CE 6102: STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

Lecture Notes-1: Introduction (Version 2.1)

Dr. Sukumar Baishya

Professor
Civil Engineering Department
NERIST
July 27, 2019

Contents
1 Preamble 2

2 Dynamic Load: What is it? 2

3 Essential Characteristics of a Dynamic System 2

3.1 Cyclic Relationship between Inertia Force and Acceleration . . . 3
3.2 Use of Differential Equation(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4 Classification of Dynamic Loads 4

5 Degree(s) of Freedom (DOF) of a Dynamic System 4

6 Components of a Basic Dynamic System 5

7 Idealisation of Structures: Formulation of Dynamic Model 6

7.1 Methods of Idealisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.1.1 Lumping of Mass: Lumped Mass System . . . . . . . . . 7
7.1.2 Generalised Displacement Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1 Preamble
In Structural Analysis, the problems are usually formulated in a manner in
which the basic unknown is the deformation and the equations are solved for
the unknown deformation. Once these are known, the strains can be obtained,
which, along with the appropriate constitutive equations, lead to the stresses.
Other quantities of interest viz., Shear Force, Bending moments etc. can finally
be derived from these stresses.

When the loading is static, (i.e., time invariant), the analysis is called Static
Analysis or simply Structural Analysis. When the loading is dynamic, (i.e.
varies with time), the analysis is called Dynamic Analysis. In this course, Dy-
namic Analysis of Structures will be discussed.
In a linear structure, both these analyses can be performed separately and
their results can be superposed. (Recall Superposition Principle)
When analysis is performed in this manner, it is found that Dynamic Anal-
ysis is fundamentally different from Static Analysis. As we move ahead
in this course these differences will be more and more apparent. The following
two sections discusses briefly some of these differences and thus summarises the
essential characteristics of a dynamic analysis problem.

2 Dynamic Load: What is it?

When the
• Magnitude,
• Direction, and/or
• Point of Application
of the load varies with time, it is called a Dynamic Load. Thus, the word
dynamic may be taken as synonymous to time varying. Since the load is dy-
namic, the resulting displacement is also time varying. In other words, dynamic
load leads to dynamic deformation. Later, we would discuss various types of
dynamic loads and their characteristics.

3 Essential Characteristics of a Dynamic Sys-

tem
In a dynamic system, the loads and the resulting deformations happen to be time
varying quantities. This time dependence leads to the following consequences:
• Time variation of displacement leads to Velocity
• Time variation of velocity leads to Acceleration
• Acceleration produces Inertia force(s) in the system (Newton’s second
law).
• This inertia force(s) opposes the acceleration which had produced the
inertia force itself.

2
 As per Newton’s first law, the state of rest or the state of uniform motion of
a body can be changed only by a net force acting on it. In a dynamic system,
the presence of acceleration brings inertia force into action so that the latter
tends to preserve the state of uniform motion by opposing the acceleration it-
self. Thus, presence of inertia force(s) is the distinguishing feature of a dynamic
system.

Hence, in a dynamic system, we have

• Force-displacement (P − ∆) relation
˙ relation, and,
• Force-Velocity (P − ∆)
¨ relation
• Force-Acceleration (P − ∆)
where P denotes force and ∆ denotes deformation. The number of dots over
∆ indicates the number of times ∆ is successively differentiated with respect to
time t. In addition to ∆, the reader may note the use of symbols u or x to denote
deformation at different instances in this text. This has been intentionally done,
to familiarise the reader with various notations for deformation prevalent in the
structural dynamics literature.

3.1 Cyclic Relationship between Inertia Force and Accel-

eration
As indicated above, acceleration that is caused by time varying deformations
leads to inertia force in a dynamic system. Further, it needs to be observed that
there is also a cyclic relationship between the cause – i.e. accleration, and the
effect – i.e. inertia force in a dynamic system. This is discussed below:
• Acceleration ∆ ¨ results in inertia force(s).
¨ itself (Newton’s 1st Law).
• This inertia force(s) oppose the acceleration ∆
¨ changes. (Consequently ∆ and ∆
• Therefore ∆ ˙ change as well.)
¨ leads to changed Inertia Force(s).
• The changed ∆
¨
• This, in turn, leads to further change in ∆.
• This cycle continues as long as the vibration continues.
This cyclic relationship between causes and effects (of vibration) is one of the
most important characteristics of a Dynamic System.

3.2 Use of Differential Equation(s)

In a dynamic problem, the load and deformations are time-varying quantities.
Therefore, there cannot be a single solution of the problem. Thus, a family of
successive solutions must be obtained over the various time instants of interest.
We have seen, in section 3.1 that ∆ ¨ affects the inertia force. The latter,
¨ ˙
in turn, affects the ∆, ∆, and ∆, thereby further modifying the inertia force
itself. Such a situation can conveniently be expressed mathematically in terms
of forces, deformations and the time derivatives of the deformation. In other
words, the equilibrium equation(s) 1 must be written in terms of deformation,
1 In dynamics, equilibrium equations are more commonly called the Equation(s) of Motion

3
 DYNAMIC LOADS

Prescribed / Deterministic Random /Non− Deterministic

(Associated with Deterministic Analysis) Associated to Non−deterministic
Analysis

Time history unknown

1
0
0
1
Load History is completely known 0 but can be defined in a
1
(however complex may it be) statistical sense

Periodic Non−Periodic/Transient

Simple Harmonic Motion Short Duration e.g. Impulse Load

Complex
Long Duration e.g.Earthquake Load

Figure 1: Classification of Dynamic Loads

velocity and acceleration, i.e., in terms of differential equation(s).

Thus, in a dynamic system, the equation(s) of motion must be written in

terms of differential equations.

4 Classification of Dynamic Loads

Dynamic loads can be classified primarily into Prescribed or Deterministic and
Random or Non-deterministic types. Prescribed dynamic loads are those, whose
time variation (time history) is completely known, however complex may it be.
On the other hand, in case of Random dynamic loads, time variation is not
known, but can be approximated in a statistical sense.
Figure 1 shows the classification of Dynamic Loads while Figure 2 shows
Simple and Complex Periodic loads. These are sub classifications of prescribed
loads, as explained in Figure 1

5 Degree(s) of Freedom (DOF) of a Dynamic

System
We have learnt that consideration of Inertia Forces in analysis is one of the
essential characteristics of a dynamic system. One crucial decision to be taken
in this regard is how many inertia forces should be considered? The answer
depends upon a number of factors; some of them are i) the type of structure

4
 Simple Periodic Load, P(t)=sin(t)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
P(t)

0.0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Simple Periodic Load, P(t)=cos(t)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
P(t)

0.0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Complex Periodic Load
5
4
3
2
1
P(t)

0
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
t

Figure 2: Simple and Complex Periodic Loads

being analysed, ii) kind of dynamic analysis method we are employing and iii)
the accuracy needed.
The number of significant inertia forces that must be included in analysis is
called the Degree of Freedom (DOF or dof). In a structure where significant
portion of the mass can be considered to be concentrated at specific locations
(also known as Lumped mass system), the number of inertia forces equals num-
ber of mass times the number of acceleration per mass. Thus, DOF=No. of
mass × No of motions possible in each mass.
A system having one dof is called Single Degree of Freedom (sdof) system. Sys-
tems having more than one dof may be termed as 2 dof or multi-dof (mdof)
systems, depending on the numbers of dof it has.

6 Components of a Basic Dynamic System

Let us consider a very simple physical system comprising of a cantilever beam
with a mass concentrated at its free end as shown in Fig 3. The mass of the
beam is such that it may be considered negligible compared to the concentrated
mass.
When a dynamic load acts on the system, there will be acceleration of the
mass due to the time varying deformation, leading to inertia force on the mass.
At the same time, due to deformation of the beam, the beam will develop
bending stress resisting further bending deformation of the system. During this
process, the kinetic energy (KE) of the mass is stored as bending strain energy
in the beam. This strain energy tries to restore the system into its initial state.

5
 Figure 3: Vibrating Cantilever Beam

Thus, in addition to inertia force, a restoring force develops which tries to oppose
the deformation. As a matter of fact, there will be a dynamic balance between
this strain energy (a form of Potential Energy; recall Castigliano’s theorems)
and the Kinetic energy of the mass. This dynamic balance will manifest as the
vibration of the system.
Ideally the balance between the PE and the KE implies that the total energy
of the system would remain constant. In reality, however, there is always some
energy loss or dissipation (e.g., friction with air/water surrounding the vibrating
mass, energy absorption at structural joints etc.) which would try to oppose
the movement of the mass. These losses try to dampen the vibration.

Thus, there would be three physical characteristics involved in a dynamic

system, viz.,
• Mass element at which the inertia force acts,
• Restoring mechanism, and,
• Energy dissipation mechanism.
Each of these characteristics may be considered to be concentrated in (or
represented by) a single physical element as follows:
• Mass may be represented by a block of mass m,
• Restoring force may be represented by a spring element with known stiff-
ness k, and,
• Energy absorber may be represented by a dashpot or Damper (usually
denoted by C).
Figure 4 shows a basic dynamic system having these three elements. This is
called a Spring-Mass-Dashpot system and it represents an sdof system.

7 Idealisation of Structures: Formulation of Dy-

namic Model
In order to express a real structure (or other engineering system) in terms of
the elements of the basic dynamic system, it becomes necessary to idealise, i.e.,

6
 k
m

Figure 4: Spring-Mass-Dashpot System

(a)

111111
000000
000000
111111
(b)
111111
000000
000000
111111

111111
000000
000000
111111

Figure 5: Structural Idealisation: Lumping of Mass. (a) SDOF system, (b)

MDOF system

to simplify the real system. This gives rise to the idealised dynamic model
of the real system, which is then analysed to understand its relevant physical
behaviour. It is important to note that the simplification must be done to such
an extent that the idealised model leads us to results of acceptable accuracy, with
reasonable analytical/computational efforts. Thus, many a times, idealisation is
found to be the most crucial and difficult phase of the whole process of analysis.

7.1 Methods of Idealisation

7.1.1 Lumping of Mass: Lumped Mass System
In structures where large portions of mass are concentrated in few locations
(e.g., floors in a multistoreyed building), the actual mass can be assumed to be
concentrated at those locations; rests of the structure is assumed mass-less. Fig
5 shows some such lumped mass structures along with their idealised dynamic
models.

7
 d(x)

b1
+

b2
+

b3
+

b4 +

Figure 6: Generalised Displacement Procedure

7.1.2 Generalised Displacement Procedure

We have seen that the inertia forces in a dynamic system result from its defor-
mations. Therefore, deformation patterns can be used to represent the effects
of inertia forces, or in other words, dynamic behaviour. A structure where mass
cannot be lumped at specified locations, (i.e., mass distributed continuously)
inertia forces will be acting at every point. Therefore, there would be infinite
nos. of inertia forces to be considered. 2
Computationally, it is not possible to consider infinite numbers of inertia
forces. However, it is possible to express an arbitrary displacement pattern
as a sum of specified displacement patterns (recall Fourier series). Therefore,
the deflected shape is expressed in such cases as sum of specified displacement
patterns.
In this manner, an infinite dof system is idealised as a system having limited
dofs. Figure 6 shows a simply supported beam undergoing an arbitrary displace-
ment. Also shown are the displacement patterns sum of which approximately
gives back the original arbitrary displacement pattern. The displacement is
expressed as
XN  nπx 
δ(x) = bn sin
n=1
L

2 Thus, the system has infinite dof. Such systems are also called continuous systems.