Transmission Media

TRANSMISSION MEDIA, ANTENNA SYSTEMS, and DESIGN
MODULAR APPROACH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE/EXERCISENO. TOPICS PAGE NUMBER
Module 1 Transmission Line 2

Exercise No. 1 15
Module 2 Fiber Optics 17
Exercise No. 2 26
Module 3 Radio Wave Propagation 29
Exercise No. 3 36
Module 4 Antennas & Waveguides 37
Exercise No.4 49
Disclaimer:
The professor does not own some of the contents, illustrations, and pictures of this module. Full
credits are given to the sources.
Transmission Media, Antenna Systems, and Design 1

MODULE 1
TRANSMISSION LINE
Objectives:
Define key terms in transmission lines

Identify the classes of transmission lines
Familiarize the primary and secondary constants in transmission lines
Enumerate losses in transmission lines
Learn on how to match impedances in transmission lines
Study the characteristics of input impedances on open and shorted lines
Specify the miniaturized transmission lines
What is a Transmission Line?
 It is a conductor system that is used to transfer electrical signal from one point to the
other.
 CLASSES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Guided Transmission Media
 Unguided Transmission Media
BASICS OF WAVE
 WAVE – is any oscillatory motion
 Kinds of Wave:
 Longitudinal Wave
o The displacement is within the direction of propagation.
 Transverse Wave
o The displacement is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
What is a Transverse Electromagnetic Wave (TEM)?
 It is a wave wherein the magnetic and electric fields are anywhere transverse with
respect to the direction of propagation.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 WAVE VELOCITY – it refers to the speed of a wave in a given medium
Note: c= 186,000 mi/s

c= 3x108 m/s

 WAVELENGTH (λ) – the distance from the start to the end of a wave.
Where: c= speed of light
f= operating frequency, Hz
 CLASSES OF TRANSMISSION LINE
1. Balanced Transmission Line:
o It is called as differential or balanced

o The signal propagating down the wire is measured as the potential difference
between wires.
o One conductor carries the signal; the other is the return path
Note: metallic circuit currents- opposite direction
Longitudinal currents – same direction
2. Unbalanced Transmission Line
o One wire is at ground potential; the other wire is at signal

potential.
o It is called as: single ended signal transmission.
BALUN – a device that is used to connect balanced to unbalanced

transmission line.
Note:
 Narrowband balun is sometimes called as choke,sleeve or bazooka balun (for high

frequency applications)
 METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINES
 PARALLEL-CONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION LINE – It is composed of two or more

metallic conductors separated by a dielectric
 COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINE – It is consists of a center conductor surrounded by

a dielectric material, then a concentric shielding, and an outer jacket.
 Kinds of Parallel Transmission Lines
1. OPEN WIRE
o It is separated by air as the dielectric
o The spacers are placed at periodic intervals to
keep the distance between conductors constant.

2. TWIN LEAD
o The spacers between two conductors are replaced with
a solid dielectric that ensures uniform spacing.
3. TWISTED PAIR
o It is formed by twisting two insulated conductors around each other.
 Types of Twisted Pairs
a. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) – consists of 2 copper wires separated by PVC insulation
b. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) – It is consists of 2 copper conductors separated by a solid

dielectric.
 Classes of UTP by EIA/TIA

o CAT-1 – suitable for voice grade telephone signals and low speed data
applications.
o CAT-2 – mainly used in token ring local area networks.
o CAT-3 – used for voice and data transmission rate up to 16Mbps.
o CAT-4 – used for data transmission rates up to 20Mbps
o CAT-5 – used for data transmission rates up to 100Mbps.
o ENHANCED CAT-5 (CAT-5E) – used for data transmission rate up to 250 Mbps.
o CAT-6 – used for data transmission rate up to 550Mbps.
 Classes of STP by EIA/TIA

o CAT-7 – it is also called as PiMF (pairs in metal foil) cable.
o FOIL TWISTED PAIR –it is comprised of 4 pairs of 24 AWG copper wire
encapsulated in a common metallic foil shield with a PVC outer sheath.
o SHIELDED FOIL TWISTED PAIR- It is comprised of 4 pairs of 24 AWG
surrounded by common metallic foil encapsulated by a braided metallic shield.
COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINE
 Suited for high data transmission

rates to reduce losses and isolate
transmission paths.

 It is consists of a center conductor surrounded by a dielectric material, then a concentric
shielding, and an outer jacket.
 TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLES

o RIGID AIR FILLED – a tubular outer conductor surrounds the center conductor
coaxially and that the insulating material is air.
o SOLID FLEXIBLE – the outer conductor is braided, flexible, and coaxial to center
conductor. The inner conductor is a flexible copper wire that can be either solid
or hollow
METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
 PRIMARY LINE CONSTANTS
 Series DC resistance (R)
 Series Inductance (L)
 Shunt Capacitance (C)
 Shunt Conductance (G )
Note:
Primary constants are called as distributed parameters.
 SECONDARY LINE CONSTANTS

o The transmission line characteristics are called as the secondary constants.
 Characteristic Impedance (Zo)
 Propagation Constant (γ)

 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
 It is sometimes called as the surge impedance.
 It is the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long line.
 It is the ratio of voltage and current at any point in the transmission line.
FORMULA OF ZO
 For extremely low frequencies:

ࡾ
Zo= √ ࡳ
 For extremely high frequencies:

ࡸ
Zo= √ ࡯
Where: R = resistance of the line,
G= conductance of the line
L= inductance of the line
C= capacitance of the line
 For 2-wire parallel line:

૛ૠ૟ ࡿ
Zo= ξᤣ‫ܚ‬
࢒࢕ࢍ ࢘
Where: S= spacing between centers of conductors, inches
ᵋr = relative dielectric constant
r= radius of the conductor, inches
 For coaxial cable:

૚૜ૡ ࡰ
Zo= ξᤣ‫ܚ‬
࢒࢕ࢍ ࢊ
Where: D= diameter of outer conductor, inches
r= diameter of inner conductor
ᵋr = relative dielectric constant

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A coaxial cable has a capacitance of 90pF/m and a characteristic impedance of 50Ω.

Find the inductance of a 3m length of a transmission line.
2. Find the characteristic impedance of an open wire line with conductors 3mm in diameter
separated by 10mm.
3. Find the characteristic impedance of a coaxial cable using polyethylene having a

dielectric constant of 2.3 with an inner conductor of 2mm diameter and an outer
conductor of 8mm in diameter.
 PROPAGATION CONSTANT (γ)

 It is sometimes called as propagation coefficient.
 It is used to express the attenuation and the phase shift per unit length of a line.
ሺ‫܀‬ା‫ܒ‬૑‫ۺ‬ሻ
γ= ᾳ + jβ = √ ሺ۵ା‫ܒ‬૑۱ሻ
Where: ᾳ = attenuation coefficient, nepers per length
β= phase shift coefficient, radians per length
 Attenuation Constant (ᾳ)

ࡾ
ᾳ = ૛ࢆ࢕ ------ Ne/length
૝Ǥ૜૝૜ࡾ
ᾳ= ࢆ࢕
----- dB/ length
 Phase Shift Coefficient (β):

૛ț
β = Շ = 2πf√ LC -------- radian/length
Sample Problem
An open wire transmission line has the following constants at 1kHz:

R= 6.55 x10-3 Ω/m C= 8.84pF/m
L= 1.36 ૄH/m G= negligible
Solve for Zo, ᾳ,β
ELEMENTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE
 VELOCITY FACTOR (Vf):
 It is sometimes called as velocity constant.
 It is the ratio of the actual velocity of the wave through the medium to the velocity
of the wave in free space (vacuum)

ࢂ࢖ ૚
Vf= ࢉ
= ξࢋ࢘
ࡰ
Vp= ξࡸ࡯
Where: Vp= actual velocity of propagation

c= velocity in free space
D= distance
L= inductance per unit length
C= capacitance per unit length
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Find the velocity factor and the propagation velocity for a cable with Teflon as dielectric
(2.1)
2. For a given length of RG 8A/U coaxial cable with a distributed capacitance of 96.6 pF/m
and a distributed inductance of 241. 56nH/m. Solve for the velocity factor and the phase
velocity.
 LINE PARAMETERS OF PARALLEL TRANSMISSION LINE

ஜ
 Inductance, L =ț ‫ܖܔ‬ሺ૛࢙ Ȁࢊሻ ---- H/m
where: s=spacing between conductors

d=diameter of the wire
ૄ= permeability of the conductor
 Capacitance, C= ૛࢙ ---- F/m

‫ܖܔ‬ሺ ሻ
ࢊ
where: ε= permittivity of the dielectric
ૡǤ૜૝‫ܠ‬૚૙ିૡξ܎
 Resistance, R= ࢘
---- Ω/m
where: f= frequency in Hz
r= radius in m
ξ܎
 Resistance, R = ---- Ω/100 ft
ࢊ
where: f= frequency in MHz
d= diameter in inches
ૈો
 Conductance, G = ૛࢙ ---- S/m
‫ܖܔ‬ሺ ሻ
ࢊ
where: σ =conductivity in siemens,S

Alternative Formula for L & C
 L= 1.016 Zo √ µr –------------- nH/ft

૚Ǥ૙૚૟ሺξઽ‫ܚ‬ሻ
 C= ࢆ࢕
------------ nF/ft
 LINE PARAMETERS OF COAXIAL CABLE

ஜ
 Inductance, L =૛ț ‫ܖܔ‬ሺࡰ Ȁࢊሻ ---- H/m
where: D=outer conductor’s diameter, m
d=inner conductor’s diameter,m
ૄ= permeability of the conductor

૛
 Capacitance, C = ࡰ ---- F/m
‫ܖܔ‬ሺ ሻ
ࢊ
where: ε= permittivity of the dielectric

૛ૈો
 Conductance, G = ࡰ -------- S/m
‫ܖܔ‬ሺ ሻ
ࢊ
where: σ =conductivity in siemens,S
ALTERNATIVE FORMULA FOR L & C:
L= 1.016 Zo √ µr –------------- nH/ft
૚Ǥ૙૚૟ሺξઽ‫ܚ‬ሻ
C= ࢆ࢕
------------ nF/ft
૚ ૚
 Resistance, R = 8.34x10-8 √f [ ࢊ+ࡰ] ---- Ω/m
where: f= frequency in Hz
r= radius in m
૙Ǥ૚ξ܎
 Resistance, R= ૚ ૚ ---- Ω/100 ft
ା
ࢊ ࡰ
where: f= frequency in MHz
d= diameter in inches

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A 600 Ω transmission line is to be constructed using 128 mils wire. Determine the spacing
between centers in inches.
2. The distance between the wire centers (81 mils in diameter) is 10 inches. Solve the
attenuation in dB per 100ft of this wire at 4MHz operating frequency.
3. The distance between centers of 128 mils wire is 20 inches. For a frequency of 6MHz, solve
the ff:
a. Zo c. C
b. L d. R per 100 ft
c.
4. For a given coaxial cable, the following parameters are given:
εr= 2.23 Zo= 385 ohms

d=0.584 mm ૄr= 0.582
Solve for the outer diameter, L in nH/ft, C in nF/ft
5. What is the attenuation of a 75 ohm coaxial cable if it has a resistance of 0.173ohm/m?
6. Calculate the velocity factor of a coaxial cable, used in a transmission line with a
characteristic impedance of 75 ohms , capacitance is 50pF/m, and an inductance equal to
75ૄH/m.
 TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES
 COPPER LOSSES
 Power Loss - It is due to the resistance of the conductors when current flows
through it . The energy is dissipated in the form of heat (I2R loss)
 Skin Effect - It exists when current tends to flow near the surface of the
conductor.
Note: Litz wire is used to minimize skin effect.
 DIELECTRIC LOSSES – It results from the heating effect on the dielectric material
between conductors.
 RADIATION AND INDUCTION LOSSES – It occurs when electromagnetic field

about a conductor cuts through any nearby metallic object and a current is induced in
that object.
 COUPLING LOSS – It occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a

transmission line.

 RESONANT AND NONRESONANT TRANSMISSION LINES
o FLAT OR NONRESONANT LINE
 A transmission line with no reflected power.

 A transmission line is flat when it is loaded with a pure resistive load. That
is
Zo=ZL
o RESONANT LINE – a transmission line with a reflected power and has a reactive
load. Thus,
Zo≠ZL
 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT, ґ
 It is a vector quantity that represents the ratio of reflected voltage to the incident
voltage or current
ࢂ࢘ ࡼ࢘ࢋࢌ
ґ= ࢂ࢏
=√ ࡼ࢏࢔ࢉ
where: Vr= reflected voltage
Vi= incident voltage
 STANDING WAVE RATIO,SWR

 It is the ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage of a standing wave
on a transmission line.
ࢂ࢓ࢇ࢞ ሺ۳ܑା۳‫ܚ‬ሻ ࢆࡸ
SWR= =
ࢂ࢓࢏࢔ ሺ۳ܑି۳‫ܚ‬ሻ
= ࢆ࢕
ࡿࢃࡾି૚
Ґ=
ࡿࢃࡾା૚
 STANDING WAVE – The interference pattern set up by the 2 travelling waves.
Note: node – the minimum amplitude
antinode – the maximum amplitude

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the magnitude of the reflection coefficient because of the mismatch between 75
ohm line and 50-j25 load.
2. Calculate the SWR and the reflection coefficient of the line if the forward power is 250W and
the reverse power is 45 W.
3. For a transmission line with incident voltage of 5V and reflected voltage of 3V, find the
reflection coefficient and SWR.
4. A transmitter supplies 50W to a load through a line with a SWR of 2:1. Find the power
absorbed by the load and the reflected power.
5. A generator sends 50mW down a 50 ohm line. The generator is matched to the line but the
load is not. If the coefficient of reflection is 0.5, how much power is reflected and absorbed?
 STANDING WAVES ON AN OPEN LINE

 The voltage incident wave is reflected
back just as if it were to continue (no
phase reversal)
 The current incident wave is reflected
back by 180degrees.
 The sum of the incident and reflected
current waveforms is minimum at the
open.
 The sum of the incident and reflected
voltage waveforms is maximum at the
open.
 STANDING WAVES ON A SHORTED LINE

 The voltage incident wave is reflected
back 180 degrees out of phase.
 The current incident wave is reflected back (in phase)
 The sum of the incident and reflected current waveforms is maximum at the
short.
 The sum of the incident and reflected voltage waveforms is zero at the shorted
end

Input Impedance for SHORTED and OPEN Lines
IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN TRANSMISSION LINES
 Quarter-Wave Transformer Matching
 It is used to match transmission lines to purely

resistive loads whose resistance is not equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line.
Note:
 If RL=Zo, the line acts as a transformer with 1:1

ratio
 If RL>Zo, the line acts as a step down transfomer
 If RL<Zo, the line acts as a step up transformer
Zo’ = √ (Zo*ZL)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the impedance of a quarter wave transformer that is used to match a line with Zo=50
and a load ZL= 150.
 Stub Matching
 It is used when the load is reactive (inductive or
capacitive).
It is a piece of additional transmission line that is placed across

the primary line as close to the load as possible

 TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY
 A technique that is used to locate an impairment in a metallic cable by sending a
short duration pulse and the echo is measured and analyzed.
࢚࢜
d= ૛
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A pulse is transmitted down a cable that has a velocity of propagation of 0.8c. The reflected
signal is received 1ૄs later. Solve the distance of the impairment.
 MINIATURIZED TRANSMISSION LINE
 MICROSTRIP – It is a flat conductor separated from a ground plane by an insulating

dielectric.
 STRIPLINE – A flat conductor sandwiched between 2 ground planes.

EXERCISE NO.1
Name: _____________________ Score: __________
Course & Year: _____________ Date: ___________
I. Problem Solving: Show all solutions. Write your solutions at the back of this page.
1.A transmitter delivers 50W into a 600 ohm lossless line that is terminated with an antenna that
has an impedance of 275 ohms resistive.
a. Solve the reflection coefficient

b. Solve the SWR in dB
c. Solve the absorbed power
d. Solve the reflected power
2. A properly matched transmission line has a loss of 1.5dB/100m. If 10W is supplied to one end
of the line, how many watts reached the load 27m away
3. A 50ohm transmission line is terminated with a resistive load of 120ohm impedance. A

generator puts a signal with a frequency of 70MHz and a power level of 20dBm into the other
end of the line. The velocity factor is 0.8.
a) solve for the reflection coefficient

b) solve the SWR
c) Solve the power absorbed by the load
II. Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the BEST answer. No erasure
1. For an ideal transmission line, the best possible conductor to use is _______ (gold,
silver, copper, bronze)
a. Gold c. silver
b. copper d. bronze
2. In a transmission line, what parameter represents the decrease in signal strength?
a. Dielectric constant c. attenuation constant
b. Phase shift constant d. phase constant
3. What is referred to as the reciprocal of the square root of the dielectric constant of a
transmission line?
a. Velocity of propagation c. velocity constant
b. Phase velocity d. velocity factor
4. A transmission line that uses a ground path or ground return is called as __________.
a. unbalanced c. balun
b. Differential d. balanced
5. It is a type of transmission line where the 2 conductors carry equal currents.
a. Unbalanced c. balun
b. balanced d. litz wire
6. It is a transmission line consisting of 2 conductors that have equal resistance per unit
length.
a. Unbalanced c. coaxial

b. balanced d. balun
7. As the dielectric constant of the dielectric for a certain transmission line increases, the
velocity factor also ___________
a. decreases c. fluctuates
b. increases d. is still constant
8. As the length of the transmission line increases, the characteristic impedance also
________
a. decreases c. fluctuates
b. increases d. is still constant
9. What will happen to the distributed inductance of a transmission line if the spacing
between conductors is increased?
a. increases c. fluctuates
b. decreases d. not changed
10. What will happen to the distributed conductance of a coaxial transmission line if the inner
radius is decreased?
a. increases c. fluctuates
b. decreases d. not changed
11. In a transmission line, what parameter determines the amount of phase shift of a certain
as it propagates down in a transmission line?
a. Phase constant c. attenuation constant
b. Phase shift constant d. propagation constant
12. If the frequency of operation is increased, the distributed resistance of a transmission
line will _______
a. decrease c. fluctuate
b. increase d. be uniform
13. It is a device for coupling balanced to unbalanced line.
a. Litz wire c. bazooka balun
b. Balun d. both b and c
14. A transmission line containing concentric conductors.
a. coaxial c. balanced
b. parallel d. differential
15. It is the actual speed at which signals travel down a transmission line.
a. Velocity factor c. wave velocity
b. Propagation velocity d. traveling velocity
16. It is produced by the acceleration of electric charges.
a. TEM wave c. electromagnetic wave
b. Transverse wave d. surface wave
17. A wave that travels from the source to the load .
a. incident c. reflected wave
b. Standing wave d. traveling wave
18. It is referred to as the single ended signal transmission line.
a. Differential c. unbalanced
b. Balanced d. guided
19. It is a parallel 2-wire transmission line consisting of 2 copper conductors separated by
solid dielectric.
a. STP c. open wire
b. UTP d. twin lead
20. What is the most commonly used value of a transmission line impedance in ohms?
a. 75 c. 100
b. 150 d. 50

MODULE 2
FIBER OPTICS
Objectives:
Define key terms in fiber optics

Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of using fiber optics
Identify the components and classes of fiber optics
Study the properties of light.
Familiarize losses in fiber optics
Specify the elements of an optical fiber communication system
Solve problems related to fiber optics
What are Fiber Optics?
 Fiber Optics are cables that are made of optical fibers that can
transmit large amounts of information at the speed of light.
LIGHT FREQUENCIES
 INFRARED – 770nm to 100,000 nm

 VISIBLE – 390nm to 770nm
 ULTRAVIOLET – 10nm to 390nm
Note:
1 angstrom = 1x10-4 micron
Advantages of Fiber Optics
 Wider bandwidth
 Immunity to crosstalk
 Immunity to static interference
 Low loss
 Safety
 Faster speed
 Security
 Reliability
Disadvantages of Fiber Optics
 Cost
 Complex deployment & repairs
 Complex connectors
 Complex network
 Complicated test equipment

History of Fiber Optics
 1956- DR. N.S KAPANY coined the word fiber optics

 1960- Theodore Maiman built the first optical maser
 1961-“Industry researchers Elias Snitzer and Will Hicks demonstrate a laser
beam directed through a thin glass fiber.
 1970- Researchers find a way to super purify glass fibers.
 1980- At&t installs first set of fiber optic cables in major cities.
 1988- First transatlantic cable
 1996- First transpacific cable
 1997- First Fiber Optic Link Around the
Globe (FLAG)
Components of Fiber Optics
 Outside Jacket
 Cladding
 Core
Types of Fiber Optics According to Construction
 PLASTIC CLAD PLASTIC (PCP)

 PLASTIC CLAD SILICA (PCS)
 SILICA CLAD SILICA (SCS)
LIGHT PROPERTIES
 REFLECTION- a wave is returned after impinging on a

surface.
Types of Reflection
 specular reflection
 diffuse reflection
 REFRACTION
 Bending of waves as it passes from
1medium to another.

 The light ray bends away from the normal light as it moves from more dense to
less dense medium in terms of refractive indexes.
 DIFFRACTION – the scattering of waves as it passes an obstacle.
 ABSORPTION – the reduction in the intensity of radiated energy caused by converting

some energy into another form.
 DISPERSION – the separation of visible light into different wavelengths.
VELOCITY OF LIGHT:
 The velocity decreases as it enters a medium with a higher refractive index.
Total Internal Reflection – it is the propagation of light signals inside the optical fiber.
KEY TERMS
 Critical Angle – it is the minimum angle measured from

the normal line which will result to an angle of refraction of
90 degrees or greater.
 Acceptance Angle- it is the angle measured from the

interface which determines the degree of accepting the
incident light rays.
 Numerical Aperture – it is the figure of merit of the fiber

optic. It specifies the degree of the acceptance of the light

rays by the fiber optics.
 Index Profile – It is the graphical representation of the value of the refractive index of
the fiber.
KEY FORMULA
ࡺࢉ࢒ࢇࢊࢊ࢏࢔ࢍ
 Critical angle, Өc = sin-1 ࡺࢉ࢕࢘ࢋ
 Snell’s Law : n1sinӨ1 =n2sinӨ2
where: Ө1= incident angle
Ө2= angle of refraction
n1 = refractive index of the 1st medium (core)
n2= refractive index of the 2nd medium (cladding)
 Numerical Aperture ,NA = √(Ncore2- Ncladding2)
 Acceptance Angle, Өin = sin-1 NA

૚
 Index of Refraction, NA= ࢂࢌ = √∑r
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A fiber optic cable has an index of refraction of 1.6 for the core and 1.4 for the cladding.
Solve the ff:
a. Critical angle
b. Angle of refraction if the angle of incidence is 30.
c. Angle of refraction if the angle of incidence is 70.
2. Calculate the numerical aperture and the maximum angle of acceptance for a fiber optic
cable with refractive index for the core of 1.6 and 1.3 for the cladding.
OPTICAL FIBER TYPES
 Single Mode
 There is one mode of propagation inside the optical fiber (straight line).
 The light signal propagates in straight line throughout the length of the fiber.
 A fiber with no cladding.

 A fiber with a very small core diameter.

Advantages:
a. Dispersion is eliminated
b. Greater bandwidth
Disadvantages:
a. Expensive
b. Needs highly directive optical coupler
 Multimode
 There are 2 or more modes of propagation of signals inside the optical fiber.
 Step index – the refractive index of the core is uniform as well as that of
cladding.
 Graded index- the refractive index of the core is non-uniform.
 The refractive index varies with distance from the fiber
Advantages:
1. Inexpensive
2. Does not need
highly directive
coupler
Disadvantages:
1. Dispersion is
present
2. Lesser bandwidth
FIBER OPTIC LOSSES
 POWER LOSSES – due to the distance as traveled by the signal it will experience
attenuation.
 ABSORPTION LOSSES – it is due to the absorption of the atomic defects in the fiber
optic material.
 SCATTERING LOSSES – occurs when a wave interacts with a particle in a way that
removes energy in the wave and transfer it to another directions.

TYPES OF SCATTERING LOSSES:
a. Rayleigh Scattering – results from light interacting with the submicroscopic

irregularities in the medium.
b. Mie Scattering – occurs at inhomogeneities that are comparable in size to a

wavelength.
c. Brillouin Scattering – modeled as the modulation of the light by the thermal

energy in the material mainly in the backward direction.
d. Raman Scattering – the nonlinear interaction produces a high frequency

phonon and scattered in a forward direction.
 BENDING LOSSES
 macrobending (large scale bending)
 microbending (small scale bending)
 CONNECTOR LOSSES
 lateral misalignment
 angular misalignment
 gap between ends
 imperfect finish
DISPERSION
 It is the spreading of light pulses as it propagates down the fiber.
Kinds of Dispersion
 Material Dispersion – pulse at different wavelengths have different velocities.

 Chromatic Dispersion – pulses at different wavelengths but in the same mode must
travel at slightly different angles. (present only on single mode)
 Modal Dispersion – a pulse at a single wavelength splits power into modes that travel at
different velocities ( present in multimode fiber

OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the maximum core radius to support single mode operation for a fiber with a NA of
0.15 and wavelength of 0.82µm.
2. Compute the number of modes for a fiber whose core diameter is 50µm. Assume that
n1=1.48,n2=1.46 and λ=0.82µm
3. Calculate the Rayleigh scattering loss in dB for a step index fiber operating at 1200nm. Also
compute for the attenuation in neper.
4. A single mode fiber operating at 1.3µm is found to have a total material dispersion of 2.81ns
and a total waveguide dispersion of 0.495ns.Determine the total dispersion of the received
pulse. Solve also for the maximum bit rate.
5.Calculate the total dispersion of a fiber optic cable with a total length of 50km if the dispersion
per km is 18.978 ps/km. Solve also the bandwidth.

6.Determine the optical power received in dBm for a 20km fiber optic cable with the following
parameters:
Given:
 led output power= 30mW

 4-sections of 0.5dB/km
 3 cable to cable connector loss (2dB each)
 light to fiber interface loss of 1.9dB
 fiber to light detector loss of 2.1 dB
 LIGHT EMITTERS
 These are devices that emit light once forward biased.
 SURFACE EMITTING LEDS
• Mostly used in multimode fiber systems
• Beam Divergence – the angular spread of the emitted beam as measured in

the far field of the beam
 EDGE EMITTING LEDS
• Used in both single mode and multimode systems.
• It has more directional light pattern
 LASER DIODE
• It produces monochromatic and coherent light rays and operates in the

principle of lasing.
• LASER stands for Light Amplification with Stimulated Emission of Radiation
TYPES OF LASERS
1. GAS LASER- these are mixture of helium and neon enclosed in a glass
tube. The continuous light wave is monochromatic.
2. LIQUID LASER – use organic dyes enclosed in a glass tube for an active
medium
3. SOLID LASER- use cylindrical crystal such as ruby
4. SEMICONDUCTOR LASER- use semiconductor materials and is referred to

as the Injection Laser Diode (ILD).
 LIGHT DETECTORS
 These are devices that convert light to electric energy.
 Also known as “Light Sensors”.

 PIN (P-INTRINSIC-N) DIODE:
• When photons are absorbed , they add sufficient energy to generate carriers
in the depletion region and allow current to flow through the device.
 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE:
 A high electric field intensity developed across the p-n

junction causes an impact ionization that continues like an
avalanche
FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGIES
 SONET
 It stands for Synchronous Optical Network.
 It is the North American Standard for optical telecommunications
transport.
 SDH
 It stands for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy.
 It is the European counterpart of SONET.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
1.An optical fiber has a bandwidth distance product of 500MHz-km. If a bandwidth of 85MHz is
required for a particular mode of transmission, what is the maximum distance that can be used
between repeaters?
2. Find the bandwidth and the bandwidth distance product for the fiber is example 8.
3.Find the energy in Joules in one photon at a wavelength of 1µm.
Note: h=6.626x10-34
4.A fiber has a dispersion rating of 6ps/(nm-km) and a length of 50km. Solve the dispersion
when the fiber is used with a laser diode source having a line width of 5nm.

EXERCISE NO.2
Name: ____________________ Score: ________
Course & Year: _____________ Date: _________
I. Solve the given problems. Write your solutions at the back of this page.
1.Solve the energy in one photon of a light wave at a wavelength of 400nm. Express the
result in electron-volt (eV).
2.A single mode fiber has a dispersion of 10ps/(nm-km). Calculate the dispersion over a
10km distance using a LED with a linewidth of 40nm.
3. The refractive indeces of the core and the cladding for a fiber optic cable are 1.5 and
1.45 respectively. Solve the ff:
a) critical angle
b) numerical aperture
c) maximum angle of acceptance
d) dielectric constants for the core and the cladding
e) speed of light in the core & cladding
II. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the BEST answer.No erasure.
1. The refractive indeces of the core and the cladding of a fiber optic cable are 1.62 and
1.51 respectively. Solve the critical angle.
a. 70.8 c. 45
b. 68.8 d. 30
2. What does a light traveling in air optical fiber follow?
a. Millman theorem c. Maxwell’s Law
b. Snell’s Law d. Huygen’s principle
3. Light can be thought of as an electromagnetic wave or as particles called ____.
a. Electrons c. protons
b. Photons d. quantum
4. It is the loss in signal power as light travels down a fiber is
a. Attenuation c. absorption
b. Propagation d. scattering
5. It is a measure of the optical fiber’s light gathering capability.
a. Dispersion c. responsivity
b. Expansion d. numerical aperture
6. The amount of power per unit area in optical fiber is
a. Irradiance c. permeance
b. Reflectance d. discernance

7. The core of the optical fiber has ___.
a. A medium index of refraction
b. Lower index of refraction than cladding
c. Higher index of refraction than cladding
d. Lower index of refraction than air
8. What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection?
a. Equal c. decreasing
b. Increasing d. varying
9. That dielectric material of an optical fiber surrounding the core.
a. Cladding c. coating
b. Armor d. shield
10. Loss due to the diffraction of light when it strikes on the irregularities formed during the
manufacturing process of the fiber optics.
a. Absorption loss c. bending loss
b. Attenuation d. Rayleigh scattering loss
11. Which of the following has the longest wavelength?
a. Green c. blue
b. Red d. violet
12. Which of the following is not an advantage of optical fiber?
a. Low attenuation
b. Large bandwidth
c. Cabling and splicing simplicity
d. Immunity of lightning
13. A figure of merit of the fiber optic cable which determines its light gathering capability.
a. Reflectivity c. critical angle
b. Responsivity d. numerical aperture
14. Which of the following is not a source of light in fiber optic communication?
a. ILD c. APD
b. LED d. Laser
15. What is the type of fiber, characterized by a core which has a completely uniform
distribution of the index of refraction throughout its bulk?
a. Step index c. multigrade index
b. Grade index d. meridional index
16. Which of the following is not used as an optical detector?
a. Photodiode c. ILD
b. PIN diode d. avalanche photodiode
17. Which of the following is not a kind of dispersion that exists in a fiber?
a. Intermodal dispersion c. wavelength dispersion
b. Chromatic dispersion d. harmonic dispersion
18. An optical medium with a small core diameter in which only one mode can propagate.
a. Single mode step index c. single grade index
b. Multimode step index d. graded step index
19. Type of fiber that has the highest modal dispersion.
a. Single mode step index c. graded index
b. Multimode step index d. multigraded index
20. One of the following is not a basic part of a fiber optic communication link?
a. Light source c. fiber detector
b. Light detector d. light coupler

21. Which of the following cannot be sent over a fiber optic cable?
a. Cable TV signals c. electric power
b. Computer data d. telephone signals
22. The main cause of attenuation in an optical fiber is __.

a. Dispersion c. scattering and absorption
b. Refraction d. reflection
23. What is the ratio of the speed of light in free space to the speed of light in a given
medium?
a. Velocity factor c. reflection coefficient
b. Index of refraction d. dielectric constant
24. Which of the following is not a source of attenuation in a fiber optic cable?
a. Absorption c. conduction
b. Scattering d. dispersion
25. Which of the following is an advantage of fiber optic cable over metallic transmission
lines?
a. Wider bandwidth c. light weight
b. Interference immunity d. all of the above

MODULE 3
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
Objectives:
Define key terms in radio wave propagation

Familiarize the optical properties of radio signals.
Scrutinize the different radio wave propagation modes
Identify other modes of radio wave propagation
Solve problems related to radio wave propagation
KEY TERMS
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
• It is an electrical energy that has escaped into free space and are made of magnetic and
electric waves which are separated by right angles to the direction of propagation.
 ISOTROPIC RADIATOR
• It is an omni directional antenna which emits signal in all directions.
• It is referred to as the point source.
 WAVEFRONT
 It is a plane in space joining all rays. It shows a surface of constant phase of
electromagnetic waves.
 RAY
 A line drawn along the direction of propagation of the EM wave.
 POLARIZATION
 It is the orientation of the electric field vector with respect to the surface of the
earth.

Types of Polarization:
1. Horizontal polarization
2. Vertical polarization
3. Circular polarization – if the polarization

vector rotates 360 degrees as the wave
moves one wavelength through space.
4. Elliptical polarization – occurs when

field strength varies with changes in
polarization.
 INTERFERENCE
 RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE (RFI).
o The interference comes from another transmitter.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI):
o The interference comes from another source other than a radio

transmitter.
 FREE SPACE PATH LOSS

 It is the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight
line in free space with no absorption or reflection of energy.
 It is called as spreading loss.
૜ૠૠ
Ζo = ξᥫ
Lp= 32.4 + 20log D(km)+ 20logf(MHz)
Lp= 36.6 + 20log D(mi) + 20 log f (MHz
 POWER DENSITY
 It is the rate at which the energy passes through a given surface area in free
space.
Formula:
ࡼ࢚
 PD= ૝ૈ‫ܚ‬૛----- in W/m2
૆૛
 PD= ࢆ
 PD = ξΗ

where: ξ = electric field intensity
Η = magnetic field intensity
Ζ = characteristic impedance
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY, ξ

 It is the field strength of a signal at an “r” distance from the transmitter.
ξሺ૜૙ࡼ࢚‫࢞ࡳכ‬ሻ
ξ= ࢘
૚૛૙țࢎࡵ
ξ= Շࢊ
where: Pt=transmit power
r= distance from transmit antenna
Gx= gain of the transmit antenna
h= antenna height
I =current
Note: 1.64 = gain of dipole
 Inverse Square Law

ࡼࡰ૚ ࢘૛
ࡼࡰ૛
ൌ ሺ࢘૚ሻ2
 ATTENUATION
 It is the reduction in power density with distance equivalent to power loss.
 ABSORPTION
 It occurs when EM passes through the atmosphere and interchanges energy with
electrons and ions.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Find the characteristic impedance of a polyethylene which has a dielectric constant of

2.3
2. The dielectric strength of air is about 3MV/m. What is the maximum power density of
an EM wave in air?
3. For a carrier frequency of 6GHz and a distance of 50km, solve the free space path
loss in dB.
4. At 20km in free space from a point source, the power density is 200microW/sq.m.
What is the power density 25km away from the source?

5. Determine the electric field strength 10km away from a half wave dipole transmitter
when an input power of 100W?
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES
 REFRACTION
 It refers to the bending of radio wave path.
 It is primarily governed by Snell’s Law.
Key Formula:
n1sinθ1= n2sinθ2
k= (ሺ૚ െ ૡ૚ࡺሻȀ܎2
where: k= dielectric constant relevant to free space.

N- electron density
f= frequency
 REFLECTION
 It is the bouncing of signals.
 It occurs when an incident wave strikes the boundary of two media.
Forms of Reflection:
1. Diffuse reflection – it is the scattered reflection.
2. Specular reflection – it is a mirror like reflection
• Rayleigh Criterion – It states that a semirough surface will reflect as if it is a smooth

surface when the cosine of the angle of incidence is greater than (1/8)
wavelength/depth.
 DIFFRACTION
 It is the phenomenon which allows light or radio waves to propagate around
corners.
 It is referred to as the scattering of waves.
• Huygen’s Principle – states that every point on a given spherical wavefront acts as
a secondary point source.

TERRESTRIAL WAVE PROPAGATION
• Terrestrial Waves – these are the waves traveling in the atmosphere of the earth.
 SURFACE WAVE OR GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

 Ground waves are vertically polarized.
 The signals propagate in the earth’s surface and are low frequency signals (kHz
range).
 To increase the distance, power must be increased.
Applications
 Ship to ship communications

 Radio communication
 AM broadcasting
 SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

 It is also called as “ Line of Sight”
propagation or “Tropospheric Wave”
propagation
 Operates at high frequencies wherein height
of the antenna is very essential.
Space wave includes:
a. Direct Wave- travels in straight line
b. Ground Reflected Waves – these are waves

reflected by earth’s surface.
Note:
The radio horizon is 4/3 of the optical horizon.
Applications:
 FM broadcasting
 SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

o Sky waves are radiated towards the sky,
where they are either reflected or refracted by
the ionosphere (30-250mi) above the earth’s
surface.
o It is called as “Ionospheric Propagation”.
LAYERS OF THE IONOSPHERE:
1.D-Layer (50 to 100 km)
 It is the lowest layer.

 It reflects VLF and LF waves and absorbs MF and HF waves.
 It disappears at night.

2. E-Layer (100-140km)
 It is referred to as the Kennely-Heaviside Layer.

 It aids MF frequency and reflects HF waves.
• SPORADIC E-LAYER – the sub-layer which can unpredictably come

and go due to solar activity.
3.F- Layer
 It is made up of 2 layers: F1 and F2.

 During daytime, F1 layer is 140-250km and F2 layer is 140 to 300km.
 During night time, the 2 layers combine into a single layer.
 It attenuates HF waves.
Key Terms
 CRITICAL FREQUENCY,fc – it is the highest

frequency that can be propagated directly upward and
still be returned to earth.
 CRITICAL ANGLE, θc - the maximum vertical angle at
which the radio wave can be propagated and can still
be returned to earth.
fc =9Nmax ------ where: N= electron density
 VIRTUAL HEIGHT – it is the height above the earth’s

surface from which a refracted wave appears to have
been reflected.

 MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY, MUF – it is the highest frequency that can be used
for sky wave propagation between two point on the earth’s surface.
ࢌࢉ
MUF = ࢉ࢕࢙ીܑ where: θi=angle of incidence
 OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY, OWF- the highest frequency which can be

efficiently used.
OWF= 0.85MUF
 SKIP DISTANCE – the minimum distance from a transmit antenna that a sky wave at a
given frequency will be returned to earth.
 SKIP ZONE (QUIET ZONE) – the area where the surface waves are completely
dissipated.
OTHER RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODES
 Ground Scatter- the signals are reflected from the ionosphere to a ground
region, scattered from the ground, and propagated again to the receiver.
 Tropospheric Scatter – waves passing through the troposhere meets a
turbulence, changes in velocity then scatters.
 Ionospheric- Scatter – scattering in the E region of the ionosphere.
 Meteor Burst Scatter – A propagation in the UHF VHF range which utilizes the
ionization trails of the meteors.
 Auroral Scatter – scattering due to ionization associated with auroral
disturbances.
 Equatorial F scatter – the ionosphere in the equatorial regions are thicker thus
offer higher MUFs.
 Duct Propagation – occurs when the density in the lower atmosphere trapped
the between it. It acts as a duct

EXERCISE NO. 3
Name: ______________________ Score: _________________
Course & Year: ______________ Date: __________________
I. Answer each of the following:
1. Explain why ground wave propagation is more effective over sea water than a desert terrain.
2. What effects do sunspots and aurora borealis have on radio communications?
3. How does the ionosphere reflect radio signals back to earth?Explain.
4. Explain "tropospheric scatter". How can it be used for radio communication?
5. In space propagation, explain the presence of direct waves and ground reflected waves.
6.Explain each phenomenon in 2 sentences:
a. reflection c. diffraction
b. refraction d. dispersion
7.How to achieve meteor burst propagation?Explain in 3 sentences.
8.How can the ionosphere help in the transmission of radio waves? Explain in 3 sentences.
9.Explain the Huygen's Principle in 3 sentences
II. Problem Solving: Write your solutions at the back of this page.
1.Solve the path loss in dB for a microwave communication link if the distance is 50mi and the
operating frequency is 400MHz.
2. The distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas is 40 km. Solve the heights of
the antenna in meters if their heights are equal.
3. The angle of critical angle of a radio wave signal propagated using ionospheric propagation is
56 degrees. Solve the OWF if the operating frequency is 6GHz.
4. Solve the power density if the transmitted power is 40kW using a dipole antenna for a
distance of 55km.

MODULE 4
ANTENNAS AND WAVEGUIDES
Objectives
Define key terms in antenna systems

Identify and enumerate the different antenna parameters
Familiarize the different types of basic and microwave antennas
Identify the parameters and types of waveguides
Solve problems related to antennas and waveguides
What is an ANTENNA?
 It is an electrical conductor or array of conductors that radiates signal

or collects signal from space.
 It is sometimes called as “AERIAL”.
 ANTENNA RECIPROCITY
 It states that the antenna characteristic is essentially the
same regardless of whether an antenna is transmitting or
receiving electromagnetic energy.
BASIC ANTENNA SYSTEM
 COUPLING DEVICE –it connect s the transmitter to the feeder.

 FEEDER – It is a transmission line that carries energy to the antenna.
 ANTENNA – it radiates RF energy into space.
ANTENNA PARAMETERS
 RADIATION PATTERN
 A polar diagram representing field

strengths at various positions relative to
an antenna.
 ANTENNA POLARIZATION
 It refers to the orientation of the electric field vector in space.
 NEAR FIELD
 It refers to the field pattern that is close

to the antenna.
 It is called as the INDUCTION or

FRESNEL field.
 FAR FIELD
 It refers to the field pattern that is at great distance from the antenna
 It is called as RADIATION or FRAUNHOFER field.
 RADIATION RESISTANCE
 It is a resistance that, if replaced the antenna, would exactly dissipate exactly the
same amount of power the antenna radiates.
ૠ૞
Rx = ‫ܖܑܛ‬ሺૈ‫ܠ‬Ȁૃሻ 2 where: x= distance from one end of the dipole
 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY (η)

ࡼ࢘ࢇࢊ ࡾ࢘ࢇࢊ
η= ࢞૚૙૙ = ࢞૚૙૙
ࡼ࢏࢔ ࡾ࢘ࢇࢊାࡾ࢒࢕࢙࢙
 DIRECTIVE GAIN- the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular direction to the
power density radiated to the same point by a reference antenna.
 POWER GAIN- the ratio between the amount of energy propagated compared to the
energy that would be propagated if the antenna were not directional.
G= Dxη
 EFFECTIVE ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER (EIRP)

 It is the equivalent transmits power that an isotropic antenna would have to
radiate to achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at a given
point as another antenna.
EIRP(dB) = Pt (dB)*Gt (dB)
ERP (dB) = EIRP (dB) -2.14
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the efficiency of a dipole antenna that has a radiation resistance of 67Ω and a
loss resistance of 5Ω, measured at the feed point.
2. Calculate the gain of a certain antenna relative to a dipole antenna with a gain of 5.3dB
with respect to an isotropic radiator. Also compute for the power gain if the antenna has
an efficiency of 95%.
3. How much does the radiated power of an antenna increases if its current is increased
by 3.3 times?

4. What is the frequency of operation of a dipole antenna cut to a length of 3.4m?
 CAPTURED AREA – it is the area in space wherein signals are captured by the
antenna.
۵ૃ 2
Ac=૝ૈ where: G= power gain
 CAPTURED POWER – it is the net power as received by the receiving antenna.
Pr= PD* Ac
where: PD = power density of the transmit antenna.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1.Calculate the captured power 10km away from a half wave dipole transmitter with 10w
transmit power for the following antenna at 150MHz.
a. hertzian dipole
b. half wave dipole
2. Calculate the radiation resistance of a half wave dipole antenna if the feedpoint is 0.25m from
one end at 300MHz.
 FRONT-to- BACK RATIO – the ratio of the energy

radiated in the principal direction compared to the
energy radiated in the opposite direction for a given
antenna.
 ANTENNA BEAMWIDTH- the angular separation

between the two half power points on the major
lobe of the antenna’s plane radiation pattern.
 ANTENNA INPUT IMPEDANCE

 It is the ratio of the antenna input voltage and the antenna input current
 The feed point presents an AC load to the transmission line.
 Feedpoint – it is point in the antenna where the transmission line is connected.
TYPES OF BASIC ANTENNAS
 ELEMENTARY DOUBLET
 It is the simplest antenna
 It is referred to as the short dipole, elementary
dipole, or Hertzian dipole
 It has uniform current throughout its length.

 HALF WAVE DIPOLE
 A dipole which is half wavelength long.
 It is also called as Hertz Antenna.
 It is a resonant antenna
 Current is maximum at feedpoint
 Voltage is minimum at feedpoint.
 Greatly affected by ground effects that is why it must
be mounted several wavelengths above the ground.
 GROUNDED ANTENNA
 It is referred to as the MONOPOLE.
 It is sometimes called as MARCONI antenna.
 It is one-quarter wavelength long mounted
vertically with the lower end either connected
directly to ground or grounded through the
antenna coupling network.
Note: To reduce power losses, the ground should be a

good conductor, such as a rich loamy soil.
COUNTERPOISE FOR MONOPOLE
 A Counterpoise is a wire structure placed below the antenna and erected above
the ground.
 It is a form of capacitive ground system
 ANTENNA LOADING
 It is applied in order to increase the
electrical length of a certain antenna.

Types of Antenna Loading
1. Base Loading
 The inductance coil is connected at the bottom of the antenna

allowing the antenna to be easily tuned to resonance.
 It cancels out the capacitance component of the antenna input
impedance.
2. Top Loading
 A metallic array that resembles a spoked wheel is placed on
the top of the antenna.
 It increases the shunt capacitance to ground reducing the
overall antenna capacitance.
SUMMARY OF ANTENNA LOADING
o Inserting an INDUCTOR in SERIES compensate its capacitive

reactance thus increases the electrical length and bandwidth while the
resonant frequency decreases.
o Inserting a CAPACITOR in SERIES compensate its inductive
reactance, thus decreases the electrical length and bandwidth while
the resonant frequency increases.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. What is the actual length in feet of one half wavelength of an antenna with velocity factor of
0.63 at 28MHz?
2. What is the actual length in feet of one quarter wavelength antenna with a velocity factor of
0.695 at 42MHz?
ANTENNA FEED MECHANISMS
 CENTER FEED
 It is the simplest type of antenna feeding using open wire parallel conductor
feeders to the center of the antenna.
 Feeder currents will be balanced at all frequencies thus result into lower
SWR.

 END FEED
 A straight wire antenna is fed at one end by a two wire line.
 CURRENT FEED
 The feedpoint is at a current loop or antinode which always at the midpoint of a
λ/2 section of the antenna.
 VOLTAGE FEED
 The feedpoint is connected to the point of high voltage along the antenna length.
ANTENNA ELEMENTS
 DRIVEN ELEMENT – It obtains the power directly from the

transmitter since it is difrectly connected with the feeder at
the feed point.
 PARASITIC ELEMENTS – these are placed closer to the
driven element to allow coupling.
o DIRECTOR – when it operates to reinforce energy
coming from the driver towards it.
o REFLECTOR – It causes maximum energy radiation
in a direction away from itself and towards the driven
element
 YAGI-UDA ANTENNA
 It is a linear array antenna consisting of a dipole and two or more parasitic
elements.
Note:
 The reflector must be 5% longer than the driver.

 The director must be 5% shorter than the driver.
 The separation from the driver must be 0.1λ.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A Yagi Uda antenna is designed to receive signals centered at 174 MHz.

Design the Yagi Uda antenna.
 FOLDED DIPOLE ANTENNA

 One element is fed directly (driver) and the other is
conductively (parasitic ) coupled at the ends.
 The fact that the second conductor is “folded” makes
the current in the two conductors of the antenna flow in

the same direction.
 TURNSTILE ANTENNA
 It is formed by placing two dipoles at right
angles to each other.
 The radiation pattern is the sum of the
radiation patterns from the two dipoles, thus,
omnidirectional.
 LOOP ANTENNA
 It is a closed circuit antenna in which a conductor is formed into one or more
turns so its end are close together.
 Large Loop – the current is not the same either in

amplitude or phase in every part of the loop.
 Small Loop – the current has the same phase and same
amplitude in every part of the loop.
 RHOMBIC ANTENNA
 It is an antenna consisting of 4 conductors joined to form a rhombus and is
terminated by a noninductive resistor to produce a unidirectional pattern.
 DISCONE ANTENNA
 It is a wideband antenna representing a biconical
antenna wherein a flat, round disk is used to
replace the upper conical section of the antenna.
 Its lowest operating frequency is determined by the
height of the cone and the radius of the disk.
TYPES OF ANTENNA ARRAYS
 COLLINEAR ARRAY
 A linear array of radiating elements (dipoles) with their axes arranged in a
straight line.
 The directivity of the array in the plane of the array, increases with length.

 BROADSIDE ARRAY
 The dipoles are fed in the same phase from the source.
 It is strongly directional at right angles to the plane of the array.
 Currents in all elements are in phase.
 Increasing the number of elements sharpens the beam in the broadside.
 END FIRE ARRAY

 It is one in which the principal direction of radiation is along the plane of the array
and perpendicular to the elements.
 The radiation is from the end of the array.
 LOG PERIODIC ARRAY

 An array consisting of several dipole elements of
different lengths and relative spacing fed from two wire
line which is transposed between each adjacent pair of
dipoles.
 The array is fed from the narrow end and its maximum
radiation is in this direction.
 HELICAL ANTENNA
 A circularly polarized antenna that is wound into a helix.
 GAIN
G= 15NS (πd)2/ λ3
where: N= no. of turns
S= pitch or spacing
d=helix diameter
 BEAMWIDTH
૞૛ૃ ૃ
Φ = ሺૈ‫܌‬ሻ* √(‫) ܁ۼ‬

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the gain and beamwidth of a helical antenna if the optimum diameter is 80mm, pitch
of 62.5mm, with 8 turns and will operate at 1.2GHz.
 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ANTENNA

 A form of dish antenna with a reflecting surface that is a geometric paraboloid.
 Parabolic reflectors resemble the shape of a plate or dish, thus they are called as
parabolic dish or simply dish antennas.
 This antenna has a focal point where rays arriving parallel to the antenna axis
converge.
BASIC ANTENNA PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS FORMULA
φ = 70λ/d
BEAMWIDTH
BEAMWIDTH BETWEEN NULLS ω=2ω
EFFECTIVE AREA Aeff = η*Aface
GAIN G= 6(d/λ)2
APERTURE AP = focal distance/d
SAMPLE PROBLEM
To minimize interference, a 500MHz dish needs to have a 1◦ beamwidth. What dish diameter is
required in meters?
 HORN ANTENNA
 Horn radiator is a tapered termination of a length of a waveguide that
provides the impedance transformation between a waveguide and free space
impedance.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the gain, beamwidth in the E and H plane of the pyramidal horn antenna that has an
aperture of 60mm in the E-plane, 80mm in the H-plane and operating at 6GHz.
PARABOLIC ANTENNA FEED MECHANISMS
 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR WITH SPHERICAL SHELL (center feed):

 The purpose of the small reflector is to redirect all radiation back to the
paraboloid.
 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR WITH HORN FEED:

 A horn antenna is being pointed at the main reflector.
 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR WITH CASSEGRAIN FEED

 A type of feed mechanism using hyperboloid secondary reflector.
It is used when it is desired to place the primary antenna in a convenient position to
shorten the length of the transmission line or waveguide connecting the receiver to the
primary.
Note: Anechoic Chamber – a room used in testing an antenna.
OTHER MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
 KOOMAN ANTENNA – an antenna consisting of a reflector in conjunction with

collinear and broadside characteristics. All of the driven elements are fed with the
same phase.
 LENS ANTENNA – A dielectric antenna made up of polysterene. The main function
is to ensure that signals are in phase after they have passed through it.
 SLOT ANTENNA – An antenna fabricated from a length of a waveguide by cutting
slots into the wall of the waveguide transverse to the direction of the interior
boundary currents.

WAVEGUIDE
 It is a hollow conductive tube usually rectangular in cross section but

sometimes circular or elliptical.
 The dimensions of the cross section are selected such that electromagnetic
waves can propagate within the interior of the guide.
 A high pass filter which operates above 1GHz.
Key Terms
 Phase Velocity
 It is the apparent velocity of a particular phase of the wave.
 It is the velocity with which a wave changes phase in a direction parallel to a
conducting surface.
 It can be greater than the speed of light.
Vp= fλ
ࢉ
Vp= ሺ૚ିሺ܎‫܋‬Ȁ܎ሻ 2
 Group Velocity
 It is the velocity of the group of waves at which the information signals of any
kind are propagated.
Vg*Vp = c2
WAVEGUIDE PARAMETERS
 CUT-OFF FREQUENCY,fc
 It is the absolute limiting frequency of the waveguide.
 CUT-OFF WAVELENGTH, λc:

 It is the smallest free space wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the
waveguide.
ࢉ
fc= ૛ࢇ
Where: a = cross sectional length
 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF WAVEGUIDE

 The characteristic impedance of a waveguide is analogous to the characteristic
impedance of a transmission line and is closely related to the Zo of the free
space.
૜ૠૠ
Z= ࢌࢉ
ξሺ૚ିሺ ሻ 2
ࢌ

where: fc= cut-off frequency
f=operating frequency
 WAVEGUIDE IMPEDANCE MATCHING

 Reactive stubs are used in waveguide for impedance matching.
Types:
 Inductive Iris
o It is consists of thin metallic plates placed perpendicular to the walls of the

waveguide.
o When the opening is parallel to the narrow walls, the reactance is
inductive; when it is parallel to the wide walls, it is capacitive.
 Post
o It acts as inductive shunt susceptance.
 Tuning Screw
o It acts as a capacitance.
 MODES OF PROPAGATION
 Electromagnetic waves travel down a waveguide in different configurations.
 TM (transverse magnetic) – the magnetic field lines are everywhere transverse.

 TE (transverse electric) – the electric field lines are everywhere transverse.
 TYPES OF WAVEGUIDES
 Rectangular Waveguide
o The most commonly used type of waveguide.
o The most dominant mode is TE1,0.
 Circular Waveguide
o This is commonly used in radar and microwave operations.
o The dominant mode is TE1,1.
 Ridged Waveguide
o It allows operation at lower frequencies.
 Flexible Waveguide
o It consists of spiral wound ribbons of brass or copper
SAMPLE PROBLEM
For a rectangular waveguide with a wall separation of 3cm and a desired frequency of operation
of 6GHz, determine:
a. cut-off frequency e. phase velocity
b. cut-off wavelength
c. characteristic impedance
d. group velocity

EXERCISE NO. 4
Name: _______________________ Score: ________
Course & Year: _______________ Date: ________
I.Solve the given problems.
1. Determine the efficiency of an antenna with radiated power of 65W. The power dissipation is
5W, and the directive gain is 200.
2. Determine the EIRP for an antenna with a directivity of 300 and an efficiency of 80% with an
input power of 2500W.
3. Determine the beam width and power gain (dB) of a parabolic antenna with the following
parameters: dish diameter of 2.5m, frequency of 4GHz and an efficiency of 55%.
4. Suppose that the obstacle is located at 2/3 of the distance from the transmitter and the
receiver. The distance between antennas is 20mi. By how much must the direct beam clear the
obstacle in order to avoid diffraction at a frequency of 10Ghz? Also, solve the earth bulge in ft.
5. A Tx site is on a hill 40m above an average terrain with a very dry climate and uses a tower
20m in height. How far above the average terrain would the receiving antenna have to be
placed for a reliable communication over a distance of 50mi? The operating frequency is 7Ghz
with reliability objective of 99.93%. Solve also the fade margin in dB.
6. A rectangular has 4.5 cm as the longer dimension. If the operating frequency is 8GHz, solve
for:
a) cut-off frequency
b) Cut-off wavelength
c) Characteristic impedance
d) Phase velocity
e) Group velocity
II. Encircle the letter of the BEST answer. No erasure.
1. What is a wave that does not disperse or lose its shape as it propagates through a
medium?
a. Photon
b. Coherent source
c. Incoherent source
d. Soliton
2. An antenna loading coil is a series inductance used to make the antenna electrically __
a. Neutral c. balance
b. Shorter d. longer
3. ____ elements are antenna conductors not directly connected to the transmission line.

a. Driven c. parasitic
b. Dipole d. ground
4. A horizontal antenna is
a. Centrally polarized
b. Vertically polarized
c. Horizontally polarized
d. Perpendicularly polarized
5. How must elements of a turnstile antenna be fed?
a. 90 degrees out of phase
b. 45 degrees out of phase
c. 180 degrees out of phase
d. 360 degrees out of phase
6. An antenna that is circularly polarized is the ____
a. Parabolic reflector c. yagi uda
b. Helical d. small circular loop
7. What antenna has omnidirectional characteristics?
a. Discone c. rhombic
b. Log periodic d. cassegrain
8. Best description of a collinear and broadside antenna radiation pattern.
a. Bidirectional
b. Perfect circle
c. Unidirectional
d. Omnidirectional
9. What is an isotropic radiator?
a. A reference antenna
b. Radiates uniformly in all directions
c. Has a gain of 1
d. All of the above
10. When the transmitting and receiving antennas are in the line of sight with each other, the
mode of propagation is ____ wave.
a. Space
b. Ground
c. Surface
d. Sky
11. The antenna used at microwave frequencies to focus its waves is a(n) _____ antenna.
a. Horn
b. Loop
c. Parabolic
d. Log periodic
12. What is the other term for dummy antenna?
a. Coil
b. Rheostat
c. Phantom
d. Plane
13. Which is a properly terminated antenna?
a. Rhombic c. marconi
b. Hertz d. dipole
14. What is the electromagnetic field that surrounds an antenna but does not radiate?
a. Magnetic field

b. Far field
c. Induction field
d. Radiation field
15. It is a non-resonant antenna several wavelengths long, but not cut to any particular
wavelength.
a. Quagi
b. Marconi antenna
c. Long-wire antenna
d. Hertz antenna
16. The region within the influence of the induction field of an antenna.
a. Far field
b. Near field
c. Radiation field
d. Radiation pattern
17. Radio waves are made up of _______ fields.
a. Electric fields c. electric and magnetic
b. Magnetic fields d. transverse electromagnetic
18. The polarization of a radio wave depends upon the position of its _______ with respect
to the earth’s surface.
a. Magnetic field c. both electric & magnetic
b. Electric field d. either electric & magnetic
19. What is the other term for a half wave dipole?
a. Hertz antenna c. long dipole
b. Marconi antenna d. hertzian dipole
20. The length of a half wave dipole antenna at 150MHz is ____________ft.
a. 1.164 c. 5.54
b. 3,09 d. 3.15
21. What is the feedpoint impedance of a dipole antenna?
a. 146 c. 73
b. 92 d.600
22. The radiation pattern of a half wave dipole looks like a __________.
a. Circular c, half eight
b. Omnidirectional d. figure eight
23. It is said to be the measure of antenna’s directivity.
a. Directive gain c. azimuth angle
b. Power gain d. beamwidth
24. The radiation pattern of a quarter wave antenna looks like a ___________
a. Doughnut c. half of figure eight
b. Figure eight d. bidirectional
25. An antenna that transmits and receives equally well in all directions is called as
__________ antenna.
a. Isotropic radiator c. bidirectional
b. Omnidirectional d. both a & b
26. The element of the Yagi Uda antenna which is directly connected to the transmission
line is called as __.
a. Driver c. reflector
b. Director d. parasitic element
a
27. A popular wideband antenna array is the ____________.
a. Log periodic c. discone

b. Turnstile d. yagi-uda
28. It is an antenna with 2 or more elements.
a. Helical c. yagi uda
b. Antenna array d. rhombic
29. If the beamwidth decreases, the directivity of an antenna is
a. Increases c. constant
b. Decreases d. variable
30. It is a metallic conductor that is capable of radiating and transmitting signals to the
atmosphere.
a. Transmission line c. isotropic
b. Antenna d. radiator
31. A distance near enough from an antenna that local inductive and capacitive effects are
significant.
a. Near area c. near field
b. Near distance d. proximity distance
32. Beamwidth is the angle formed in the radiation pattern of an antenna measured between
____ points.
a. 3dB c. half power
b. -3dB d. either b or c
33. In a monopole antenna, these are wires extending along the surface of the ground
a. Radials c. poles
b. Counterpoise d. interpoles
34. It is a minor lobe at an angle approximately 180° from the main lobe (front lobe).
a. Side lobe c. back lobe
b. Major lobe d. rare lobe
35. It is the equivalent resistance at the feedpoint corresponding to the radiation of energy
by an antenna.
a. Input impedance c. feedpoint
b. Radiation resistance d. feeder resistance
36. It is the product of the power supplied to a transmitting antenna and the gain of the
antenna with respect to an isotropic radiator.
a. Power gain c. beamwidth
b. Directive gain d. antenna power
37. It is a nonresonant antenna.
a. Long horn c. log periodic
b. Discone d. rhombic
38. It is the process of increasing the electrical length of an antenna by the addition of
inductance or capacitance.
a. Base loading c. loading coils
b. Top loading d. antenna loading
39. Which of the following is a microwave frequency?
a. 1.7MHz b. 750MHz c. 0.98GHz d. 22GHz
40. Signal propagation in a waveguide is by

a. electrons c. electric and magnetic fields
b. holes d. air pressure

References:
1. Advanced Electronic Communication Systems by Tomasi
2. Electronic Communication by Blake
3. Communication Electronics by Frenzel
4. Electronic Communication by Miller
Electronic Communication by Kennedy

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA, ANTENNA SYSTEMS, and DESIGN

MODULE/EXERCISENO. TOPICS PAGE NUMBER

Module 1 Transmission Line 2

Module 3 Radio Wave Propagation 29

Module 4 Antennas & Waveguides 37

Transmission Media, Antenna Systems, and Design 1

Define key terms in transmission lines

What is a Transmission Line?

 WAVE – is any oscillatory motion

What is a Transverse Electromagnetic Wave (TEM)?

 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 WAVE VELOCITY – it refers to the speed of a wave in a given medium

Note: c= 186,000 mi/s

Transmission Media, Antenna Systems, and Design 2

Where: c= speed of light

 CLASSES OF TRANSMISSION LINE

1. Balanced Transmission Line:

o It is called as differential or balanced

Note: metallic circuit currents- opposite direction

Longitudinal currents – same direction

2. Unbalanced Transmission Line

o One wire is at ground potential; the other wire is at signal

BALUN – a device that is used to connect balanced to unbalanced

 Narrowband balun is sometimes called as choke,sleeve or bazooka balun (for high

 METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINES

 PARALLEL-CONDUCTOR TRANSMISSION LINE – It is composed of two or more

 COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINE – It is consists of a center conductor surrounded by

 Kinds of Parallel Transmission Lines

Transmission Media, Antenna Systems, and Design 3

 Types of Twisted Pairs

b. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) – It is consists of 2 copper conductors separated by a solid

 Classes of UTP by EIA/TIA

 Classes of STP by EIA/TIA

COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINE

 Suited for high data transmission

Transmission Media, Antenna Systems, and Design 4

 TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLES

METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

 PRIMARY LINE CONSTANTS

 Series DC resistance (R)

 Series Inductance (L)

 Shunt Capacitance (C)

Primary constants are called as distributed parameters.

 SECONDARY LINE CONSTANTS

 Characteristic Impedance (Zo)

 Propagation Constant (γ)

Transmission Media, Antenna Systems, and Design 5

 It is sometimes called as the surge impedance.

 It is the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long line.

 For extremely low frequencies:

 For extremely high frequencies:

Where: R = resistance of the line,

G= conductance of the line

L= inductance of the line

C= capacitance of the line

 For 2-wire parallel line:

Where: S= spacing between centers of conductors, inches

ᵋr = relative dielectric constant

r= radius of the conductor, inches

 For coaxial cable:

Where: D= diameter of outer conductor, inches

r= diameter of inner conductor

ᵋr = relative dielectric constant

Name: ___________ Score:

Course & Year: ___ Date: _