Tm = Maximum torque
(peak torque) B
(breakdown torque)
(pull-out torque) Tst TL
Smt = Slip for maximum torque
TL = Load torque
smt
75
Comments:
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous speed.
2. The curve is nearly linear between no-load and full load. In this
range, the rotor resistance is much greater than the reactance, so the
rotor current, torque increase linearly with the slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that can’t be exceeded. This
torque is called pullout torque and is 2 to 3 times the rated full-load
torque.
4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly higher than its full-load
torque, so the motor will start carrying any load it can supply at full
load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip varies as the square of the
applied voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous speed it will run as a
generator, converting mechanical power to electric power.
76
Maximum torque:
 Maximum torque occurs when
the power transferred to R2/s is
maximum.
 This condition occurs when
R2/s equals the magnitude of
the impedance RTh + j (XTh +
X2 )
R2
 RTh2  ( X Th  X 2 ) 2 The slip at which
smT maximum torque occurs
R2 is directly proportional
smT  to the rotor resistance R2
RTh2  ( X Th  X 2 ) 2
77
Maximum torque:
The corresponding maximum torque of an induction motor
is given by
1  3VTh2 
Te m   
2s  RTh  RTh2  ( X Th  X 2 ) 2 
 
The maximum torque is independent of R2.
78
Maximum torque:
Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting external
resistance in the rotor of a wound-rotor induction motor.
The
value of the maximum torque remains unaffected
but
the speed at which it occurs can be controlled.
79
Maximum torque:
Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

80
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
No load and blocked rotor test
83
Testing of 3-phase induction motors
• Parameters of the equivalent circuit, different losses, and
efficiency of an induction motor can be determined from
the following tests:
• No load test
• Blocked rotor or locked rotor test
R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2
Rc jX m  1 s 
R2  
 s 
84
No-load test or Open circuit test
R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2
Rc jX m
• No mechanical load is connected to shaft

• Full rated voltage applied
• Draws only no-load current
• Motor is free to rotate
• High speed (close to synchronous speed)
• No-load losses measured ( core + friction & windage loss)
• Copper loss negligible
85
No-load test or Open circuit test
Let, R1 jX 1
Vnl = Voltmeter reading, I nl

Inl = Ammeter reading,
Pnl = Wattmeter reading. Vnl jX m
Vnl
Stator no-load impedance, Z nl 
I nl
P
Stator no-load resistance, Rnl  nl2
I nl
Stator no-load reactance, X nl  Z nl2  Rnl2  X 1  X m
86
Blocked rotor or locked rotor test
R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2
Rc jX m
• Motor not allowed to rotate

• Full rated current is made to flow
• Very less voltage applied (sufficient to drive full load
current)
• Blocked
• Zero speed
• Full load copper losses measured
• Core loss negligible
87
Blocked rotor or locked rotor test
Let, R1 jX 1 jX 2
Vbr = Voltmeter reading, I br
Ibr = Ammeter reading,
Pbr = Wattmeter reading. Vbr jX m R2
Vbr
Blocked rotor impedance, Z br 
I br
P
Blocked rotor resistance, Rbr  br2
I br
Blocked rotor reactance, X br  Z br2  Rbr2  X 1  X 2

1
Therefore, X 1  X 2  X br
2
 x2  X m  X 2 
Hence, X m  X nl  X 1
 Xm   x2 
2
 R2   Rbr  R1  
2
Rbr  R1  R2   
x
 2  X
 m 88
Example1: No-load and blocked rotor test of a 415V, 3-phase, 50HP, star
connected induction motor gave the following results:
No-load test (line values): 415 V. 3.5 A. 250 W
Blocked rotor test (line value): 115V. 13A. 1660 W
Stator resistance/ph is 1.5 ohm.
Calculate equivalent circuit parameters.
415
Given, Vnl  V  230.94 V I nl  3.5 A Pnl  250 W
3
115
Vbr  V  66.4 V I br  13 A Pbr  1660 W
3
From no-load test,
Vnl 230.94
Z nl     65.98 
I nl 3.5
Pnl 250
Rnl     6.8 
3I nl2 3  3.52
X nl  Z nl2  Rnl2  65.982  6.82   65.63 

89
400
3
115
Vbr  V  66.4 V I br  13 A Pbr  1660 W
3
From blocked rotor test,
Vbr 66.4
Z br     5.11 
I br 13
Pbr 1660
Rbr     3.27 
3I br2 3  13 2
X br  Z br2  Rbr2  5.112  3.27 2   3.92 

90
400
3
115
Vbr  V  66.4 V I br  13 A Pbr  1660 W
3
Therefore,
X 3.92
X 1  X 2  br    1.96 
2 2
X m  X nl  X 1   65.63  1.96    63.57  x2  X m  X 2  65.63 
 x2 
R2   Rbr  R1      65.53 
2 2
  3.27  1.5     1.88 

 Xm   63.57 
91
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Starting of 3-phase Induction
Motor
94
3-phase induction motor starting
• Starting = standstill (s = 1) RR1 1 jXjX jX 2 jX 2
R2 R2
• R2(1-s)/s shorted
1
1
• So large starting current

• Produce torque impulse RcR jX jX  1 s 
R2  
• Sudden dip in supply line
 s 
m
c m
voltage
• Affect operation of other
equipment connected to
the line
• Starting methods are:
• Direct-On-Line (DOL) starting
• Stator resistance/reactance starting
• Auto transformer starting
• Star-delta starting
• Rotor resistance starting
95
3-phase induction motor starting
Starting current, starting torque:
1 I 22 R2
Tst  I st 
2
Te  
 sf s s
T f  I f 
If, Tf, sf = full load current, torque and slip
96
Direct On Line (DOL) starting
• Simplest and cheapest
• No extra arrangement
• Only for small motors ( < 5 HP)
• Full supply voltage directly given to motor terminals
97
Direct On Line (DOL) starting
Ist =IL=Isc R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2
V1 Rc jX m
Per phase starting current (Ist) Z sc

= Per phase short circuit current (Isc) Tst  I st 
2
 
2
T
   s f   I sc   s f  sc
T f  I f  I 
= Per phase line current (IL)   f  Tf
V1  V1  Tst  Tsc
I st  I sc    I f  
Z sc  Z f 
Tsc is the short circuit
Zsc = Per phase short circuit torque, i.e. blocked rotor
impedance torque of the motor when
Zf = Per phase impedance under full voltage is applied to its
normal running stator 98
Reduced voltage starting
• Starting current is high if full voltage is applied
V1
I st  I sc 
Z sc
• Because starting impedance (Zsc) is very low
• SQIM rotor is not accessible from outside
• So rotor impedance can not be increased at starting
• So, either increase stator impedance or,
• Supply a reduced voltage at starting
• That reduces the supply current
• But, it reduces the starting torque as well, so motor may
fail to start if a high load is connected
99
Reduced voltage starting
• Methods for SQIM
• stator resistor (or reactor) starting
• auto-transformer starting
• star-delta starting
• Methods for SRIM
• All the above 3 methods
• Rotor resistance starting (since rotor is accessible from
outside through slip rings and brushes)
100
Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
• Three variable reactors (or resistors) are connected between
the supply mains and the three stator phase windings.
• These three reactors (or resistors) should be varied in a
balanced way.
• At starting, the external reactors (or resistors) are set to high
values
• So that out of the total supply voltage, a substantial part is
dropped across them and only a much reduced amount of
voltage is available across the stator phases.
• As the motor speeds up, the variable reactors (or resistors)
are gradually reduced
• Finally when the motor runs at full speed, these reactors (or
resistors) are completely cut-off (shorted) from the circuit
• So that the stator now receives full supply voltage.
• Reactors are preferred over resistors, because resistors will
involve additional power loss. 101
• Total supply voltage per phase = V1

• External reactor set at ‘x’ fraction
• Voltage dropped across external reactor = (1 – x)V1
• Voltage available across motor coil per phase = xV1
102
Ist =IL R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2 • Starting current
xV1
xV1
I st 
Rc jX m
Z sc
• Zsc = short circuit
Z sc impedance of the motor
per phase referred to stator
But, we have seen earlier,
I st  xI sc
V1
 I sc = Short circuit current per phase
Z sc
= Starting current when full voltage is applied to
the stator during start
= Starting current at DOL
103
I st  xI sc
Starting current with

stator reactor
= (x)fraction of
starting current as
DOL
• Thus, by adding the external reactor in series with the stator, the
starting current is reduced to ‘x’ p.u. of the current value that would
have flown if the motor was started at full voltage directly on line
(DOL).
• This same current flows through the supply line terminals as well.
• Thus, in case of stator reactor starting of a star connected three
phase induction motor, line current drawn from the supply is:
I L  I st  xI sc 104
I st  xI sc
• In terms of torque developed
Tst  I st   xI  I  2 T
2 2 2
   s f   sc   s f  x 2   sc   s f  x sc
T f  I f 
  If   If  Tf
Tst  x 2Tsc
• Tsc is the short circuit torque, i.e. blocked rotor torque of the
motor when full voltage is applied to its stator (i.e. DOL).
• Thus, the starting torque with reduced voltage of x p.u. across

the stator is reduced to x2 p.u. of the starting torque if the
motor would have been started with full supply voltage (DOL).
105
Autotransformer starting
• A three-phase auto-transformer is used to supply variable
voltage to the stator of a three-phase induction motor.
• At starting, tap positions in the auto-transformer are set to

low values so that a reduced fraction of the supply voltage is
applied to the stator winding per phase.
• As the motor accelerates, the auto-transformer tap positions

are moved accordingly so that gradually increasing voltage is
made available at the stator terminals.
• Finally, when the motor speed reaches its full value, the auto-
transformer is cut-off and full voltage is applied to the motor
terminals.
106
• Total supply voltage per phase = V1

• Auto transformer tap position set at ‘x’ fraction
• Voltage available across motor coil per phase = xV1
107
Ist R1 jX 1 R2 jX 2 • Starting current
xV1 V1
I st  x  xI sc
xV1
Z sc Z sc
Rc jX m
Z sc
VL
V1 3
I sc  
Z sc Z sc
= Starting current
per phase at
DOL
108
I st  xI sc
Autotransformer input
VA = Output VA
I L  V1  I st  xV1
I L  xI st  xxI sc   x 2 I sc
• The line current drawn from the supply is thus much less
(since x< 1, x2<< 1) than the corresponding DOL starting
current.
• This is great advantage since the line voltage dip will be

less.
109
I st  xI sc
• In terms of torque developed
Tst  I st   xI  I  2 T
2 2 2
   s f   sc   s f  x 2   sc   s f  x sc
T f  I f 
  If   If  Tf
Tst  x 2Tsc
Starting torque with auto-transformer starting is x2 p.u. of the

starting torque with DOL starting.
110
Star-delta starting
• This starting method is applicable to motors that are designed
to run with its stator windings connected as delta during
normal condition.
• The star-delta starter connects the stator winding as star

during starting and re-connect to delta as the motor speed
reaches near its full value.
• Thus at starting, only 1/3 times the full line voltage is

available across each of the phases of the star-connected
stator winding, thereby reducing the starting current.
111
Star-delta starting
112
Star-delta starting
• Starting current per phase
V1
I st  I Y  3
Z sc
Without the start-delta starter, if the motor would have been

started DOL with its stator permanently connected as delta,
then the starting current per phase:
V1
I sc  I  
Z sc
113
Star-delta starting
• Starting current per phase
V1
I st  I Y  3
Z sc
V1
I sc  I  
Z sc
V1
Z sc
I Y I st 3 1
  
I  I sc V1 Z sc 3
Thus, with star-delta starter:
I st

1 1
I st   I sc  0.58I sc
I sc 3 3
114
Star-delta starting
• Torque:
Tst TY  I Y  Tsc T  I  
2 2
    sf    sf
T f T f  I f 


Tf Tf  I f  
Tst TY  I Y 
2
I Y I st 1
     
Tsc T  I   I  I sc 3
Tst  I Y   1  1
2 2

     0.58 
2
Tsc  I    3  3
1
Tst  Tsc Tst  0.58 2 Tsc
3
115
Star-delta starting
• With star-delta starter:
I st  0.58I sc Tst  0.58 2 Tsc
• With star-delta starter, a motor behaves as if it is being started

by an auto-transformer starter with a ratio x = 1/3
• . i.e. with the auto-transformer tap at 58%.
1
Tst  Tsc
3
• For this delta connected motor, the starting torque with star-
delta starter is 1/3rd of the starting torque if it was started
DOL with stator connected as delta
116
Rotor resistance starting – for SRIM only
• Full voltage is applied to the stator terminals
• The effective motor resistance is increased by adding extra
resistance to the rotor windings during starting.
• These external resistances are connected to the rotor
windings through brushes and slip rings.
• At starting, values of these external resistances are set to
maximum
• Motor impedance is maximum at starting
• Motor starting current is restricted
• As the motor speeds up, these variable resistances are
gradually reduced.
• When the motor reaches speed near its full value, these
starting resistances are completely cut-off and the rotor
windings are externally shorted at the brushes.
117
Rotor resistance starting – for SRIM only
118
Speed control of 3-phase Induction
Motor
119
Speed control of 3-phase Induction Motor
• The operating speed of a 3-phase induction motor is given by:
N r  1  s  N S
• Where, the synchronous speed NS is related to the supply
frequency f and number of poles P by the equation:
120 f
NS 
P
• The above expressions indicates that the speed Nr of an
induction motor can be controlled by varying the
synchronous speed NS or the slip s.
120
Speed control of 3-phase Induction Motor
N r  1  s  N S NS 
120 f
P
• The synchronous speed can be changed by varying either the
frequency f, or the number of poles P of the motor.
• On the other hand, the slip s can be controlled by varying the
supply voltage, or by varying the motor circuit resistance or
reactance.
• Accordingly, the practical methods of speed control of a 3-
phase induction motor can be listed as:
•Variation of supply voltage
•Variation of supply frequency
•Variation of number of poles
•Variation of rotor circuit resistance or reactance
121
Speed control by variation of supply voltage
• Recall the expression for developed torque in a 3-phase
induction motor:
3 V12 R2 '
T  
s 
   X 1  X 2 '
R2 '  s
2
 R1 
2
 s 
• It is thus seen that the developed torque is proportional to
square of the supply voltage
122
Speed control by variation of supply voltage
• The figure shows the nature of
variation of developed torque
with change in supply voltage.
• One possible example of load-
torque characteristic is also
included in the plot.
• The intersection points between
the load torque line and the
developed torque curves at
different voltages indicate the
stable operating points of the
motor at those different supply
voltages and the corresponding
stable running speeds.
123
Speed control by variation of supply frequency
N r  1  s  N S NS 
120 f
P
• The above expressions indicate that the speed Nr of an
induction motor can be controlled by varying the
synchronous speed NS or the slip s.
• The synchronous speed can be changed by varying either the
frequency f, or the number of poles P of the motor.
124
induction motor:
3 V12 R2 '
T  
s 
   X 1  X 2 '
R2 '  s
2
 R1 
2
 s 
• The angular frequency s in the expressions for torque, i.e.
the synchronous speed depends on supply frequency.
• Thus it is apparent that the starting torque, maximum torque,
slip for maximum torque, and the synchronous speed, all can
be changed by varying the supply frequency f.
125
• The motor developed torque
characteristics at varying
frequencies can hence be
shown as in the figure.
• Note that as the frequency is
raised, the torque reduces and
synchronous speed increases.
• Consider the load torque shown by the plot TLA.

• For this load, as the frequency is increased from f1 f2
f3 f4, the load torque graph intersection points with the
corresponding motor torque-speed graphs shift to higher
speeds and the motor speed thus increase at higher
frequencies.
126
Speed control by variation of number of poles
• Pole Changing Method is one of the main methods of
the speed control of an induction motor.
• The number of stator poles can be changed by the following
three methods
• multiple stator windings
• consequent poles
• pole amplitude modulation
127
By providing multiple stator windings:
• Two windings are provided on the stator which are wound for
different number of poles.
• One winding is energized at a time for a particular speed and
the idle winding is kept open to avoid circulating currents and
its heating.
• Change over from one speed to another is made by a TPDT
switch.
128
By using consequent poles:
• In this method, a single stator winding is divided into few coil
groups.
• The terminals of all these groups are brought out.
• By simply changing the coil connections, the number of poles
can be changed.
• In practice, the stator windings are divided only in two coil
groups.
• The number of poles can be changed in the ratio of 2:1.
129
N r  1  s 
120 f
P
Series connection
Parallel connection
High speed, 4-pole connection

130
N r  1  s 
120 f
P
Series connection
Parallel connection
Low speed, 8-pole connection

131
Pole amplitude modulation technique:
• This method is a flexible way of varying the number stator
poles in a three phase induction motor in which speed ratios
other than 2:1 can be achieved.
• In addition to the main three phase supply, a second set of
three phase signal known as the modulating signal is applied
to the stator.
• Combination of these two sets of signals will result in a
modulated signal that is able to generate poles in the stator
that is different in number from the original number of poles
due to the main supply signals only.
132
• Let the three mmfs be expressed as,
P1
FR  Fm1 sin m
2
 P1 
FY  Fm1 sin  m  120 
2 
 P1 
FB  Fm1 sin  m  240 
2 
where, θm is the mechanical angle in space and P1 is the
original number of poles created by the stator supply.
133
• A second set of signals, called the modulating signal can be
supplied externally, or the whole winding can be divided in several
sections and then these sections are suitably interconnected
(reversed, series or parallel combination) to get the supply
modulated.
• When such a modulated signal is generated, it produces a second
set of modulating mmfs as given by,
P2
FmR  Fm 2 sin  m
2
 P2 
FmY  Fm 2 sin  m  120 
 2 
 P2 
FmB  Fm 2 sin  m  240 
 2 
134
• Then the modulated mmf waves will have spatial distribution as:
P P
FR  FR FmR  Fm1 Fm 2 sin 1  m sin 2  m
2 2  F F 
F   m1 m 2
 
 P P  P P    2 
m
 Fm cos  1 2  m  cos  1 2  m 

  2   2  
 P1   P2 
FY  FY FmY  Fm1 Fm 2 sin  m  120  sin  m  120 
2   2 
  P1  P2   P1  P2   
 Fm  cos   m  cos   m  240  
  2   2  
 P1   P2 
FB  FB FmB  Fm1 Fm 2 sin  m  240  sin  m  240 
2   2 
  P1  P2   P1  P2   
 Fm  cos   m  cos   m  120 
  2   2  
135
 P P  P P  
FR  Fm  cos  1 2  m  cos  1 2  m 
  2   2  
 P P   P  P  
FY  Fm  cos  1 2  m  cos  1 2  m  240  
  2   2  
  P1  P2   P1  P2   
FB  Fm  cos   m  cos   m  120 
  2   2  
• The first terms are co-phasal in space

• Number of poles = (P1 - P2)
• Does not produce any rotating magnetic field
• Thus, no effect on rotating of the machine
136
 P P  P P  
FR  Fm  cos  1 2  m  cos  1 2  m 
  2   2  
 P P   P  P  
FY  Fm  cos  1 2  m  cos  1 2  m  240  
  2   2  
  P1  P2   P1  P2   
FB  Fm  cos   m  cos   m  120 
  2   2  
• The second terms are 1200 apart from each other in space
• Number of poles = (P1 + P2)
• Produces its own rotating magnetic field in opposite
direction to that of the original field
• Thus, the motor will now run at a speed corresponding to
(P1 + P2) poles instead of P1 poles
137
Speed control by variation of rotor resistance
induction motor:
3 V12 R2 '
T  
s 
   X 1  X 2 '
R2 '  s
2
 R1 
2
 s 
• It can be estimated that with increasing rotor circuit resistance
• The starting torque Tst increases slightly
• There is no change in the maximum torque Tm since it is
independent of the rotor circuit resistance R2
• The slip for maximum torque smt increases since it is
directly proportional to R2
138
Speed control by variation of rotor resistance
• The torque-speed
characteristics of an
induction motor with varying
values of rotor circuit
resistance are shown in the
figure.
139
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Starting single phase induction
motor
142
Single phase induction motors
• Three-phase induction motors
– Very popular in industries for medium power applications (>5
kW)
• But, domestic and commercial (shops) use single phase
supply
– So, single phase induction motors are used
• Single phase induction motors for low power applications
– cost-effectiveness
– Ruggedness
– Low maintenance requirements
– Loads such as fan, pump, blowers, compressors etc.
143
Recap of 3-phase induction motors
• In 3-phase induction machine, three windings are placed
around the stator near the air gap.
• These windings are physically apart by 1200 (electrical
degrees) in space.
• When a 3-phase supply voltage is applied to this 3-phase
winding, a magnetic field is developed in the air gap.
• Under balanced condition, the magnetic field will rotate at a
constant speed around the air gap (RMF).
• The rotor conductors will experience change in flux linkage due
to the RMF.
• Under this action, the rotor will start to rotate and will continue
to rotate in the same direction as the stator RMF
144
Recap of 3-phase induction motors
Thus, in summary, a 3-phase induction motor has inherent

starting as well as running torque that can start the motor
by itself and continue running as soon as the 3-phase
supply is switched on.
145
Thus….
• The basic requirement for generating a rotating
magnetic field (RMF) in the air gap of a poly-phase
motor is that
– There must be more than one magnetic fields present
• with certain time-phase difference
• and space-phase difference between themselves
• In poly-phase induction motors, this is achieved

by
– putting more than one winding in the stator
– supplying those winding with a poly-phase supply
146
Single phase induction motor
• A large number of fractional horse power (HP) AC motors
are designed for operation with single phase supply
• As in case of household pumps and fans, the supply is only

single phase
• So we can’t use 3-phase or 2-phase induction motors
• The option is to use single phase induction motors that can

be run from the single phase supply that is available
147
Single phase induction motor - construction
• The first difference between a 3-phase and a single-

phase induction motor is in terms of physical size of
the machine
– Three-phase induction motors are big in size
– Single phase induction motors are often of much
smaller size and rating
148
• However, the basic constructional features and

materials almost remain same for both the two.
– Stator:
• Stacks of laminated steel sheets with tooth and slot
• 3-phase motor has three coils, but 1-ph motor has only
one main coil
– Rotor:
• Squirrel cage type – exactly similar for 3-phase and 1-
phase motors
149
150
Stator magnetic field in Single phase induction
motor
• In single phase induction motors
– there is only one main winding in the stator
• So, no space difference
– it is supplied from a single phase AC source
• So, no time difference
• Thus, there is no so-called rotating magnetic field (no
RMF)
• Rather the magnetic field developed by stator is pulsating
(oscillating) in nature.
• As the supply current magnitude varies sinusoidally:
– strength of the magnetic field developed by the stator coil
also varies in magnitude with time
– but remains stationary in space (no RMF) 151
Pulsating magnetic field in single phase
induction motor
Pulsating magnetic field in single phase motor
152
Pulsating magnetic field
Single phase supply given to a single winding in stator
153
Instant (1)
Supply current zero
So magnetic field is also zero
154
Instant (2)
• Supply current positive 0.5Im

• A is dot
• A’ is cross
So magnetic field is downwards and increases from 0 to 0.5Bm
155
Instant (3)
• Supply current positive Im

• A is dot (bigger)
• A’ is cross (Bigger)
So magnetic field is downwards and increases from 0.5 Bm to Bm
156
Instant (4)
• Supply current positive 0.5Im

• A is dot (smaller)
• A’ is cross (smaller)
So magnetic field is downwards but reduces from Bm to 0.5Bm
157
Instant (5)
Supply current zero
So magnetic field comes back from 0.5 Bm to zero
158
Instant (6)
• Supply current negative 0.5Im

• A is cross
• A’ is dot
So magnetic field is upwards and increases from 0 to 0.5Bm
159
So…
This process continues to generate a pulsating field
Stator magnetic field
• Changes magnitude with time
• But physically stationery (does not rotate)
160
Pulsating field
• The resultant MMF in a 1-ph IM is thus pulsating in nature

• Variation in its magnitude being sinusoidal with respect to time
• Time period of pulsation being same as that of the sinusoidal
supply
161
1-phase induction motor can’t start to rotate by itself
Due to the absence of any rotating magnetic field (RMF)
• The rotor cannot start to rotate since there is no

starting torque
• The rotor thus simply tends to vibrate
• Some external auxiliary arrangements are thus necessary

to start a single phase induction motor and bring it to
running condition
• Once the motor can be started by some external methods,

in any direction, it can continue rotation in that
direction.
162
163
Generation of RMF
• The basic requirement for generating a rotating
magnetic field (RMF) in a motor is that
– There must be more than one magnetic fields

present
• with certain time-phase difference
• and space-phase difference between themselves
164
• Single-phase induction motors
– Has a single main winding in stator
– Supplied from a 1-phase supply
– The resultant magnetic field is pulsating in nature
• Varies in magnitude
• But, does not vary in space
– Thus, there is no RMF
– Thus rotor can’t start to rotate
• A single phase induction motor thus does not have any

starting torque
• But it will rotate in any of the directions in which an
initial thrust is given
165
• A single phase induction motor does not have any
starting torque
• But it will rotate in any of the directions in which an
initial thrust is given
These two phenomena can be described by two theories:

• Double Revolving Field Theory (DRFT)
• Cross Field Theory (CFT)
166
Double Revolving Field Theory
• The pulsating stator flux can be resolved into two
oppositely rotating flux waves (RMFs)
– Both of equal amplitude
 120 f 
– Both moving at the synchronous speed  NS 
 P


– But rotating in opposite directions
• One flux component is called the forward rotating flux (f)

• The other is called the backward (or reverse) rotating flux
(b)
• The resultant of these two oppositely rotating fluxes create

the main pulsating stator flux (s)
167
Two rotating fields in stator
• One clockwise RMF
• The other anti-clockwise RMF
f b
168
Double rotating field
The pulsating MMF is

created by resultant of
these two oppositely
rotating RMFs
(vector summation)
• The pulsating stator flux

magnitude varies
sinusoidally with time
• But its axis always
remains the same in space
169
Double rotating field – space variation
• At the given instant shown
• The stator flux is maximum in  a
the vertical direction
• But is zero along the horizontal A’ A
direction (inter-polar axis)

• (being perpendicular to the coil
axis)
• Around the circular air gap, the (a)
effect of stator flux is thus
• co-sinusoidally distributed in
space with respect to the stator
winding
a
-900 00 900
(b)
170
Instantaneous value of the resultant pulsating stator flux at any
time t and at any angular spatial position  along the air gap
periphery can thus be represented as: Magnitude variation
 s   sm sin  t cos 
Space variation
s  sm sint     sint   

1
2
  sm sin t      sm sin t   

1 1
2 2
171
A single flux wave is thus broken into two components
s  sm sint     sm sint   

1 1
2 2
Forward RMF Backward RMF

• Both have same magnitude (sm/2)
• Same frequency (), i.e. same speed
• But opposite directions ( +  and - ) in space
The RMF component travelling in the direction of rotor movement is
referred to as the forward RMF (f) and the other, travelling in a
direction opposite to that of the rotor movement is called the
backward RMF (b). 172
s  sm sint     sm sint   

1 1
2 2
Forward RMF Backward RMF
• These two RMFs will individually produce

torques on the rotor like in normal 3-phase IM
• But since the RMFs are in opposite directions,
the torques they produce on the rotor will also
be on opposite directions
• Thus, the two torques cancel out each other and
motor cannot start (zero starting torque)
173
• If by some method the rotor is given an initial thrust
• Overall torque in that direction becomes more than the other direction
• The rotor thus starts rotating in the direction of the thrust
• And reaches a steady state speed Nr in the forward direction.
174
• The relative speed between the forward RMF f and the rotor is
(Ns – Nr).
Ns  Nr
• Slip due to the forward RMF is: fs  s
Ns
175
• However, rotor speed relative to the backward RMF is (Ns + Nr).
• Slip due to the backward RMF is given by:
N s  N r 2 N s  N s  N r 2 N s  N s  N r   Ns  Nr 
sb     2   
Ns Ns Ns  Ns 
 2  s 
176
Slip w.r.t forward field sf s
Slip w.r.t backward field sb (2 – s )
177
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Torque-slip characteristics
180
Torque-speed graph of 1-ph IM
• So, according to DRFT, a 1-phase IM can be thought of
to be like two 3-phase IMs working together
• Both the two RMF components will act on the rotor
• Produce torques in the rotor like in 3-phase IM
• But these two torques will be oppositely directed
• Resultant torque is summation of these two component

torques
181
Tf
T = Tf + Tb
Tb
182
Torque is zero at starting
i.e. NO starting torque
Peak torque in a single
phase IM is lower than a 3-
Non-zero
phase IM torque both in
forward becomes
Torque and zeroreverse
again
directions,
at a speed i.e. if the
lower thanmotor
the
can be started
synchronous speedby(this
some is
external
not the casemethod, it IM,
in a 3-phase can
continue
where thetotorque
run ingoes
either
downof
thezero
to directions
only at synchronous
speed)
Thus, speed of a 1-ph IM is

generally lower than the
speed of a 3-ph IM
183
Double revolving field theory
• Thus, in summary of DRFT:
• The pulsating magnetic field in the stator of a 1-phase IM can

be resolved into two oppositely rotating RMFs
• These two RMFs combine together to produce the resultant
torque
• The resultant torque at starting is zero
• The resultant torque is non-zero beyond the starting period
• If an external thrust is applied, the motor will start and
continue to rotate in the direction of thrust
184
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Syllabus
Induction Machine:
Starting methods
187
Starting Methods of Single phase induction motor
• To start a single-phase induction motor rotating, some

special methods must be employed to provide the initial
starting torque.
– Mechanically the rotor can be given an initial thrust
– But, it is always preferable to use some electrical methods for
providing the initial starting torque
188
• The various electrical methods employed for producing

the starting torque in a single phase induction motor are:
– Split phase starting
• Resistance split phase type 1-ph IM
• Capacitor start type 1-ph IM
• Capacitor start and run type 1-ph IM
• Capacitor run type 1-ph IM
– Shaded pole type 1-ph IM
– Repulsion start type 1-ph IM
– Reluctance start type 1-ph IM
189
Split-phase starting type motors
• A condition similar to a 2-phase IM is created
– Two stator coils with certain space difference
– Two supply currents with certain time difference
– so that a rotating magnetic field is produced
• This is achieved by providing a starting or

auxiliary winding in the stator in addition to
the main winding
• This auxiliary winding is displaced from the
main winding by 900 in space
190
The auxiliary winding is displaced from the main winding

by 900 in space
191
• A condition similar to a 2-phase IM is created
– Two stator coils with certain space difference
– Two supply currents with certain time difference
– so that a rotating magnetic field is produced
• The resistance and reactance (inductive or capacitive) of

the two stator windings are made different
• Thus, when a 1-phase voltage supply is given to both

windings together
• The currents flowing through the two windings will have

a certain time-phase difference between them due to
different X/R ratio (different power factor angle)
192
• Thus, although the supply is only a 1-phase
• Currents flowing through the two windings will have a certain time-
phase difference between them due to different X/R ratio (different
power factor angle)
• Currents flowing through the two windings are hence to some extent
similar to 2-phase currents
• A rotating magnetic field will, therefore, be produced which will

develop starting torque on the rotor
• Once the motor has started rotating, it will continue to rotate in the
forward direction
• Once started, the extra auxiliary winding may be cut out from the
supply
193
Split phase starting

194
Resistance split phase motor
• Main wdg (M)
• Auxiliary wdg (A) CF
• Axes at 900
• Centrifugal switch (CF) I
IA
• Single phase supply given
to both wdgs in parallel
• Main wdg current IM A IM
• Auxiliary wdg current IA
M
• Total supply current I Rotor
• Main wdg flux
• Auxiliary wdg flux
• Note the 900 space
difference between these
two fluxes
• Rotor
195
• The main winding is
designed to have
CF
lower resistance
(thick wire) than the IA
auxiliary winding
(thin wire) A IM
• RM < RA
M
Rotor
• Leakage reactance of the main winding is intentionally made

higher than the auxiliary winding by using deeper slots and
larger number of turns for the main winding
• XM > XA
196
Resistance split phase motor Phasor
CF
Phasor diagram
V
IA
IA

A IM
M IM
Rotor I
• RM < RA • IM more lagging to V than IA
• XM > XA • Supply current I (resultant of IM and IA) is
lagging in nature
• X. 
X
 M   A
R R • The main winding current IM lags the
auxiliary winding current IA by an angle 
M A
< 900
197
• The main and auxiliary windings thus have 900 phase difference
in space
• And their currents have phase difference () in time (something
less than 90 0though)
• The resulting flux created by the two windings will be rotating in
nature, as in a 2-phase induction motor
• This RMF will produce torque on the rotor which thus starts
rotating
• However, the time-phase difference between the two stator
currents is not exactly 900
• Hence the motor will behave like an unbalanced 2-phase
induction motor, experiencing some torque and speed ripples
198
Resistance split phase motor - CF Switch
• Once the rotor starts rotating, it will continue to rotate
• Therefore, there is no need for the auxiliary winding to
remain connected to the supply
• After the motor has reached approximately 70 – 80% of the

synchronous speed, the auxiliary winding is cut off from the
circuit by the use of a centrifugal switch (CF)
• The rotating contacts in a centrifugal switch opens automatically

due to centrifugal force at the desired speed against a spring
tension
• Thereby cutting out the auxiliary winding from the supply
• Once the motor is switched off, the spring brings back the CF
switch in the aux wdg circuit, to be used during next start
199
Resistance split phase motor - Torque
200

201
Capacitor start type 1-ph IM
•Two coils are present in the stator (main & auxiliary)
• The supply current is split between these two coils
• A capacitor is connected with the auxiliary winding
202
• Also called “Capacitor split phase type motor”
• One AC electrolytic capacitor along with the CF switch is
connected in series with the auxiliary winding
203
Phasor diagram
IA
 V
I
C
IM
• By choosing a proper value of the capacitor, it is possible to create a

phase difference of close to 900 between the currents in auxiliary and
main windings
• The motor thus can act closely like a 2-phase induction motor and
can have adequate starting torque to start rotating
• Since the phase angle between main and auxiliary winding currents
is high (close to 900), the starting torque, which is proportional to
IMIAsin, is also high 204
• Once the motor has picked up speed to nearly 75-80% of

synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch disconnects the
auxiliary winding and the capacitor from supply
• Motor can continue rotating with the main winding only
• The starting torque in capacitor split-phase motor is more than
that in a resistance split-phase motor.
205
Aux + Cap
+ Main wdg
• The torque-speed graph is similar to the resistance split phase motor

• Only difference is that the starting torque value is higher for a
capacitive split phase motor
206
Capacitor start & run type 1-ph IM
•Two coils are present in the stator (main & auxiliary)
• Two capacitors are used in the auxiliary winding
207
• To improve both starting as well as running performance, two capacitors
are used in the auxiliary winding
• A capacitor C1 (electrolytic) is connected in parallel with a 2nd capacitor C2

(OIP) in the auxiliary winding.
208
• The combined effect of (C1 + C2) makes almost 900 phase shift between
auxiliary and main winding currents IA and IM.
IA Phasor diagram
 I
V
IM
• C1 is connected during the starting period only
• The centrifugal switch disconnects C1 automatically at about 75% of
synchronous speed
• The capacitor C2 along with the auxiliary winding are kept permanently in
the circuit.
209
• Keeping the capacitor C2 present during running state

• Makes the motor to behave always closely as a 2-phase IM
• Smooth running
• Reduced torque ripples
• Less noise
• Provides higher full load speed
• Improves the power factor
210
Capacitor run type 1-ph IM
• Two coils are present in the stator (main & auxiliary)
• Only one big capacitor is used permanently with aux winding
211
Capacitor run type motor (fan)
• Only one capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary
winding permanently without any centrifugal switch
The motor is also called a

permanent split capacitor
motor.
• The auxiliary winding along with the capacitor C remains

energized for both starting and running conditions
212
Capacitor run type motor
• By choosing proper value of the capacitor in the auxiliary
winding circuit, it is possible to make a time-phase difference
as close as possible to 900 between the auxiliary and main
winding currents IA and IM
• So that the motor behaves like a 2-phase induction motor

providing enough starting torque to start the rotor rotating
• Since the capacitor is always connected to the circuit, power

factor of the motor is improved considerably
• Since the motor can be made to behave as a balanced 2-phase

induction motor by proper choice of the capacitor value,
performance of the motor will be less noisy with less torque
pulsations during running
213
Equivalent diagram
No centrifugal switch
214
Capacitor run type motor - Torque
• It behaves like a 2-phase induction motor providing both

starting as well as running torque
• Used in ceiling fan, table fan etc.

215

216
Shaded pole type 1-ph IM
• Only one main winding in stator
• Copper shading ring on stator pole
217
• Used for small motors (fractional HP) requiring only small
starting torque
218
• Stator stampings (laminations) for such machines are of salient

(projected) pole structure (like DC machine pole structure)
• Each pole face is divided in two sections
• Low resistance copper bands (shading coils) are surrounded over
the smaller section (one third part of the pole face) in closed loops
• The other two third portion of pole face remains un-shaded
• Only one exciting coil in stator (no auxiliary winding)
• Single phase supply is given to the exciting coil wound on the pole
core.
219
ESC M
• When a single phase supply is applied to the stator winding, an

alternating magnetic field (M ) is created at the poles
• This alternating flux M links with the shading coil placed on the pole
and induces an EMF (Esc) in the shading coil
• This EMF Esc lags behind the main flux M by 900 in time phase
 d M 
 E sc  dt 
 
220
M
ISC SC
ESC
• The resulting current Isc that flows in the short circuited copper shading
band lags behind the EMF Esc by a certain phase angle decided by
resistance and reactance of the shading band
 E SC 
 I SC  
 Z SC 
• This current in the shading band produces its own flux sc that is in the
same phase with the current Isc
 NI 
 
Reluctance 
221
IA
M SC
M
Phasor diagram
M ESC ISC SC
ESC
ISC
 Flux in the un-shaded portion of
pole face (M) leads the flux in the
SC shaded portion (sc) in time phase
222
IA
M SC
M
• M and sc thus have
• Time phase difference (sc lags M )
ESC • Space difference (different physical locations
of the pole)
ISC
Presence of these two fluxes with certain time phase as
well as space phase difference between themselves
SC generates a RMF in the air gap
Thus, the motor develops a starting torque, and the rotor starts rotating
223
IA
M SC
M M Leads sc
ESC
ISC
SC
224
IA
SC M
• M Leads sc
• The resultant flux in the air gap thus reaches its peak along
the un-shaded portion first followed by the shaded portion
• The direction of rotation of the air gap RMF is thus also
from the un-shaded portion towards the shaded portion of
the pole
• The rotor will thus start and continue to rotate in a direction
from un-shaded towards shaded region of the pole. 225
Shaded pole type 1-ph IM – Torque
• Starting torque is not zero…. (though very less)

226
Repulsion start motor
• One winding in stator
• DC machine armature type winding in rotor
227
• The stator in repulsion start type motor carries a single phase winding
supplied from a single phase source (no auxiliary winding)
• The rotor carries a DC armature type winding, connected to
commutator segments at one end.
• The brushes placed on the commutator segments are short circuited on
themselves and are not connected electrically to any external circuit.
Armature
Armature conductors
Commutator
Bearing
Shaft
228
229
• When a 1-phase AC voltage is supplied to the stator winding, an

EMF is induced in the rotor conductors (DC armature) due to
transformer action
• When the rotor circuit is closed by short circuiting the brushes, a
current flows in the rotor winding
• This rotor current generates rotor flux
• This process depends on initial position of the rotor 230
Repulsion start motor – Case 1:  = 900
• When  = 900
• Brush axis and stator coil
axes are at right angles to
each other
• The magnetic axis of stator
and rotor coils are also in
quadrature
• Therefore, there will be no
mutual induction between
stator and rotor windings
• Hence, there is no induced
EMF in the rotor
• Hence no rotor current, no
rotor flux
• And hence no
So, the rotor cannot start to rotate and electromagnetic torque is
developed
remains at standstill
231
Repulsion start motor – Case 2:  = 00
• When  = 00,
• The magnetic axis of stator and rotor
fluxes coincides
• At this condition the mutual coupling
between stator and rotor windings is
maximum
• Transformer EMF induced in the
rotor thus circulates large current
through the rotor windings and the
two brushes
• Rotor current produces a rotor flux
that is along the direction of rotor
axis
• Since both stator and rotor fluxes are
along the same axis, they tend to
Thus no starting torque could be directly cancel out each other (no
developed, and the rotor remains at space difference)
standstill • Hence no RMF
232
Repulsion start motor – Case 3: 00<< 900
•When the brush axis is at a
certain inclination between 00
and 900 with respect to the
stator axis
•The mutual coupling is non-

zero
•Rotor has induced current
•So, rotor flux is also produced
•Stator and rotor fluxes are

along different axes
233
Repulsion start motor – Case 3: 00<< 900
S
•Attraction between opposite
a poles in stator & rotor
•between S at “a” and N at
N
d
r
S
“d”,
•also between N at “b” and S
r
at “c”
c •or in other words, repulsion
N S between similar poles in
stator and rotor
b •Results in clockwise
direction of rotation of the
s
N
rotor
The name repulsion motor comes from this fact that similar
poles in stator and rotor repel each other to start the motor
234
• When the motor attains a speed of about 2/3rd of
synchronous speed
• A centrifugally operated mechanism within the rotor opens

the brush connections
• And short circuits all the commutator segments
• Thereby converting the DC armature into the equivalent of a

squirrel cage type short circuited winding
• After this switching operation has been automatically

performed, the motor continues to run as a 1-phase induction
motor
235
Repulsion start motor - Torque
• The developed torque during repulsion period is proportional to
the square of supply current
• Thus the torque-speed curve of a repulsion start motor is similar
to that of a DC series motor during the starting period
• After the centrifugal
switch operation, the
torque-speed curve
follows that of an
induction motor
• Overall curve follows that
of a compound motor
(starting like series,
running like shunt)
The high starting torque available makes this motor suitable for
load with large friction
236
Reluctance start motor
• Non-uniform air gap between stator poles and rotor
• Only one winding in stator (no aux winding)
237
• In this method, starting torque is achieved by creating non-uniform
air gap at the stator salient poles
238
• Air gap under one half of the pole face is more than the air gap
under the other half of the pole face
• Poles windings placed on the pole core are supplied from the
single-phase AC source
• Due to non-uniform air gap between the pole face and

rotor surface, reluctance to the flux path varies from stator
pole to rotor.
239
• Due to variation of reluctance, the flux in the portion where there
is greater air gap will be more in phase with the supply current
• There will be a larger phase lag between the flux and the supply
current where there is a lower reluctance, i.e. where the air gap is
smaller.
• Since both the fluxes are produced by the same supply current, the
flux across the larger air gap will lead the flux across the smaller
air gap.
A leads B
240
A leads B
• Thus, in the air gap, there are two fluxes that are at certain
time-phase difference and also are located at different
positions in space
• Thus, interaction of these two fluxes will develop a rotating
magnetic field in the air gap
• RMF direction is from the longer air gap region to the
shorter air gap region.
241
Thank You
242

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Induction Machine

Both types of rotors

Rotor winding is composed

Phasor diagram of the three fluxes

Therefore, the three fluxes are given by:

When the stator of a 3-phase induction motor is energized

The friction and windage would immediately cause the rotor

Where, Ns - Nr = slip speed

When the rotor is blocked (s=1), the frequency of the

Per phase rotor current at any

shown in the figure.

Fig.2(b): Equivalent rotor circuit

Fig.2(a): Actual rotor circuit Fig.2(b): Equivalent rotor circuit

Fig.2(c): Equivalent rotor circuit referred to stator

Fig.2(c): Equivalent rotor circuit

iii) The exciting current I e  I c  I m

v) Due to I2 in the rotor, a current I’1

vi) Total stator current I1  I1'  I e

power factor is very poor at the time of I2

starting a 3-phase induction motor.

(ii) Therefore, the rotor voltage V1   E1 I1

core loss component of exciting r2 I 2

Now, the rotor current is given by,

Tst = Starting torque

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

• No mechanical load is connected to shaft

Vnl = Voltmeter reading, I nl

Stator no-load reactance, X nl  Z nl2  Rnl2  X 1  X m

• Motor not allowed to rotate

Blocked rotor reactance, X br  Z br2  Rbr2  X 1  X 2

X nl  Z nl2  Rnl2  65.982  6.82   65.63 

X br  Z br2  Rbr2  5.112  3.27 2   3.92 

  3.27  1.5     1.88 

• So large starting current

If, Tf, sf = full load current, torque and slip

Per phase starting current (Ist) Z sc

• Total supply voltage per phase = V1

Starting current with

• Thus, the starting torque with reduced voltage of x p.u. across

• At starting, tap positions in the auto-transformer are set to

• As the motor accelerates, the auto-transformer tap positions

• Total supply voltage per phase = V1

• This is great advantage since the line voltage dip will be

Starting torque with auto-transformer starting is x2 p.u. of the

• The star-delta starter connects the stator winding as star

• Thus at starting, only 1/3 times the full line voltage is

Without the start-delta starter, if the motor would have been

• With star-delta starter, a motor behaves as if it is being started

• Consider the load torque shown by the plot TLA.

High speed, 4-pole connection

Low speed, 8-pole connection

 Fm cos  1 2  m  cos  1 2  m 

• The first terms are co-phasal in space

Thus, in summary, a 3-phase induction motor has inherent

• In poly-phase induction motors, this is achieved

• As in case of household pumps and fans, the supply is only

• So we can’t use 3-phase or 2-phase induction motors