The Found Art of Paint Making A Comprehe

The Found Art of Paint Making
found
The lost Art
Of PaintMaking
A Comprehensive Guide to making

Your own Paint Media
Herman Jansen van Vuuren
Published by
H-Art Press
i
Text and photographs Copyright © 2012 Herman Jansen van Vuuren. The rights of Herman
Jansen van Vuuren to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, criticism or review, as
permitted under the Berne Convention in terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, (Act
98 of 1988), this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, only with the prior permission of the author.
Printed by H-Art Press

England
ii
THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER

GERT G. JANSEN VAN VUUREN.
iii
FOREWORD
By Koos van der Watt
There is a growing need amongst serious professional artists and students to know more about
the composition and properties of the art media that they utilise in the creative process. This
results from the curiosity of contemporary artists to explore alternatives to traditional materials
and techniques. In order to be able to experiment with new and unconventional materials a
basic knowledge of traditional conventions is a necessity. An understanding of the properties
and characteristics of traditional art media and processes will equip the artist with knowledge
that will enable him/her to develop new possibilities founded on stable and tested principles. The
high cost of commercially prepared art materials has been a major influence in the artist’s on-
going quest to find reasonable substitutes.
This book provides artists with the basic knowledge to experiment freely and produce their own
media at a fraction of the cost of premixed commercial products. Apart from these benefits it
encourages painters to enjoy the process of mixing the magical substances that become part of
that wonderful creative process - the art of painting.
Koos van der Watt
Department of Fine Arts,
University of South Africa

Pretoria
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INTRODUCTION
The origins of modern art can be traced far back in the history of humanity. The abstractions of
human forms in African cave paintings and that of the Egyptians have without a doubt
influenced modern painting. The pioneering efforts of the great artists such as Cézanne, Matisse
and Picasso, taught the modern artists that the rigid rules of expression had changed, and that
the limitations of these rules could now be shed. One of these results was a revolutionary way of
thinking and seeing which gave birth to amazing creative energy that has resulted in many
important works of art in this century.
Along with new ways of preparing paintings, there came the idea that the concept and the
process of the realisation of the work was more important than the final work produced, whether
or not it self-destructed was and appears of no concern to some artists. If it were not for the
idea, the painting would have no meaning. This is surely undeniable, but there is something very
discouraging about seeing an idea lose its meaning because the artist forgot, or ignored, the
tradition of sound craftsmanship which has a direct bearing on the permanence of the artwork.
The trend toward the disintegration of practical information about artist materials began with the
industrial revolution. This new world had neither time nor patience for the traditional method of
transmitting knowledge orally from master to apprentice. Consequently, a great deal of
information was lost. Colleges and universities with art programmes not only did nothing to
reverse this trend but also fostered it by emphasising the philosophical and conceptual side of
art over the practicalities of producing it.
The ABC television series Nightline devoted thirty minutes to the subject of the impermanence
of contemporary art. On this program, Larry Rivers explained that the reason for this problem is
that information about contemporary materials does not seem to be part of art education... “No
one told me that tape eats paper and I used it for years”. Virtually all institutions, schools, and
universities that offer art programs today provide no formal background in materials. The need
for this kind of training has, however, become increasingly evident, as more and more money is
invested in Artist's materials and in collecting art. Sotheby’s estimates that as much as four
hundred billion dollars’ worth of art is held in private collections, twenty-five billion dollars of
which is sold each year. In 1986, Sotheby's sold ‘Out of the Window’ by Jasper Johns for more
than three and a half million dollars, setting a record for a work by a living artist.
The artist needs to realise that when they prepare their own paints, they have the potential for
greater control and variety of effects that are not possible with commercially manufactured
paints. Manufacturers have to prepare a product that will have a shelf life of at least 2 years. To
achieve this, it is necessary for stabilisers to be used, thereby adding a higher percentage
vehicle than would be needed if the paint were used immediately. The artists who prepare their
own paints can make any combination of paints that suit their preference and customise them.
By mixing their own paints, artists are able to save a substantial amount on the cost of materials.
When ready-made products are bought, savings often have to be sacrificed for convenience.
For the teacher in particular, there is yet another reason for having students make their own
materials with which they work. This is the best way for them to know and understand the
chemistry and nature of the materials, by actually using them.
v
Art is quite effectively related to literature and the social sciences but very seldom with physical
sciences. This is unfortunate as most artists and students make fundamental errors in painting,
which can be avoided if they are better informed regarding the chemistry and correct function of
materials in painting. The knowledge that they gain can prepare them to be more enlightened
consumers of ready-made products and can make it possible for them to improvise if certain
materials are not available.
When exploring a variety of traditional media and by preparing their own materials in much the
same way as artists working in pre-industrial times made them, students often realise a far
greater appreciation of works produced by artists in earlier times.
When an artist prepares his/her own paints the creative control is far greater than that of just
using normal artists grade store bought paints. This allows for more of the artists individuality to
have its way from the very onset of the birth of the paint. It is a known fact that when an artist
sympathises with his medium that somehow mysteriously the medium returns the favour. The
example can be found especially in sculpture. The creative process starts at this stage, which
has for many years been looked upon as a mundane exercise, but was one of the secrets of the
great masters.
Professionalism and fine art does not seem to find common ground with many of today’s
contemporary artists. Whilst lecturing about artist materials at a prominent university, I heard a
lecturer mention that one of his Fine Art students created an artwork that was one of the best he
had seen (the lecturer that is), but he would not accept it for marking as it was in the process of
falling off the canvas. Imagine creating the absolute best painting in your life and it falls apart in
front of you. What an absolute shame it would be if the Masters of the past had today's attitude.
I once heard an artist remark that he never varnishes his paintings; he doesn’t see the need for
it. Would you buy a car that was unpainted, and was just bare metal without even a primer on it?
Of course you would not; it would rust away within weeks!
It seems that many of today's artists are no longer concerned about the longevity of their
creations and have essentially lost the craft aspect of art. The artist of today seems to be doing
very little research into materials and their processes; they seem to accept the concept of one
size fits all. Would you go to a restaurant that gave you no choice of what you were going to eat,
and each time the waiter brought you what he though you would like, without consulting you
regarding your preference? I do not think so. The simplicity of and enjoyment in preparing your
own materials cannot be over emphasised. Hopefully this book will assist you the artist to more
fully appreciate your materials and additionally save a considerable sum of money on artist
materials in the future.
vi

(Memories, 1996. Handmade oil paint on Belgian linen. Size 160x112cm. The artist’s collection).
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 What is Paint?.............................................................................................................................. 5

Pigment sources ............................................................................................................................ 5
Natural organic pigments........................................................................................................... 6
Synthetic organic pigment......................................................................................................... 6
Factors to be considered when choosing a pigment......................................................... 6
Binders for Paints.......................................................................................................................... 6
Encaustic/Wax ............................................................................................................................... 6
Egg Tempera ................................................................................................................................... 6
Fresco ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Oil Paint ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Water Colours/Gouache ............................................................................................................. 7
Distemper ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Acrylic Paint .................................................................................................................................... 7
Other Binding Media .................................................................................................................... 8
General advice regarding Oil Paint Mixing ........................................................................... 8
Chapter 2 Pigments ...................................................................................................................................... 9
WHAT ARE PIGMENTS? .......................................................................................................................... 9
History .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Pigment types .............................................................................................................................. 10
Requirements for pigments to be used in paint. .............................................................. 11
PIGMENT AND DYE CLASSIFICATION ................................................................................................ 12
Backbone Composition. ........................................................................................................................ 13
Colorants ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Chemistry....................................................................................................................................... 14
The terminology .......................................................................................................................... 15
Pigment size ................................................................................................................................. 15
Pigment particle size Table ..................................................................................................... 16
The Pigment list..................................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 3 Oil Paint Making ........................................................................................................................ 29
How is oil paint made? ......................................................................................................................... 30
Introduction to Oil Binders (see detailed discussion in Chapter 11) .................................................... 32
Varnishes ................................................................................................................................................ 33
Driers............................................................................................................................................... 33
Turpentine ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Binders............................................................................................................................................ 34
Stabilizers ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Oil-Colours .............................................................................................................................................. 35
PAINT MAKING IN THE ARTIST’S STUDIO ........................................................................................ 38
OIL PAINT PREPARATION........................................................................................................ 41
Resins ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
RECIPE N° 1 .................................................................................................................................. 43
Simple Oil Vehicle ....................................................................................................................... 43
RECIPE N° 2 .................................................................................................................................. 45
Recipe for a Simple Oil Paint................................................................................................... 45
Resin Oil Paint........................................................................................................................................ 47
Why resin oil paint? ................................................................................................................... 47
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Table of Contents
How to Prepare Resin Oil Paint ........................................................................................................... 49

RECIPE N° 3 - Recipe for Resin Oil Paint ............................................................................ 49
Method............................................................................................................................................ 49
Step by Step illustrations of making a resin oil paint..................................................... 50
Chapter 4 ACRYLIC PAINT MAKING ......................................................................................................... 54
Pigments ........................................................................................................................................ 54
RECIPE N° 4 - Recipe for Acrylic Paint ................................................................................ 55
Chapter 5 Watercolour and Gouache Making .......................................................................................... 58
WATERCOLOUR AND GOUACHE ......................................................................................................... 58
Gum Arabic ............................................................................................................................................ 58
How to make a Watercolour vehicle..................................................................................... 59
RECIPE N° 5 .................................................................................................................................. 59
RECIPE N° 6 .................................................................................................................................. 59
Gouache ................................................................................................................................................. 60
RECIPE N° 7 .................................................................................................................................. 60
How to make Gouache .............................................................................................................. 60
Method............................................................................................................................................ 60
Brighteners and Fillers .............................................................................................................. 63
Other Additives ............................................................................................................................ 63
Mediums ......................................................................................................................................... 64
Grounds .......................................................................................................................................... 65
Fixing............................................................................................................................................... 65
Fixatives ......................................................................................................................................... 65
Distemper ...................................................................................................................................... 65
The Gums ....................................................................................................................................... 66
Gum Tragacanth .......................................................................................................................... 66
To prepare Gum Tragacanth for use in Painting .............................................................. 66
Use of Pigments in Water-Colours ........................................................................................ 67
Varnishes ....................................................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 6 Egg Tempera Making................................................................................................................ 68
Pure egg tempera ................................................................................................................................. 68
Pigments ........................................................................................................................................ 68
Distilled water .............................................................................................................................. 68
The Paint ........................................................................................................................................ 68
Recipe for Egg Tempera vehicle............................................................................................. 69
RECIPE N° 8 .................................................................................................................................. 69
Recipe for Egg Tempera Paint ................................................................................................ 70
RECIPE N° 9 .................................................................................................................................. 70
Egg-Oil Emulsions ................................................................................................................................. 70
Recipe for Egg-Oil Emulsion Paint......................................................................................... 71
RECIPE N° 10 ............................................................................................................................... 71
Method............................................................................................................................................ 71
Yolk of Egg .................................................................................................................................... 72
Effect of yolk of Egg on Certain Pigments .......................................................................... 72
TEMPERA ........................................................................................................................................ 72
Chapter 7 Alkyd Paint Making.................................................................................................................... 74
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Table of Contents
Recipe for Alkyds ................................................................................................................................... 75

RECIPE N° 11 ............................................................................................................................... 75
Method............................................................................................................................................ 75
Chapter 8 Ink Making ................................................................................................................................. 76
Shellac .................................................................................................................................................... 76
Inks (Shellac based.) ............................................................................................................................ 76
Distemper (Rabbit Skin Glue Base) Ink .............................................................................................. 76
Recipe 12 ....................................................................................................................................... 76
Recipe for Distemper Ink ......................................................................................................... 76
Method............................................................................................................................................ 77
Drawing Inks ................................................................................................................................ 77
Gum Arabic Recipe ..................................................................................................................... 77
Methylcellulose Recipe.............................................................................................................. 77
How do you make ink? .............................................................................................................. 78
Writing Fluids ............................................................................................................................... 78
To make common Black Ink .................................................................................................... 78
Stark's Ink (Writing Fluid)....................................................................................................... 78
Recipe 13 ....................................................................................................................................... 79
Basic Permanent Black Ink ...................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 9 Encaustic Paint Making............................................................................................................. 82
Encaustic ................................................................................................................................................ 82
Hardened Wax Paste ................................................................................................................. 82
Recipe 14 ....................................................................................................................................... 83
Basic Encaustic ............................................................................................................................ 83
Waxes and Encaustic Paint ...................................................................................................... 84
Bleached Beeswax ...................................................................................................................... 84
Carnauba Wax .............................................................................................................................. 84
Microcrystalline Wax ................................................................................................................. 85
Paraffin Wax ................................................................................................................................. 85
How to make an encaustic vehicle ........................................................................................ 86
RECIPE 15 ...................................................................................................................................... 86
How to make Encaustic Paint ................................................................................................. 86
RECIPE 16 ...................................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 10 MAKING PASTELS (OIL AND CHALK) ................................................................................... 88
RECIPE N° 17 ............................................................................................................................... 88
Recipe for Oil paint sticks ........................................................................................................ 88
Recipe 18 ....................................................................................................................................... 89
Chalk Pastel .................................................................................................................................. 89
Chapter 11 Drying oils/Binders/Glazing.................................................................................................... 92
Glaze medium ...................................................................................................................................... 117
Recipe 19 ..................................................................................................................................... 117
Glaze mediums........................................................................................................................... 118
Siccatives and Driers ............................................................................................................... 119
Glazing .......................................................................................................................................... 119
Chapter 12 Diluents and Thinners .......................................................................................................... 122
Turpentine (genuine gum turpentine) .............................................................................................. 122
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Table of Contents
Mineral Spirits ...................................................................................................................................... 122

Ethyl Alcohol ........................................................................................................................................ 123
Technique of Working with Diluents .................................................................................. 123
Chapter 13 Varnishes and Waxes ........................................................................................................... 125
Dammar Varnish.................................................................................................................................. 126
Ketone Varnish .................................................................................................................................... 128
Historical Development........................................................................................................... 129
Preparation, Application, and Properties varnishes...................................................... 129
Recipe 20 .................................................................................................................................... 129
Chapter 14 Painting Supports and Grounds .......................................................................................... 132
Ground........................................................................................................................................................ 132
PREPARATION OF SUPPORTS FOR PAINTING ................................................................ 132
Stretchers .................................................................................................................................... 133
Making up a Stretcher ............................................................................................................. 134
RECIPE N° 21 ............................................................................................................................. 137
GROUNDS............................................................................................................................................. 139
GROUND COAT OR UNDER-PAINTING............................................................................................. 139
Fat over Lean .............................................................................................................................. 141
RECIPE N° 22 ............................................................................................................................. 141
Acrylic Ground ..................................................................................................................................... 142
RECIPE N° 23 ............................................................................................................................. 142
Rigid supports ............................................................................................................................ 143
RECIPE N° 24 ............................................................................................................................. 144
Gouache on Paper and Board: Glazing and Coating ....................................................................... 145
PRIMING GROUNDS............................................................................................................................ 146
ADHESIVES FOR GROUNDS ............................................................................................................... 146
BODY ADDITIVES TO GROUNDS ...................................................................................................... 146
GROUNDS NEED BODY, NOT JUST COLOUR. ................................................................................. 146
COLOURED GROUNDS ........................................................................................................................ 146
ISOLATING MEDIUMS ........................................................................................................................ 146
Glossary of Terms ..................................................................................................................................... 147
Bibliographies ............................................................................................................................................ 154
4
What is Paint?
Chapter 1 What is Paint?
What is Paint?
 A product that dries to form a hard, permanent coating for decorating or protecting a
surface.
 A mixture consisting of two basic ingredients:
Solid (Insoluble) Pigment + Binder (Liquid)= Paint

Pigment (Ground powder)= Colour
Binder (Suspension liquid)=Adhesive (Glue)
Pigment sources
Natural inorganic (Earliest used by man)
Derived from Earth
Yellow Ochre, Slate Grey, the Sienna’s, and numerous others. Closely related are the Mineral
Pigments (also natural inorganic pigments) which include colours such as Vermilion
(Cinnabar/Mercuric Sulphide) and green Malachite. Artificial inorganic pigments are colours that are
manufactured rather than mined. Such colours as Naples Yellow, Verdigris and Sandarac are in this
category.
5
What is Paint?
Natural organic pigments
Derived from either vegetable or animal
Sap Green, Indian Yellow (cow urine from India), and Bone Black (calcined bones).
Synthetic organic pigment

Developed in the nineteenth century. Initially, had a tendency to fade. This problem was overcome
and colour groups such as the Indanthrene and Heliogen were invented.
Factors to be considered when choosing a pigment
 Lightfastness.
 Drying time
 Oil absorption
 Opacity
Health & Safety- Dust mask to be used when handling all dry pigments.
Binders for Paints
Encaustic/Wax
Beeswax is one of the oldest known binders used for pigment. The beeswax paint is called Encaustic
paint. It is a very permanent media with a lustrous surface quality. Pigment is added to molten
beeswax, which is then applied to a rigid support. Due to the brittleness of wax (linseed oil added to
the encaustic paint gives the paint more flexibility) encaustic should be painted on a rigid surface.
Other types of wax such as carnauba wax or microcrystalline wax can be used with beeswax to
achieve a higher melting point.
Egg Tempera
Egg yolk is the binder for Tempera painting. Egg Tempera is an ancient tradition that offers good
results not duplicated by any other binder. This binder is the most permanent of all known binders.
It was used for producing the early icon paintings. Egg yolk acts as an emulsifier, is water-soluble
whilst wet as well as allowing for oil and gum emulsions to readily mix with the Tempera paint
producing Egg/Oil Tempera.
6
What is Paint?
Fresco
Fresco is the painting of wetted pigments into fresh (wet) lime plaster. In this case no binding agent
is used with the pigments. They are mixed into a paste using water and are then worked directly into
the fresh plaster surface. It is the plaster itself that binds the pigments during the carbonation
(hardening) of the lime. It creates a bond so strong that it cannot be dissolved. Due to the high alkali
of lime only the pigments, which are alkali-fast, should be used. Fresco technique was well evolved
before Christ walked the earth. Murals from Pompeii and Rome are still well preserved.
Oil Paint
This practice of using oil paint evolved out of the use of Linseed oil (from the flax plant seed) or
Walnut oil that acts as the binder. Linseed and walnut oil dries through oxidation only, not
evaporation, & produces a strong flexible film. Oil paint is flexible therefore can be used on a flexible
substrate i.e. linen and cotton canvas. Walnut oil properties are similar to that of linseed oil, and
recently it has been proven to be superior in most respects. Cold pressed oils are the better type to
be used in oil paint making. Other oils such as poppy and safflower oils are also used. Oil paint has
the longest drying time of all paints. With the addition of painting mediums, such as resins and driers
oil paint can be employed for glazing and impasto techniques. Oil paint is the most widely recognized
artists paint, even with contemporary artists.
Water Colours/Gouache
Gum Arabic - binder for watercolour and gouache paints.
Lumps harvested from acacia trees - dissolved in water to form a gum solution. pigment is ground in
this solution to produce paint (resoluble once dried). This solution requires a preservative. Gouache is
different from watercolour in that chalk is added to it, which makes the paint more opaque, and
imparts a dusty quality to the paint surface. Can be stored in cakes. Ox gall (a wetting agent) is
added for even dispersion of pigment the solution.
Distemper
Rabbit skin glue or other hide glues (gelatine) act as the binding agent for distemper. Distemper
paint has been used primarily in the painting of interiors. It has a wonderful matte finish and a soft
feel to it.
Acrylic Paint
A relatively recent invention, acrylic emulsion is the binder in acrylic paints. Acrylics are water soluble,
but dry to a water insoluble and impenetrable flexible film. They are very fast drying and can be used
as an under painting for oils. A retarder can be added to slow the drying process so that the artist can
manipulate the paint similarly to that of oil paint. Originally thought to be a replacement for oil paints,
acrylic paint has proven to be a unique and valuable medium in its own right.
Casein
Casein is a milk-based product that forms strong glue when mixed with an alkali (e.g. lime, borax,
7
What is Paint?
ammonia, etc.). Casein paint has a very dry, velvety surface that is rich in colour. Casein is water-
soluble; however, it dries water insoluble that makes it possible to use it with glazing techniques.
Casein is also an emulsifier, i.e. oil and varnishes can be added to the casein glue and still be thinned
with water. Casein can be used as an under painting for oils and can be applied to a variety of rigid
surfaces.
Other Binding Media

There are a number of other materials that can be used to bind pigment to a surface. These include
shellac, starch glue, gelatine, Dextrin, Tylose, plastic resins and more. Tempera is a fluid mixture of
binder (organic medium), water and volatile additives (vegetal essential oils).
General advice regarding Oil Paint Mixing

When preparing oil paint it is important to consider that most pigments vary in their capacity for oil
absorption. Some pigments require more oil than others to make a paint of a suitable plasticity. The
amount of oil required for a specific pigment depends on the particle size, the larger the particle size
the less oil is required and usually the lighter weight the pigment the higher the oil absorption.
Problem Solution
Weak paint film Coat pigments well using Glass Muller or mortar and pestle
Yellowing of oil paint especially Reduce quantity of oil in paint and mix more thoroughly, use
whites walnut oil rather than linseed oil.
Paint is stringy especially ultramarine, Add small quantities of beeswax solution, let paint stand for
yellow ochre and zinc white 6-12 hours, then add more pigment and remix
8
Pigments
Chapter 2 Pigments
WHAT ARE PIGMENTS?
Pigments are small particles of coloured material, insoluble in oils, water, and resins. Pigment
suspended in vehicles or liquid binders result in paint. Pigments are used in all forms of paint.
Colorant is the term that colour scientists use for the entire range of pigments and dyes. A dye
stains a vehicle but an inorganic pigment is suspended in the medium.
Most dyes are organic and not lightfast.
History
Prehistoric humans found many colorants (pigments) in the minerals occurring in soils and clays.
Cave paintings using red and yellow coloured clays, black from charred wood or bones, and white
from chalk deposits. Artists in Egypt had learned how to process natural minerals, animal products,
and vegetable matter into useful and stable colorants.
The origins of pigments and dyes are in common natural products - minerals, berries, roots, and
insects. Mauve - first synthetic dye - discovered-1856, this led to the development of organic
chemical industry. Since then many synthetic chemical dyes and pigments have been created.
Artist needs to consider pigments and dyes together as the distinction between pigments and dyes
are often based on usage and physical properties rather than on chemical constitution.
Pigment - Principle characteristic distinguishes it from a dye, insoluble in the medium in which it is
used. In many cases the same chemical product works as either a dye or a pigment.
9
Pigments
Pigment types
Pigments are categorised generally in two categories: Inorganic and organic.
The two criteria can be combined to define four pigment categories:
1. Natural inorganic, metal or earth pigments extracted from natural mineral deposits
2. Synthetic inorganic, metal or earth pigments created by combining raw chemicals and ores
through industrial manufacture
3. Natural organic, pigments made as extracts from animal or plant matter
4. Synthetic organic, carbon based pigments, often made from petroleum compounds, that
mimic life based colorants.
Natural - Pigment molecule is extracted from a mineral, plant or animal source that occurs in
nature, and is only modified by grinding, washing, filtering or heating;
Synthetic - Pigment molecule was originally assembled or significantly modified by an industrial
chemical process.
Inorganic -Pigment is a mineral compound, typically an oxide or sulphide of one or more metal
or rare earth elements; INORGANIC PIGMENTS come from the earth (ochre’s, for
example), or they are manufactured from metals or minerals (like lead white or
cerulean blue). These are coloured, insoluble compounds of mainly inorganic
composition and include the elements, oxides, salts, and complex salts. All are
usually called minerals, although this is a less specific designation. As a group, the
inorganic pigments are considered highly durable in most painting processes,
though some of the processed natural mineral pigments and manufactured mineral
pigments are not. These pigments include the following:
1. Native earths: raw umber, ochre, etc.
2. Artificially processed mineral colours: zinc oxide, cadmium yellow, etc.
3. Calcined native earths: burnt umber, burnt sienna, etc.
Organic - Pigments contains carbon in combination primarily with hydrogen, nitrogen or

oxygen. Vegetable, animal or synthetic organic pigments. Generally not as
permanent as the inorganic pigments.
The organic pigments are made up of the following:

1. Synthetic organic pigments
2. Vegetable: cochineal, Indian yellow, etc.
3. Animal: gamboge, indigo, madder, etc.
ORGANIC PIGMENTS
From natural sources such as Alizarin crimson from madder root or they are synthesized from
organic chemicals. Examples of synthetic pigments include phthalo blue and the fluorescent
colours.
There are hundreds of organic pigments used in art materials. Most of the natural organic
pigments are not toxic. Only a small percentage of the synthetic pigments are toxic. These are
10
Pigments
“concentrated organic colourings with no salt-forming groups” composed mainly of

arrangements of carbon atoms and carbon based molecules. As a group, these colours are
regarded as highly permanent, although some of the subgroups are notably fugitive or
impermanent. Inorganic pigments can be transparent, opaque, or transparent with
characteristically shaped particles with an inherent colour. Most organic pigments are soluble
transparent dyes. This is the difference between these two groups. For an organic colorant to
function correctly as a pigment, it must be a particle. Dyes when not fixed in a particle form
have a tendency to migrate and bleed.
Requirements for pigments to be used in paint.
1. Should be a smooth, finely divided powder.

2. Should be insoluble in the medium in which it is used.
3. Should withstand the action of sunlight without changing colour, under conditions to which
the painting might normally be exposed.
4. Should be chemically inert and unaffected by materials with which it is to be mixed or by the
atmosphere.
5. Should have the correct degree of opacity or transparency to suit the purpose for which it is
used.
6. Should be of full strength and contain no fillers or loading agents.
7. Should conform to accepted standards of colour and colour quality and exhibit all the
desirable characteristics of its type.
11
Pigments
PIGMENT AND DYE CLASSIFICATION
Companies selling paints, inks, pigments and dyes list colours in many ways, sometimes using
traditional names (Prussian blue, Mars brown etc.), simple colours (white, red, etc.), and sometimes-
fanciful names designed to attract customers (peacock blue). As a result, it is almost impossible to
know the actual colour chemicals to which these names refer.
One answer to this identification problem is to prevail upon dye and paint manufacturers and
distributors to reveal their products' internationally accepted Colour Index (C.I.) names and/or
numbers. All but a handful of commercial pigments and dyes are assigned these identifying names
and/or numbers. Many responsible manufacturers of fine arts products already provide this service
for customers.
Another way to identify some dyes and pigments is by their Chemical Abstracts Service numbers.
However, not all pigments and dye have Chemical Abstracts Service numbers.
At the very least, artists need to know if the pigments they use are classified either as inorganic or
organic chemicals.
12
Pigments
Backbone Composition.
Each paint manufacturer develops a proprietary backbone composition — a basic recipe of

pigment and vehicle ingredients — then tweaks the exact proportions of this recipe to address the
sometimes competing requirements imposed by the cost, particle size, permanency, dispersion,
tinting strength, etc. of different pigments. The typical aim is to put each pigment on best display,
while minimizing wide differences in the texture or handling attributes of the different pigments and
giving all the paints comparable handling attributes and finished colour appearance.
Today synthetic pigments are almost exclusively used in commercial artist's paints. Reserves of most
natural inorganic pigments, like reserves of tropical hardwoods or sculptor's marble, have been
exhausted over time by unrelenting consumer demand; others cannot be mined or processed because
of severe environmental impact. The development of synthetic inorganic pigments was perhaps the
major technical advance in painting during the early 19th century, and has evolved since then into an
amazing array of durable, brilliant colorants of every hue.
Nearly all-natural organic pigments (with the exception of carbon blacks) are chemically unstable and
will deteriorate when used as pigments. Synthetic organic paints were a major chemical innovation of
the second half of the 19th century, but many of these first colorants are too impermanent for artistic
use. Modern synthetic pigments, almost all developed in the 20 th century are far more durable and
provide the most intense and varied. Paint manufacturers such as Winsor & Newton or Daniel Smith are
dependent on a range of suppliers for paint raw materials. To a large degree, the quality of the paint
depends on the quality of the ingredients that go into it — most of all, on the quality of the pigments.
Walnut Oil Paint
13
Pigments
Colorants
All modern colorants, no matter where you buy them or how much you pay for them, are
synthetic compounds made from a variety of basic ingredients, including recycled industrial
wastes. The single pigment comprising roughly two thirds of total global pigment manufacture is
titanium dioxide (PW6), which provides the white base for house paints, primers and the like;
next come the iron oxides, roughly 20% of world production. Nearly all the remaining colorants
are synthetic organics, such as the quinacridones or benzimidazolones that are manufactured
from the complex interactions of petrochemicals and acids, sometimes at high temperature or
pressure.
Chemistry
From a chemical point of view, exactly the same colorants are used in many manufacturing
applications — to make house paints, automobile finishes, plastics, printing inks (for paper and
textiles), coloured leather (for shoes, handbags or jackets), building materials (the colours in
cement, stucco and bricks), carpets and synthetic floor coverings, a variety of synthetic fibres
and textiles, rubber, paper, cosmetics, ceramics, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs and even wood
stains, dental ceramics and tattoo inks. The major difference among these products is that they
are formulated to the specific lightfastness, hue, chroma, particle size, medium (water or oil
based), purity — and cost! — Suitable for different industrial or manufacturing applications.
Thus, you can buy a chemically identical phthalocyanine blue (PB15) for £2.20 or £15.40,
depending on the manufacturer and intended end use (read "quality") of the pigment. For these
reasons, different manufacturers offer the same pigment under separate trademarks, primarily
to distinguish formulations designed for different industrial applications. For example, arylide
yellow 10G (PY3) is sold by many different manufacturers under trademarks such as Eljon
Yellow 10GE, Acosil Yellow 3, Dalamar MA Yellow YT-828-d, Hansa Yellow 10G, Solintor Yellow
10G, Pintasol Yellow E-L1, Monolite Yellow 10GE HD, Kenalake Yellow 10G, and so on — and
these are just some of the brands registered as suitable for art materials manufacture!
Obviously, the quality, hue and texture of a specific pigment such as "cerulean blue," "cadmium
yellow" or "quinacridone rose" can vary significantly, depending on the grade of pigment
obtained and the manufacturer that produced it. Yet the brand of pigment watercolour paint
companies use is considered proprietary information — there is no "Clariant Inside" sticker on
paints to match the "Intel Inside" of personal computers. Artists must take all these product
decisions on trust. All pigments can be classified according to two criteria: whether the pigments
are (1) natural or synthetic, and (2) inorganic or organic.
14
Pigments
The terminology
Despite the boastful marketing put out by some art supply manufacturers about their special
formulations and unique colours, the art materials market is much too small to influence the
industrial production of pigments. With few exceptions, the range and quality of pigments
available to artists depends entirely on the colour requirements of large consumer products and
manufacturing companies — manufacturers of house paints, inks, automobiles and plastics in
particular. This has become painfully obvious in the case of quinacridone deep gold (PO49), a
lovely, deep yellow pigment offered by several watercolour lines, which is no longer
manufactured. Why? Because automotive manufacturers stopped buying the colour.
(Watercolour manufacturers will continue to manufacture paints using remaining stockpiles of
the pigment.) Artists may unwittingly buy paints touted as the same special pigment used by
some famous 19th century artist, when actually the pigments were designed, manufactured and
priced for use in plastics or concrete! However, some small pigment manufacturers will create
special pigment formulations if commissioned to do so, and the best chemical manufacturing
companies, such as Sun, Ciba-Geigy or Clariant, produce a range of pigments that includes
artists' grade colorants of very consistent and very high quality.
In addition to the manufactured pigments, art supply manufacturers must also buy agricultural
or animal products, such as gum Arabic, glycerine, glycol, corn syrup, honey, dextrin, ox gall, as
well as colourless chemicals such as fillers, brighteners, surfactants and fungicides. Variation in
the quality or availability of these materials within and across brands occurs as well.
Pigment size
The paint manufacturer manufactures most pigments to a specific particle size that cannot be
modified by additional milling. But particle size is not a simple attribute. Most pigments clump
into larger chunks called aggregates (clusters of particles) or agglomerates (clumps of
aggregates); these vary with the quality and methods of pigment manufacture and the
dispersability of the pigment, and these clumps can be reduced by more extensive milling by the
paint manufacturer. Even so, the pigment particle size affects the transparency and mixing
characteristics of the pigment in specific applications, so it is worthwhile to learn whether
common pigments are usually coarsely or finely textured. The table gives the average particle
size for common pigments used in watercolour paints in micron s (micrometres). A micron
(abbreviated ") is one millionth of a meter, or 0.000036 inches. As reference, a human hair is
about 100 in diameter; a red blood cell, 5; a wavelength of light, about 0.5; the average virus,
about 0.1.
Note: Particle measurements are approximate and represent the average of a distribution of
sizes. The shape of pigment particles varies widely across types of chemicals, so size
characterizations can be arbitrary. The size of pigment particles depends on methods of
manufacture. All pigment particles tend to clump into aggregates or agglomerates, which may
be 5 to 50 times larger than the individual pigment particles.
15
Pigments
Pigment particle size Table
meters representative pigments
10-4 Cobalt violet

manganese blue
10-5 Cobalt green

cobalt turquoise
cerulean blue
manganese violet
Ultramarine blue (RS)

viridian
cobalt blue
10-6 Ultramarine blue (GS)

violet (brown) iron oxides
normal iron blue
Semi opaque synthetic organics

diarylides
perylenes
pyrroles
naphthols
perinone orange
chromium oxide green
cadmium red
cadmium orange
black iron oxides
titanium white
10-7 Semi-transparent synthetic organics

arylides
benzimidazolones
dioxazines
red iron oxides
yellow iron oxides
cadmium yellow
bismuth yellow
zinc white
16
Pigments
Transparent synthetic organics

quinacridones
phthalocyanines
transparent red iron oxides
transparent yellow iron oxides
transparent cobalt blue
10-8 Carbon black

transparent iron blue
10-9 Glucose (corn syrup) molecule
10-10 Water molecule
Particle size is responsible for several important differences in pigment characteristics. Across
different watercolour pigments, smaller particle sizes in general characterize pigments that are
more transparent, more staining, and more strongly tinting. Within the same watercolour
pigment, smaller particle sizes (down to a limiting size of approximately 0.5 or the wavelength of
light) tend to make the pigment less saturated and lighter valued. (In oils and acrylics, smaller
particle sizes make the pigments more transparent and up to a point more saturated, as the
particles are entirely embedded in the dried paint vehicle, which reduces light scattering at the
particle surface. See this discussion of the luminosity myth for the differences between oil and
watercolour paint layers.)
Typically the hue of the pigment also changes with particle size, sometimes dramatically.
Pigments in smaller particle sizes are more transparent because the same number of particles
covers less of the paper surface area, allowing more of the paper (or paint layer underneath) to
show through. Even opaque paints can be made more transparent by diluting the colour, which
creates more visible spaces between the pigment particles applied to paper.
Finally, particle size affects the handling attributes of the paint. Usually smaller pigment particles
are more susceptible to back runs. They also require the addition of a dispersant such as ox gall
to completely wet (disperse) the pigment powder in the paint vehicle during milling, and this
additive causes the pigment to shoot wildly when applied wet in wet.
Each paint company has its own standards for pigment size, not least because more finely
divided pigments are more brilliant, but also more expensive and less lightfast. This is why
pigments with the same colour index name made by different pigment manufacturers can have
different lightfastness ratings. Differences among paint brands are also noticeable in coarse
mineral pigments such as manganese violet, cobalt violet, cerulean blue, manganese blue,
viridian, and cobalt green.
17
Pigments
The Pigment list
Common Name Alternate Names General Date

Appearance Introduced
Barium White Barium Sulphate Bright White in dry Natural –
Permanent White form unknown;
Pigment White 21 Blanc Fixe, Barytes Synthetic
C.I.77120 Introduced 1830
Burnt Sienna Indian Red, Brown with Yellow Before 2000 B.C.
Pigment Brown 7 Terra Rosa, Tinge, occasionally
C.I. Not assigned Venetian Red with a red tinge
(C.P.)Cadmium Cadmium Red Light Ranges from bright 1910
Red (C.P.) or deep, Cadmium Yellowish-red to a
Pr 108 Scarlet Deep purple-red
C.I. 77196 Cadmium Vermilion
Cadmium Orange Cadmium-Barium Bright orange 1910
(C.P.) PO20 Orange
C.I. 77202
Cadmium Yellow, Cadmium Lemon Pale yellow 1910
light (C.P.) PY35
C.I. 77205
Cadmium Yellow, Cadmium sulphoselenide Strong yellow 1910

deep (C.P.) PY37
C.I. 77205
Cobalt Blue - Blue with a greenish 1820-30
undertone
Carbon Black Lamp Black, Velvet Black Before 2000 B.C.
PBK 6 Vegetable Black Oldest known
C.I. 77267 pigment
China Clay Kaolin, Bole White Varies from white to Before 2000 B.C.
PW19 an off white
C.I. Not assigned
Chrome Green Cinnabar Green Varies greatly 1818
PY 34 Prussian Green depending on the
C.I. 77600 & PB ratios of the two
27, C.I. 77510 Pigments used
PG 15
Chromium Oxide Oxide of Chromium, A cool olive green 1862
Green Chromium Oxide
PG 17
C.I. 77288
Flake White Lead White Pure white 4 B.C.
18
Pigments

PW 1 Cremnitz White, White
C.I. 77597 lead
Green Earth Terre Verte, Grey-Green Before 2000 B.C.
PG 23 Verona Green
C.I. 77009
Mars Black Iron Black, 1920
PBK 11 Black
C.I. 77499
Iron Oxide Black
Mars Brown Brown Iron Oxide Light brown to dark 1800s
PB 6 red brown
C.I. 77499
Mars Red Red Oxide, Varying shades of 1700

PR 101 Violet Iron Oxide Red-brown, some
C.I. 77491 With purple tints
Phthalocyanine Monastral Blue, Ranges from a dark 1907
Blue Thalo Blue, reddish blue to a
PB 15 Phthalo Blue, Winsor deep Greenish-blue
C.I. 74160 Blue
Phthalocyanine Monastral Green, Lighter versions of 1938
Green Thalo Blue, Viridian
PG 7 Phthalo Green, Winsor
C.I. 74260 Green
Precipitated Chalk Chalk White _
PW 18
Prussian Blue Bronze Blue, A deep blackish- 1724
PB 27 Iron Blue, blue
C.I. 77510 Paris Blue,
Antwerp Blue
Rose Madder Madder, A deep red with a 1300
NR 7 Madder Lake tinge of blue
C.I. 75330
Scarlet Acra Scarlet 1930s-1050s
Quinacridone
PR 207
Silica Silex, silicon dioxide, White to off-white _
PW 27 Powdered quartz
Talc French Chalk, Asbestine White to off-white _
PW 26
Titanium Dioxide Titanium White, Strongest of the Pure grades from
PW 6 Permanent White whites 1919
C.I. 77891
19
Pigments

Ultramarine Blue French Ultramarine Made to resemble 1828
PB 29 Synthetic Ultramarine Lapis lazuli;
C.I. 77007 Permanent Blue however, reddish
tints are also made
Ultramarine Violet Ultramarine Red, Same as Ultramarine 1828
PV 15 Ultramarine Pink Blue
C.I. 77007
Vermilion Chinese Vermilion, Red with a yellow 1500 B.C.
Pr 106 English Vermilion, tinge
C.I. 77766 Scarlet Vermilion
Zinc White Chinese White White 1751
PW 4
C.I. 77947
Common Name Compatibility with Compatible Media Precautions

Other Pigments
Barium White Compatible with all All media; slows drying Becomes transparent
in oil in oil
Burnt Sienna Compatible with all, All media; forms a tough Do not mix with
however it tends to and flexible oil paint film Cobalt pigments in
make Cobalt pigments watercolour washes
settle out of mixtures in
watercolour
20
Pigments

Other Pigments
Cadmium Red Incompatible with All media; forms a tough Do not paint on
(C.P.) Copper-based pigments and flexible oil paint film, surfaces that will be
Cadmium Yellow (except phthalo and slows drying in oil heated – hazardous
(C.P.) colours) vapours can form
Cadmium Orange
(C.P.)
Carbon Black Compatible with all Oil or egg tempera; slow Very slow to dry in oil
dying in oil and can form – do not use in
brittle paint films in oil underpainting by itself
when used by itself
China Clay Compatible with all Used as a stabiliser or Do not use in oil paint
thickener in paints, used as it turns muddy
in gesso
Chrome Green Compatible with all Oil and water-colour: Should not be used in
speeds drying in oil watercolour, can react
with air pollutants and
darken
Chromium Compatible with all All media None
Oxide Green
Cobalt Blue Compatible with all All media None
Flake White Incompatible with Oil or egg tempera; Tends to yellow in oil,
sulphur based pigments forms a tough and or blacken on direct
except when ground in flexible paint film in oil, exposure to city air
oil and speeds drying unless protected
Green Earth Compatible with all All media; slows drying None
in oil
Mars Black Compatible with all All media; forms a tough None
and flexible oil paint film
Mars Brown Compatible with all All media; forms a tough None
Mars Red Compatible with all All media; forms a tough None
Phthalocyanine Compatible with all All media; speeds drying None
Blue in oil
Phthalocyanine Compatible with all All media; speeds drying None
Green in oil
Precipitated Chalk Inert White None
Prussian Blue Compatible with all Oil, water-colour and None
egg tempera; speeds
drying
Rose Madder Compatible with all Oil, water-colour; slows None
drying in oil
21
Pigments

Other Pigments
Scarlet Compatible with all All media None

Quinacridone
Silica Inert All media None
Talc Inert All media None
Titanium Dioxide Compatible with all All media; slows drying None
in oil
Ultramarine Blue Incompatible with All media; slows drying None
copper and lead-based in oil
pigments, except for
Phthalocyanine and
pure white lead
Ultramarine Violet Incompatible with All media; slows drying None
copper an lead-based in oil
pigments, except for
Phthalocyanine and
pure white lead
Vermilion Compatible with all All media; slows drying Do not paint on
pigments in oil, in oil surface that will be
incompatible with lead heated – hazardous
based pigments in vapours can form
water based paints
Zinc White Compatible with all All media; slows drying None
in oil
COMMON NAME SOURCE OF CHEMICAL RELATIVE

PIGMENT COMPOSITION TOXICITY
Barium White Natural or Barium Sulphate Non toxic
synthetic
Burnt Sienna Calcined earth Dehydrated ferric Non toxic
oxide with silica
Cadmium Red (C.P.) Synthetic Mineral Chemically Pure (CP) Toxic, but is de-
Cadmium Yellow pigment cadmium sulfo- ionised, which
(C.P.) selenide (crystals of reduces the
Cadmium Orange cadmium sulphide and toxicity
(C.P.) cadmium selenide)
Carbon Black Incompatible Pure carbon with Can be toxic
combustion of slight oil
vegetable or contamination
mineral oil; at one
time from soot in
lamps
22
Pigments

China Clay Mineral Kaolin Toxic
Chrome Green Mixture of two Lead chromate Highly toxic
synthetic mineral (Chrome yellow) and
pigments ferric ferrocyanide
(Prussian Blue)
Chromium Synthetic mineral Chromic oxide (the Moderately
Oxide Green pigment dehydrated version of toxic
the pigment used to
make Viridian)
Flake White Synthetic mineral Basic lead carbonate Highly toxic
pigment
Green Earth Natural earth Ferrous silicate and Slightly toxic
pigment clay
Gypsum Mineral - Non toxic
Mar Black Synthetic mineral Ferro-ferric oxide Non toxic
pigment
Mars Brown Synthetic mineral Ferro-ferric oxide Non toxic
pigment
Mars Red Synthetic mineral Iron oxide plus Non toxic
pigment aluminium oxide
Phthalocyanine Blue Synthetic organic Copper Phthalocyanine Non toxic
pigment
Phthalocyanine Synthetic organic Copper Phthalocyanine Non toxic
Green pigment
Prussian Blue Synthetic mineral Ferric ferrocyanine Slightly toxic:
pigment can produce
cyanide gas if
heated or mixed
with acid
Rose Madder The roots of the Several varieties of Slightly toxic
Rubia tinctorum natural
or Rubia oxyanthraquinone
peregrine dyes
Scarlet Synthetic organic Derivative of cyclized Non toxic
Quinacridone pigment 2,5 diary-
laminoterephtalic
Titanium Dioxide Synthetic mineral Titanium dioxide -
pigment
Ultramarine Blue Synthetic mineral Sodium aluminium Non toxic
pigment silicate-polysufide
Ultramarine Violet Synthetic mineral Sodium aluminium Non toxic
pigment silicate-polysufide
Vermilion Natural or Mercuric sulphide Highly toxic
23
Pigments

synthetic mineral
pigment
Zinc White Inorganic Zinc oxide; Calcined Non toxic
zinc ore that has been
oxidised
24
Pigments
COMMON NAME PERMANENCE TRANSPARENCY TINTING

STRENGHT
Barium White Lightfast; alkali/acid- Opaque unless High, except in oil
proof; Wool scale ground in oil
grade 8
Burnt Sienna Lightfast; alkali-proof; Semi-transparent Varies with silica
Wool scale grade 8; content
ASTM Category I in
oil, I in colour
Cadmium Red Lightfast; alkali-proof; Opaque High
(C.P.) Wool scale grade 8
Cadmium Yellow
(CP)
Cadmium Orange
(CP)
Carbon Black Lightfast; alkali-proof; Opaque High
Wool scale grade 10;
ASTM Category I in
oil, I in acrylic
Chrome Green Lightfast; Wool scale 8 Opaque Very good
Chromium Oxide Lightfast; alkali-proof; Opaque Excellent
Green Wool scale grade 9;
ASTM Category I in
oil, I in acrylic
Flake White Lightfast; Woolscale Opaque Good
grade 8; ASTM
category I in oil, I in
acrylic
Green Earth Lightfast; Woolscale Semi-transparent Poor
grade 9; ASTM
acrylic
Mars Black Lightfast; Woolscale Opaque High
grade 9; ASTM
acrylic
Mars Brown Lightfast; Woolscale Semi-opaque Good
grade 9; ASTM
acrylic
Mars Red Lightfast; Woolscale Semi-opaque Good
grade 9; ASTM
acrylic
Phthalocyanine Blue Lightfast; Woolscale Transparent Tinting strength is so
grade 8-9; ASTM strong extenders are
25
Pigments
COMMON NAME PERMANENCE TRANSPARENCY TINTING

STRENGHT
category I in oil, I in to make this colour
acrylic workable.
Phthalocyanine Lightfast; Woolscale Transparent Tinting strength is so
Green grade 8-9; ASTM strong extenders are
category I in oil, I in to make this colour
acrylic workable.
Prussian Blue Lightfast; Woolscale Transparent Extremely high
grade 8; ASTM
category I in oil, not
rated in acrylic
Rose Madder Lightfast; Woolscale Transparent Good
grade 6; ASTM
category II in oil, not
rated in acrylic
Scarlet Lightfast; Woolscale Transparent Good
Quinacridone grade 8; ASTM
category II in oil and
acrylics
Titanium Dioxide Lightfast; alkali/acid- Highly opaque Very high
proof; Woolscale
grade 8-9; ASTM
acrylic
Ultramarine Blue Lightfast; alkali/acid- Transparent to High
proof; Woolscale semi-transparent
grade 8; ASTM
acrylic
Ultramarine Violet Lightfast; alkali/acid- Transparent to High
proof; Woolscale semi-transparent
grade 8-9; ASTM
acrylic
Vermilion Lightfast; Woolscale Opaque Good
grade 7-8; ASTM
category II in oil, I in
acrylic
Zinc White Lightfast; Woolscale Opaque to semi- Good
grade 8; ASTM opaque
category II in oil, I in
acrylic
26
Pigments
Common Name Recommendations Additional Comments

Barium White Use as a filler or extender
in oil paint
Burnt Sienna A natural earth pigment like this
with its clay or silica content is
ideal for glazing and less
effective for tinting
Cadmium Red (C.P.) Modern replacement for Use of a C.P. cadmium pigment
Cadmium Yellow (C.P.) Vermilion by a manufacturer is an
Cadmium Orange indication of concern for the
(C.P.) highest quality
Carbon Black Do not use in underpainting Made from the soot of burning
in oil; not used in oils. A purer black than Ivory
watercolour due to oily Black because of the absence of
consistency the calcium residue. However,
there is a greasy residue from
the incomplete combustion of
the oil
Chrome Green Most manufacturers have
switched to safer mixtures
Chromium Oxide Green Excellent for murals Also used in colouring glass and
in the inks for printing money
Flake White The most flexible oil colour Cremnitz White Genuine is no
– best for oil grounds; longer made using traditional
speeds drying of oils; good methods of corroding lead
for tints plates with acetic acid in clay
pots. Today the name is applied
to thick and pure forms of lead
white.
Green Earth Often replaced with other
pigments or mixtures
possessing higher tinting
strengths
Mars Black Excellent for mural painting Ideal all-purpose black
Mars Brown Better than equivalent Excellent stable pigment
pigment
Mars Red More stable than natural Dense and heavy pigment
counterpart
Phthalocyanine Blue Excellent mixing colour
Phthalocyanine Green Excellent mixing colour
Prussian Blue Commonly used for carbon
papers and typewriter ribbons
as well as artist’s paints
Rose Madder This colour has all but been
replaced by synthetic coal-
27
Pigments
Common Name Recommendations Additional Comments

tar derivatives
Scarlet Quinacridone High quality pigment widely
used in industry; performs
well in artist’s paint
Titanium Dioxide The most reflective white In its pure form is one of the
paint least yellowing pigments of all.
Ultramarine Blue The replacement for the
glue stone Lapis lazuli
Ultramarine Violet The replacement for the
glue stone Lapis lazuli
Vermilion Many alternatives to this Cinnabar is the natural form of
pigment have been this pigment, which is now
developed, yet many claim synthetically produced.
it cannot truly be replaced
Zinc White Most transparent of the Many manufacturers as well as
whites and best for tints; painters mix Zinc White with
also a non-toxic substitute Lead White to make the Zinc
for lead White more flexible and to
improve the consistency of the
Lead White.
28
Oil Paint Making
Chapter 3 Oil Paint Making
Oil paint
Most Popular medium in history Versatile and Adaptable.
Rules for paint making

These rules can be stretched and adapted once the artist has a clear understanding of the
basics of oil paint chemistry. If you use your common sense and a bit of manipulation you
will enhance your creative freedom.
Herman Jansen van Vuuren (Title: Hardships). Handmade Linseed Oil paint on Belgian Linen. Size: 140x100cm
29
Oil Paint Making
How is oil paint made?
Basics
Paint pigment is ground together with a binder (walnut oil or linseed oil).
Beeswax can be added, including driers, resins and stabilizers.
The best advice in mixing oil paint is to use the simplest formula in the initial stages.
Always keep notes about experimentation, observations made about the methods used
and the performance of the paints that result. After some experience, you will know how
you can modify the paint to suit your personal needs.
Don’t make a too complicated formula because they are not necessarily the best. Every
ingredient has an effect on the durability and quality of the paint.
Method
By hand the process involves the following:
 Mixing the paint pigment with the oil to a crumbly mass on a glass or marble slab with a
palette knife (alternatively use a mortar and pestle).
 A small quantity is then ground between the slab and a glass Muller or using a mortar
and pestle. Pigment and oil are ground together 'with patience' until a smooth, ultra fine
paste is achieved; this is then placed in metal paint tubes and labelled.
Paint Manufacture
To manufacture commercial paint the following occurs:
Historically pigment and binder were ground between special stones, but now the paint is milled
using large steel rollers usually three. The resultant paint then goes through many tests before
being put into tubes, having a label applied with full details of the contents, and arriving on the
shelves in an art shop.
30
Oil Paint Making
Important properties of oil paint

What the information on the label of commercially produced oil paint tells you about the paint: -
 The name of the pigment or pigments used, followed by the pigment number i.e. Burnt
Umber is PBr 7 - PBr stands for Pigment Brown, PY Pigment Yellow etc.
 The vehicle or binder the paint contains, the vehicle is often Linseed Oil, Walnut oil,
although Safflower Oil is regularly used for light colours.
 The light fastness - this is shown by a star or number rating (usually the higher the
amount the more lightfast), e.g. a high lightfast rating would indicate this colour is less
likely to fade than a lower rating when used under normal conditions. Another symbol or
wording is used, to state whether the paint is opaque or transparent. Paint can be
transparent, translucent or opaque.
 To establish which category your paint falls under, put a dark line on a piece of white
card, use a brush to put a thin layer of paint across the line. If you can see the line it's
transparent, if the line isn't visible it's opaque, if the line is indistinct but visible it's
translucent (often referred to as semi-opaque).
Another property of oil paint is its drying rate. The earth colours dry the fastest. These are usually
made from iron oxide: - Burnt Umber, Burnt Sienna, Raw Umber, Raw Sienna, Light Red, Mars
Red, Mars Violet and Mars Orange. These are often applied at the beginning of a painting.
The slow driers tend to be Titanium and Zinc White, Alizarin Crimson, some Yellows, Green Earth
and Ivory Black. These are often applied towards the end of a painting.
Paint has three other properties concerned with its colour:
1. Hue
2. Value
3. Chroma
Making Oil Painting Mediums

The characteristics you require are:
For example: To create a glossy surface, one would use a Dammar (for the purists) or Ketone
varnish (a crystal clear resin) in the paint formulation. Dammar, though a fine varnish on its own, is
too viscous in its manufactured state and therefore needs to be thinned with turpentine. Dammar
also dries into a very brittle film and therefore should be made more flexible by the addition of oil,
but Ketone is more flexible and therefore more desirable. This is only an example of how to
ascertain a desired finish and knowing how to compensate for its shortcomings. In order to help
ascertain other qualities for a desired paint film, here is a list of available oils, varnishes and driers
and their characteristics.
31
Oil Paint Making
Introduction to Oil Binders (see detailed discussion in Chapter 11)
In order to help ascertain qualities for a desired paint film, below are some of the available
oils, varnishes and driers and their characteristics
Linseed Oil
A drying oil that dries to a semi-gloss to
matte finish, depending on the pigment it
contains. It dries relatively slow.
Water emulsifiable linseed oil has
been developed recently to address the
issues of health and environment.
Walnut Oil
Also a drying oil that dries to a semi-gloss to matte finish as well. It has historically been
used in oil-egg tempera emulsions, but recently with the advent of modern organic
chemistry is undergoing a revival and regarded as the favoured oil in standard oil paint
making due to its superior properties including health and environmental reasons.
32
Oil Paint Making
Safflower oil Poppy Oil

Semi drying oil A very slow drying oil,
usually added to that is very clear and
commercially dries to a brittle film and
manufactured white therefore recommended
oil paint due to its to be used in combination
clarity. with more flexible oil such
as linseed or walnut oil.
Varnishes
Dammar Varnish
A combination of rectified turpentine and the crystalline Dammar Resin. As mentioned earlier
it creates a glossy film that needs to be stabilized with oil and can be thinned with turpentine
for easier brushability. By the addition of beeswax the glossiness of the film can be reduced
from a semi-gloss all the way to matte finish.
Ketone Varnish
This synthetic resin (Polycyclohexanone) is dissolved in rectified turpentine or white spirits. It
also dries to a crystal clear glossy finish, but remains more flexible in film than the Dammar
and is therefore preferred as a picture varnish.
Driers
Cobalt, Zinc and Lead Driers
Driers (siccatives) - Metallic salts mixed with normal paint and varnish ingredients. Driers can
be added to the vehicle in an oil paint to produce a range of hues that have similar drying
rates. Too much drier causes paint films to crack. Drying times can be standardised to range
between 2-10 days. Drying times for colours without siccatives will range from 2-30 days.
33
Oil Paint Making
Turpentine
Turpentine
Also acts as drier and can be added generously as drier to oil paints.
All of the above ingredients can be intermixed to create any sort of paint medium (slow drying,
glossy, matte, and viscous, etc.). However, it is important to consider whether the painting
medium will dry in a reasonable amount of time and whether the dry paint film will be flexible
enough to keep from cracking.
Rectified Turpentine
The product of the distillation of the viscous pine tree sap. In the distillation process such resins
as colophony are removed to create a clear liquid, which makes a great thinner and drier for all oil
painting mediums. Turpentine has no binding power and can therefore not be used alone in
combination with pigment.
Binders
The basic makeup of oil paint is pigments held together using a binder, which in turn adheres the
pigment to a prepared surface such as linen, canvas or board. The pigments are insoluble and are
only suspended in the binder. The binders used in oil paints are drying oils. A drying oil is a
vegetable oil that dries by an oxidisation process.
Stabilizers
Bleached Beeswax
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Oil Paint Making
Purpose of a stabiliser
 Stabiliser ensure pigment particles even dispersion in the binder
 Paint kept for a prolonged period would require a stabiliser to prevent separation of the
oil from the pigment.
 Stabiliser helps binder maintain isolation of each individual pigment particle from
another to prevent any possible chemical reaction between incompatible pigments.
 Freshly made oil paint does not necessarily require a stabiliser.
Types of Stabilisers
Bleached beeswax solution (beeswax + genuine gum turpentine) (gives the paint a buttery
consistency). Better to use bleached beeswax, will affect the pigment colour less than raw
beeswax. The turpentine is added to the molten beeswax (Use a double boiler). Don’t use more
than 2,5% by volume of beeswax, beeswax softens the paint and tends to make it less durable.
Carnauba wax- ± 0,5% by volume can be added to the beeswax for a tougher paint. Barium
sulphate (barytes) or Calcium Carbonate - 20% by weight acts as stabiliser & as filler, transparent
in oils and adds substance to lighter weight pigments.
Zinc or aluminium stearate – Maximum 2% by volume, similar properties to that of beeswax,
Oil-Colours
Oil Colours - most versatile of paints.
For beginners
Start with an absolute minimum of equipment:
 Three or four brushes of the sort to which you felt naturally attracted;
 Small bottle of walnut or linseed oil; a little rectified turpentine,
 Piece of wood or glass to use as a palette,
 Five bottles of pigment and the colours being as follows: -Black, White, Middle Madder
or Deep Cadmium Red, Lemon Cadmium and Cobalt Blue.
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Oil Paint Making
General points on Oil Paints

 Oil paints are ground in walnut, linseed or poppy oil
 Different pigments require different amounts of oil for their grinding.
 As a rule the densest and heaviest pigments require the least oil.
 Some pigments need an excess of oil to protect them from the air, moisture, etc.
 Some pigments that require large amounts of oil have a tendency to lose opacity
when the interpenetration of the oil increases with time. Yellow Ochre and Raw
Sienna furnish examples of this.
 Others pigments are apt to coagulate in the tube, this is most noticeable with the
madders.
 Some painters find it good to keep their tubes of vermilion and other heavy
pigments in an inverted position, caps downwards, to keep the oil and pigment
from separating.
Facts about Commercially produced Tubed Oil Paints
 Quite a recent invention

 From a labour-saving standpoint, this method has enormous advantages.
 Must contain an excess of oil and other ingredients to make them keep on the
shelves.
 Certain colours contain oil of copaiba, which retards drying.
 Some contain wax to give them body.
 Colours also dry very differently, a property of which most manufacturers take no
account.
Comparison between commercial and studio prepared paints
Commercial oil paint Studio oil paint
Limited to a certain technique Free to customize paint for technique
Difficult to copy old masters paintings as Easy to copy old masters as same recipes can be
paint properties differ used
Have to accept usage of fillers and No fillers or stabilizers are required with walnut
stabilizers which effects colours oil, therefore higher percentage of pigment and
36
Oil Paint Making
results in stronger colours.
Walnut oil paint not available from local Walnut oil paint easiest to make in studio, and
stores linseed oil relatively easy
High cost of commercial walnut oil paint Handmade walnut oil paint cheapest to make
Don’t know how old paint is Can prepare exact quantity of fresh paint required
Resin oil paint is difficult to source & Making studio paint is significantly cheaper
expensive
Larger quantity of oil in paint for longer Can control quantity of oil in paint
shelf life results in yellowing of lighter
colours
With commercial oil paint you are at the You are in control of your own paint
mercy of and have to blindly trust the
paint manufacturer
These facts stated above also account for the existence of the numerous mediums that are
supposed to modify in one way or behaviour of 'standard' type oil paints. An understanding of
how and why these modifications of behaviour and effects take place is necessary before a choice
of technique may be made with any sort of freedom. It can only be gained by studying the
ingredients of the paints separately and at some length and by actual working experience.
Health and safety related to paint making
1. Choose studio locations with safety in mind. Floors, tables, and shelving should be
made of materials, which can be easily cleaned. Isolate the studio from living spaces
unless you intend to use materials with no significant hazards such as watercolours
and pencils. Never use toxic paints, solvents, or drawing materials in kitchens,
bedrooms, living areas, etc.
2. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) on all paints, inks, thinners, varnishes,
and other products. If their Colour Index names or numbers does not identify paint
pigments, ask your supplier for this information. Some suppliers' catalogues list the
Colour Index names of their paint pigments. These suppliers should be favoured over
less informative ones.
3. Use water-based products over solvent-containing ones whenever possible.
4. Buy premixed paints and avoid working with powdered pigments if possible.
Pigments and paints are most hazardous and inhalable in a dry powdered state.
5. Choose brushing and dipping techniques over spray methods whenever possible.
6. Use Material Safety Data Sheets and product labels to identify the hazards of any
toxic solvents, preservatives or other chemicals in paints and drawing materials. Look
37
Oil Paint Making
up the hazards of the pigments in the chart available from the Union Health and
Safety Officer.
7. Plan studio ventilation to control the hazards of the materials and processes you use.
For example, if solvents are used, provide sufficient dilution ventilation to remove
vapours from the studio. if powdered paints or pigments are used, plan local exhaust
ventilation such as a chemical fume hood or spray booth.
8. Avoid dusty procedures. Sanding dry paints, sprinkling dry pigments or dyes on wet
paint or glue, and other techniques that raise dust should be discontinued or
performed in a local exhaust environment or outdoors.
9. Spray or airbrush only under local exhaust conditions such as in a spray booth. A
proper respirator may provide additional protection. Use a dust/mist respirator for
water-based paints. Use a paint, lacquer, and enamel mist (PLE) respirator for
solvent-containing products.
10. Follow all solvent safety rules if you use solvent containing products, and give extra
attention to fire safety. Avoid skin contact with paints and pigments by wearing
gloves or using barrier creams. Use gloves with dyes. Wash off paint splashes with
safe cleaners like a) baby oil followed by soap and water, b) non-irritating waterless
hand cleaners, or c) plain soap and water. Never use solvents or bleaches to remove
splashes from your skin.
11. Wear protective clothing, including a full-length smock or coveralls. Leave these
garments in your studio to avoid bringing dusts home. Wash clothing frequently and
separately from other clothing. Wear goggles if you use caustic paints or corrosive
chemicals.
12. If respirators must be used, follow all rules regarding their use.'
13. Avoid ingestion of materials; eat, smoke, or drink outside your work-place. Never
point brushes with your lips or hold brush handles in your teeth. Wash your hands
before eating, smoking, applying make-up and other personal hygiene procedures.
14. Keep containers of paint, powdered pigments, solvents, etc., closed except when you
are using them.
15. Work on easy-to-clean surfaces and wipe up spills immediately. Wet mop and sponge
floors and surfaces. Do not sweep.
16. Follow a Material Safety Data Sheet advice and purchase a supply of materials to
control spills and for chemical disposal (e.g., kitty litter, solvent spill kits).
17. Dispose of waste solvents, paints, and other materials in accordance with health,
safety, and environmental protection regulations.
Always be prepared to provide your doctor with precise information about the chemicals
you use and your work practices. Arrange for regular blood tests for lead if you use lead-
containing paints or pigments.
PAINT MAKING IN THE ARTIST’S STUDIO
The practicality of paint preparation in the artist’s studio has been discussed in the introduction of
this book and many other places no doubt. Since the master/apprentice relationship has been
dismissed as an unnecessary and outdated means of being a complete artist, the mass production
of artist’s materials and mass education of student artists have resulted in the disappearance of
the art of paint preparation in the studio.
38
Oil Paint Making
The general neglect of training given on artists’ materials at educational institutions are not
acceptable. This is not just a British phenomenon, it is the case worldwide, but fortunately many
Artists and Educators are starting to address this situation.
There are a few motivating factors why artists would look into preparing their own paints:
1. Firstly quality of their paints, this would be the result of possible experiences where
inferior materials caused an artwork to crack, deteriorate or colours to fade.
2. Secondly a factor of the cost of high quality materials, this can be quite prohibiting for
most professional artists, who don’t want to sacrifice quality by buying lower grade
materials.
3. Thirdly when an artist wants to experiment with new media or even develop his/her
own unique style.
4. Artists are generally innovative by nature, and the satisfying experience of giving birth
to the medium, which is to be used for further creative development in the application
of the paint in various techniques, is second to none.
5. When customisation is vital, i.e. when certain colours of paint, chalk pastels, oil pastels
and oil bars are not available.
Without the correct knowledge of the available materials for the artist, it would be a continual hit
and miss affair and failure would almost certainly be the end result. Art materials are chemicals;
they react to the air, to pollution, to each other all in a variety of ways just as foods we eat, or the
fuel that we use to run our motor vehicles. This book only gives a glimpse of the properties of art
materials and provides simple easy to follow recipes on how to prepare your own materials.
Many books about art materials provide recipes of which some of the materials are not
available locally, but in this specific case H-Art supply all the auxiliary materials you
will require when preparing your own paints, these are available to prepare all the
recipes mentioned in this book.
The tools are that which do not become part of the artwork itself. Most of the following tools
besides the standard artist equipment for painting should already be in the possession of the
professional artist:
Tools Required To Prepare Oil Paint
Firstly a glass muller and safety glass slab or an unglazed stoneware mortar and pestle is needed, to
grind pigment and oil together. These tools will help to evenly coat each particle of pigment with the
relevant binder. A palette knife is also required with a 25mm trowel end so as to transfer the mixed
paint into the rear end of the tube once it is thoroughly mixed.
39
Oil Paint Making
Basic list of tools required for paint making
‘My Paints’ Glass Muller and safety glass slab or a Mortar and pestle.
A range of palette knives.
Glass plates.
Brushes (decorators)
Double boiler (Two stainless steel pots one that fit inside the other)
Large, sturdy table.
Hotplate with temperature controls.
Fine mesh strainer.
Containers, all shapes and sizes.
Stainless steel measuring spoons.
Scrap rags, preferably cotton.
Wall scraper.
Paper towel.
Hand cleaner.
‘My Paints’ Barrier cream.
Long nose pliers.
Scotchbrite scourers.
Cleaning oil. (Vegetable oil)
Basic Oil Paint Making Recipe

Experimenting with paint making is a rather simple process and if you are already using premixed
paints, you pretty much have the equipment it takes. Making paints in small batches really only
requires a clean surface (that can be easily wiped down), a palette or putty knife, some pigment
and a vehicle of your choosing (Walnut oil, linseed oil, acrylic emulsion, or any kind of watercolour
binder).
It doesn't really matter which pigment you start with, although you might want to choose an
economical earth pigment, to minimize your initial investment and because earth pigments are
easier to work with than the mineral pigments.
Making Oil Paint

To make a small batch of oil paint, simply place a small amount (about one teaspoon) of pigment on
your clean non-porous surface. Now take some walnut or linseed oil (cold pressed is the best, but
refined will do here) and add it sparingly to the pigment. Using your palette knife work the oil into
the pigment until it becomes a paste. If your pigment lumps up and won't blend with your oil (this
won’t happen with walnut oil), try adding a little mineral spirits to wet the pigment, in addition to
the oil. If your paste is too oily just add a little more pigment until you achieve your desired
consistency. Once you have worked the mixture into a paste, you are ready to use it as any paint
that you squeeze from a tube. Just add your usual painting medium. You must be aware that this is
not the ideal method of mixing paint, read further to understand the importance of thorough mixing
of pigment and binder.
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Oil Paint Making
OIL PAINT PREPARATION

Resin Oil Paint
The paints that the old masters used were primarily resin oil paint. When oil was first introduced
into the technology of painting there was a major problem that the artists encountered. The
problem was that the paint drying times were too prolonged, and this being exasperated by the fact
that the local climates in Italy and the Netherlands were damp and humid. In the sixteenth century,
such resins as mastic and dammar were introduced to the oil, allowing for the later development of
the Alla-prima style of painting. This oil-resin paint resulted in a paint film that had greater durability
and was the preference of many of the Old Masters, for use in the glazing technique with successive
layers of the paint, but most of their individual recipes were eventually lost.
These resin oil paints are made with drying oils such as refined walnut oil, linseed oil, poppy oil and
sunflower oil. These paints have natural resins like dammar and mastic as well as ketone resin, a
modern non-yellowing resin. Resin oil paints are far more brilliant than resin-free oil paints, and
each colour must be formulated to dry at a similar rate to allow for the proper interlocking of paint
films. Some artists use driers to speed up the drying process, driers such as cobalt, manganese or
lead containing pigments, but the resins have a less of a detrimental effect on the drying oils
This recipe is given with the objective of achieving four effects:

1) More even drying of various paint films, which eliminates the chances of cracking
in the future.
2) Greater clarity and minimal yellowing due to lower oil content.
3) Reducing the periods of drying times between various pigments.
4) Makes paint more stable as very little separation of oil and pigments occur thus
the paint has a more smooth and even consistency.
Resins
Ketone Resin & Varnish Dammar Resin & Varnish
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Oil Paint Making
Why add Resins to Oil Paint?

1) A mixture of a resin and drying oil will give a paint film that can be worked over within hours
or at most days. When the solvent in which the resin is dissolve, evaporates, the resin
hardens, holding the drying oil in place until it has had time to polymerise and solidify.
2) Resins dry with greater clarity than the drying oils and therefore will add brilliance to the
paint film.
The most important and unique characteristic of oil paint is the thin coating of vegetable oil binder
on each pigment particle. The film in oil paint is remarkably durable and flexible. Each particle of
pigment is coated with a clear film, through and around which light passes, as well as reflecting off
the other pigments. This is why this painting medium has such great depth and luminosity.
Making Oil Paint
Making one’s paint was a common exercise engaged in by virtually every painter until the early part
of the eighteenth century, but once commercially manufactured paints became available this practice
almost entirely ceased. Today there are very few artists who really understand the complexities of
preparing oil paints like that of the artists of old. Today the artist relies heavily upon the artist’s paint
makers for the quality of their paints. The artist is mostly left to guess about the quality, using
information that is mostly obscure and minimal. In this respect, preparing your paints is a valuable
and rewarding experience.
Best qualities required in oil paint.
1. Proper dispersion of pigment particles in the vehicle.

2. The paint should have an even consistency and texture.
3. Should have good flow properties, not be too thick.
4. There should be no excess oil in the paint, keep oil to a minimum
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Oil Paint Making
Herman Jansen van Vuuren. Let’s keep this between us. 2002. Handmade Oil paint on Linen
(Size 90 x 60 cm) Private collection USA
Oil Paint Vehicles

The simplest oil vehicle is Walnut oil on its own, it can be used directly with pigment and this creates
an oil paint with a buttery consistency. Linseed oil vehicle is more complex, this is covered in the
recipe below.
RECIPE N° 1
Simple Oil Vehicle
Materials
- Walnut oil or cold pressed linseed oil.
- Bleached white beeswax solution (optional if using walnut oil)
- Zinc or aluminium stearate (optional)
- Double boiler (Not required if using Beeswax solution)
- A clean glass container with a tight fitting lid
Method
1. Measure 250ml oil into the top of a double boiler and heat very gently on a hot plate.
2. Into the heating oil place 30g bleached beeswax_. Heat only until the wax melts completely,
gently stir to mix. Do not overheat, as this will darken the mixture. Remove from heat and leave
to cool.
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Oil Paint Making
3. To the cooled oil slowly add, while slowly stirring, 725ml more oil, to bring the total volume up
to 1000ml [1 litre]. The wax addition totals about 2.5%. Allow the mixture to stand for a day,
and store it in a well-sealed glass container. Use clean glass marbles to raise the level of the
vehicle in the jar to the point that all air is expelled from the container. Keep this vehicle like
this; free from contact with air and out of light, in these conditions the mixture will keep for
some time. This should be adequate to make about 30 standard studio size tubes of oil paint. If
the least amount of oil is used to make the paint, it is possible to get more tubes out of this
volume of oil.
4. When a simple oil vehicle is chosen for grinding the pigment into, use only linseed oil and
beeswax without any other additions. The percentage wax used must be changed to suit a
particular pigment. Some pigments do not need wax as a stabiliser, whereas some pigments do
not require much more than 2% by volume.
5. Some paint should be placed in sealed jars after grinding and before tubing, to let them rest and
settle. This is the method that commercial paint manufacturers use in their operation. It is
common for mineral [or inorganic] pigments to separate from the oil vehicle, in which case, add
more pigment and regrind until you are satisfied that the paint has settled. Some pigments need
to be left to settle for a month, or possibly longer be if need be. When the paints are stored for
settling purposes, ensure that no air is present in the jars as the paint would start to polymerise.
A suggestion is to place clean glass marbles in the paint mixture to raise the level of the paint to
the top of the jar. A collapsible tube is the best method for the permanent storage of oil paint,
but clean glass jars may also be used. Another method of preventing polymerisation of the paint
in the jar is to cover the top of the paint with plastic wrap or wax paper, this should be pressed
onto the surface of the paint and all air expelled from contact with the paint.
An oil paint medium consists of two or more of:

Drying oil[s], Resin[s], Drier[s], Wax [es], and Thinner[s]. A medium besides regulating the
consistency of the paint, thinning or thickening it will control the drying time, transparency,
gloss, and levelling characteristics, as well as improve the general appearance of the paint.
Depth brilliance, subtlety are all regulated by such resins as dammar or ketone.
Resin free Oil Paint.
The resin-free oil paints have higher oil content than the resin oil paint and have irregular
drying times and in addition the ageing characteristics of the paints are poor in comparison to
the resin oil paint.
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Oil Paint Making
How to make oil paints
RECIPE N° 2
Recipe for a Simple Oil Paint
Materials
‘My Paints’ Glass Muller with glass slab or Mortar and pestle (stoneware-unglazed)
Artist-quality dry pigment (must be 7 or 8 on the ASTM woolscale)
Warning: Chronic ailments can result from inhaling pigments - even non-toxic pigments. Wear a
dust mask when handling dry pigments, and do not handle them carelessly.
Grinding oil vehicle as prepared in recipe above.

My Paints.net barrier cream
Palette knife
Empty, collapsible tubes for paint.
Long nose pliers
Surgical gloves
Rags
Mineral spirits (not required if using Walnut oil)
My Paints.net cleaning oil (for cleaning equipment and hands)
Cleaning materials
Method
1. Apply H-Art barrier cream to your hands and forearms. This will prevent the absorption of
mineral spirits or pigment particles into your skin. See picture 1.
2. Surgical gloves may also be worn especially if toxic pigments are being used. See picture 2.
3. Place the pigment on the glass slab, the amount will depend on the quantity of paint that
you want to make. See picture 3.
4. Add a small amount of the grinding oil vehicle (from Recipe 1) to the pigment and mix the
two together with the palette knife. Add a bit more oil and mix again. The pigment will slowly
absorb the vehicle and will start forming a stiff paste, but don’t be misled by the crumbly
nature of the mixture and start adding excess oil. You must take into account that Linseed oil
is not the perfect binder and the more oil that you add to the paint the more likely the paint
would yellow, this caution will apply to a lesser degree to Walnut oil as it does not yellow
over time. Use the least amount of oil that is possible to get the job done. See pictures 4, 5
& 6. While adding the oil, bit by bit, grind the paste with the Muller ensuring that all the
pigments are wetted See pictures 7 & 8. A very stiff paste like that of Peanut Butter should
be the result.
5. Once the paint mixture is of an even texture and good consistency use a tube [if air remains
in the tube the paint will start to harden] and fold over about 3mm from the end of tube,
then fold over as many times as possible. See picture 10, 11 & 12. Write the colour, type of
45
Oil Paint Making
paint and date of preparation of paint on tube with a black marker. If a jar is palette knife to
feed mixture into the rear end of the open collapsible tube, see picture 9. Ensure that the
cap is tightened securely. Hold tube with cap pointing downwards, and tap cap end lightly on
a firm surface to ensure that the paint is free of air bubbles. When paint is about 25mm from
open end of tube, stop filling tube. Use long nose pliers to squeeze end flat so as to close
tube. Ensure that all air is expelled from preferred, ensure that a sheet of plastic or wax
paper is always placed on the surface of the paint and all air is expelled otherwise it will
polymerise and become useless.
6. Close the cap tightly and clean the outside of the tube with a rag dampened with My
Paints.net cleaning oil. To clean the glass muller and slab, pour 20ml vegetable oil (mineral
turpentine can be used but is not advised due to health and safety and environmental
reasons) on slab and with a rag, wipe up excess paint, see pictures 13, 14 & 15. Wipe tools
with a cloth then pour a detergent onto equipment and add a few drops of warm water, and
using Scotch-bright scourer, scrub until all paint is removed. Rinse in hot water and if there is
still paint visible on the tools repeat steps above.
7. Wash hands thoroughly, using plenty of soap and a scrubbing brush. Apply aqueous cream
to hands.
Step by step illustrations to mix a Simple Oil Paint
1 2 3
4 5 6
46
Oil Paint Making
7 8 9
10 11 12
13 14 15
Resin Oil Paint
Why resin oil paint?

Resin oil paint has no equal, in the strength of the colours and the effects of using it in glazing.
47
Oil Paint Making
Dammar resin solution used in the paint helps with the interlocking of one paint layer and
subsequent layers, as it (the dammar) is soluble in genuine turpentine, which is also used in resin
oil paint.
Resin paint is usually expensive and difficult to source ready-made in tubes; therefore it is
advisable to make it yourself.
Dammar should be introduced into the paint whilst in the preparation process so that it can be
absorbed into the pigment along with the Linseed oil or Walnut oil. If it is introduced after the oil
has already been mixed into the pigment the problem is that the oil will only be diluted and not
replaced as such. The beauty of the dammar being absorbed into the pigment is that it will allow
light to travel through and around the pigment and hence the colour intensity of the pigment will
be significantly enhanced.
Dammar in the paint also helps to speed up the drying times of the various colours can be
adjusted so that they can dry in the same time. This helps to prevent cracking of the paint layers,
which are usually caused by a quicker drying paint being painted over a slower drying paint.
Refined beeswax is added to the paint as a stabiliser and also acts as a drying agent. Without the
beeswax the oil paint would be stringy like syrup and would be difficult to handle (this doesn’t
apply to Walnut oil), the beeswax gives it a putty like quality, and you must ensure that not too
much beeswax is used as this would result in brittle paint and that it would crack when used on a
flexible support.
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Oil Paint Making
How to Prepare Resin Oil Paint
Firstly, clarity must be given about the terms Artists grade and Student’s grade paints. The primary
difference is the quality and permanence of the pigments and secondly the types of fillers used and
the quantity thereof used in the manufacture of the paints. To ensure that high quality artist paint is
made, the highest-grade chemically pure pigments must be used, and a maximum of 20% filler may
be used.
Oil paint is primarily made using a drying oil as a binder, with a pigment, fillers, driers and lastly
stabilisers added. The driers recommended are dammar solution and beeswax (which act as stabilisers
as well). The above can be mixed in numerous ways depending on the consistency and texture of the
paint required.
RECIPE N° 3 - Recipe for Resin Oil Paint
100ml Pigment
30ml Cold pressed Walnut or Linseed oil (use Walnut oil for whites or light colours)
10ml Dammar solution
2,5ml Pigment lubricant (zinc or aluminium stearate) optional for Walnut oil
2,5ml Beeswax solution
20g Calcium carbonate or Barium sulphate
100ml Empty collapsible tube with lid
Method
1. Apply barrier cream to your hands and forearms. This will prevent absorption of mineral spirits
into your skin. See picture 1. Surgical gloves may also be worn especially if toxic pigments are
being used
2. Place pigment onto glass slab. (Keep about 10ml pigment in bottle, which will be added later).
See picture 2.
3. Place Calcium carbonate onto glass slab and mix with pigment. Be careful not to whisk the
pigment around too much as it may become airborne. Using palette knife, make a dam in the
centre of the pigment mound. See pictures 3 & 4.
4. In a separate container, mix the following ingredients: Dammar + Linseed (Walnut can also be
used, a mixture of 1 part linseed to 1 part walnut) + Beeswax solution, this produces the
49
Oil Paint Making
vehicle. See picture 5.
5. Slowly pour half of the medium into the pigment dam and using the palette knife, mix the
vehicle into the dry pigment dam, and using the palette knife mix vehicle into pigment. Add
vehicle about 10ml at a time. See picture 6. Then use muller to thoroughly grind vehicle into
pigment - ensure that pigment is well dispersed and that desired paint consistency is achieved.
If paint is too thin, add the 10g pigment (kept back in Step 2) to the paint and grind thoroughly
again, but if it is too thick, add a small amount about 5ml oil. Be careful not too add too much
vehicle all at once as this could make the paint too runny. See pictures 7 & 8.
6. Once paint is of correct consistency it needs to be tubed or placed in a small airtight container.
For tubing paint a palette knife should be used to trowel it into the rear end of the tube. As the
paint is placed into the rear end of the tube (remember to leave the cap on the tube) hold tube
with cap pointing downwards, and tap cap end lightly on a firm surface to ensure that the paint
is free of air bubbles. See picture 9. When paint is about 25mm from full, stop filling tube.
Using long nose pliers flatten the end of the tube expelling all the air from the tube (if air
remains in tube the linseed oil will start to polymerise and paint will be useless) and fold over
about 3mm from the tube end, fold over as much times as is possible. See picture 10. Close
the cap tightly and clean the outside of the tube with a rag dampened with ‘My Paints’ cleaning
oil. Write colour, type of paint and date of preparation of paint on tube with a black marker. If
a jar is preferred ensure that a sheet of plastic is always placed on surface of paint as
otherwise it will polymerise and become useless. See picture 11.
7. To clean the glass muller and slab, pour 20ml vegetable oil (mineral turpentine can be used but
is not advised due to health and safety and environmental reasons) on slab and with a rag,
wipe up excess paint, see pictures 12, 13 & 14. Wipe tools with a cloth then pour a detergent
onto equipment and add a few drops of warm water, and using Scotch-bright scourer, scrub
until all paint is removed. Rinse in hot water and if there is still paint visible on the tools repeat
steps above. Wash hands thoroughly, using plenty of soap and a scrubbing brush. Apply
aqueous cream to hands.
Step by Step illustrations of making a resin oil paint
1 2 3
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Oil Paint Making
4 6
7 9
10 11 12
13 14
ARTIST'S OILS are pigments mulled into oils such as pre-polymerised linseed oil. There usually are no
volatile ingredients, but oil paints are commonly thinned and cleaned up with solvents such as paint
thinner. Adequate ventilation sufficient to keep solvent exposure low should be provided. Some people
use oil paints without solvents and clean brushes and skin with vegetable or baby oil followed by soap
and water. This is a very safe way to work and requires no special ventilation.
51
Oil Paint Making
RULES FOR OIL-PAINTING
Before leaving the subject, a few fundamental rules for the handling of oil paints, based on simple
common sense, may be again mentioned.
1. Use a white ground which is firmly anchored to it is support. See chapter 14
2. Canvas should be prepared with oil grounds; emulsion or gesso grounds belong on panels.
3. The degree of absorbency and texture of the ground should be suited to the type of painting.
Control of paint and it is permanence are greatly influenced thereby.
4. Be sure there is good adhesion between paint and grounds.
5. Always use the simplest ingredients possible and see that their quality and purity is beyond doubt.
Good linseed oil and turpentine, oil of spike is usually all that is needed.
6. Thin the paint with a little turpentine when desired; avoid the excessive use of painting mediums
and emulsion-stiffened whites except when the occasion calls for glazing and work that requires
precise control.
7. Use as little siccative or dryer as possible.
8. Begin a picture 'lean' and finish 'fat'. The more oil in the first painting and the less in the second
painting the greater the danger of cracking. This rule is observed by all ordinary house painters and
is based on sound mechanical reasons. Little oil to begin, more to finish. Remember the basic rule
for all paint coatings and layers that is, always paint flexible coats over less flexible layers, and
never use brittle coatings over flexible ones.
9. Two thin coats are usually better than one thick one. Use sufficient paint to produce a full, normal
paint coating so that the final picture has the desired paint quality, but do not overload the work
with extremely thick or exaggerated impasto. Avoid, in all costs, a continuous, thick, pasty layer of
paint; heavy or thick impasto strokes are best used in isolated spots.
10. Be sure that your paint is perfectly dry before painting over it, otherwise the under coat will
contract as it finishes drying and crack the one over it which, being fresher, has a different rate of
change.
11. If the paint does not 'take' well, rub the surface which is too smooth with a little piece of fine sand
paper, some powdered pumice, or water and a stiff brush. In the last case there will probably be
enough dust on it to furnish sufficient abrasion.
12. Never use any more medium, or diluent for the colours, or more simply, any more liquid than is
necessary. The colours, if permanent, will stay fresh and luminous when left alone as much as
possible. They are afterwards to be protected by a good final varnish.
13. Oil paintings must be varnished eventually. It is desirable to wait from three to six weeks for
varnishing, but it is better to varnish them too soon than to put them into circulation or exhibit
them unvarnished.
14. Use fresh colours that have not thickened on the palette.
52
Oil Paint Making
Art Exhibition 2004
53
Acrylic Paint Making
Chapter 4 ACRYLIC PAINT MAKING
Artist’s acrylic paints are made with the same organic and natural pigments used in the manufacture of
oil colours and other artist’s media. Instead of being bound in a drying oil as in the case of oil colours or
a water-soluble gum as in the case of watercolours, these same permanent pigments are bound and
dispersed in a transparent water emulsion of acrylic polymer resin. Unlike siccative oils that oxidize, this
emulsion of plastic resins dries by the evaporation of the water and solvents it contains to form a tough
& flexible film.
The acrylic resins are a subgroup of the vinyls. The basic constituent is acrylic acid. Polymerisation of
the acrylic acid molecule leads to various forms of plastics; the polymers can also be linked to other
polymers to make co-polymers. These variations can be dispersed in water to form a type of emulsion.
The straight acrylic resins, methyl methacrylate in particular, have been used in paint binders for many
years, since the Rohm and Haas Company introduced them into industry in the early 1930s.
Pigments
Pigments cannot be loaded into an acrylic emulsion vehicle to the extent that they can in other paints,
because of the character of the emulsion (particles suspended in a liquid). It is for this reason, combined
with the translucent rather than transparent nature of the film itself, that colours in oil, alkyd, or acrylic
solution vehicles may seem richer and higher in chroma than the same colours in acrylic emulsion
paints. (When the acrylic emulsion paints dry, their chroma improves.) Furthermore, some pigments
cannot be used in the acrylic emulsion because of their inability to form stable paints. A typical pigment
list for a line of acrylic emulsion paints might contain the following colours:
Reds: quinacridone reds, cadmium reds, naphthol reds, iron oxide reds.
Oranges: cadmium orange.
Yellows: cadmium yellows, arylide (Hansa) yellows, iron oxide yellows.
Greens: phthalocyanine green, chromium oxide opaque.
Blues: phthalocyanine blue, ultramarine blue, cerulean blue, cobalt blue.
Purples: quinacridone violets.
Blacks: ivory black (relatively "cool"), mars black or iron oxide black (relatively "warm").
Whites: titanium white, zinc and titanium n11xtures.
Because of the difficulties of adding small but precise volumes of a large number of important
ingredients, the artist must pay particular attention to the quantities used in making acrylics and stick
rigidly to the recipes. There is virtually no flexibility in the recipe for acrylic paints, especially with
respect to the thickeners added to the emulsion if required. Recipes or instructions for making acrylic
emulsion paints must be adjusted individually for each pigment, and the kind of latitude possible in
making other paints is not permissible here if you want to be assured of good quality. This should not
discourage the artist from experimenting to establish exactly where the boundaries or limitations of this
useful medium are.
Acrylics are ideal for use in grounds for flexible and rigid supports for oil or acrylic painting and for
collage making. The essential benefit of acrylic paint is that it dries rapidly and is unaffected by moisture
or climatic conditions as in oil paint.
Acrylic paint allows a versatility of technique far greater than any other medium, from heavy impasto to
delicate watercolour washes. Colours dry rapidly by evaporation and when dry are waterproof and may
be immediately overprinted without lifting or damaging the under layer. The films of paint formed are
54
tough and flexible and not subject to yellowing. The inert qualities of the resin and its adhesive nature
means that acrylic colours can be applied to almost any non-greasy surface, either primed or unprimed
so that works of art can be created on wood, plaster, canvas, plastic, hardboard and paper with equal
facility and without special treatment.
Acrylic emulsion can be ideally used for collage, in its pure form or with thickener, as an adhesive and as
a glazing medium.
RECIPE N° 4 - Recipe for Acrylic Paint
1 2
7
5
4 10
3
6 11
12 8
9
Materials Required For Acrylics: Tools Required To Prepare Acrylics:

Note: No. in brackets after description ties up Large flexible palette or putty knife (7)
with No.’s on picture above 2 Bowls or plates (8)
50ml High quality Pigment (1) 10ml syringe (9)
100ml Acrylic emulsion (2) Measure spoons in millilitres
15ml Acrylic thickener gel (3) Empty 100ml collapsible tube or 200ml jar
15ml Calcium carbonate (4) Surgical gloves or H-Art barrier cream
2ml H-Art aqueous dispersant (5) Paper towel and scrap rags for cleaning.
25ml Distilled water (6) Detergent for cleaning
Method
Note: As with all forms of paint making it is advisable to use a barrier cream and/or surgical
gloves on your hands prior to working with any pigments. This is for health and safety reasons
and for ease of cleaning up after making paint.
55
Step 1)
Carefully pours pigment into bowl.
Step 2)
Add calcium carbonate to pigment and mix slowly.
Step 3)
In the measuring spoon, mix dispersant with the distilled water. Pictures 4, 5 & 6.
Step 4)
Slowly add the above fluid mix to the pigment mix, the amount required varies form one
pigment to another so be careful not to wet it too much as this will cause the acrylic paint to be
too runny. Use a minimal amount of fluid just to ensure good dispersion of pigments. If
pigments are not properly dispersed then the paint once mixed will have pockets of pigments
that will affect the consistency and quality of the paint. . Pictures 7 & 8.
Step 5) Pour emulsion into other clean bowl, and add about 1/3 of the gel to the emulsion, mix
immediately using a palette knife and mix thoroughly, then add the remainder and mix again
with palette knife. When correct consistency has been achieved continue with next step. Be
careful not to add too much gel, as then it will start going lumpy. Pictures 9, 10 & 11.
Step 6) Add pigment and liquid mix from step 4 and mix thoroughly with palette knife. Pictures 12 &
13.
Step 7) Paint can be tubed (Picture 14) or placed in an airtight container (Picture 15).
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
56
10 11 12
14 15
13
57
Watercolour and Gouache Making
Chapter 5 Watercolour and Gouache Making
WATERCOLOUR AND GOUACHE
Watercolours are paints made by mixing pigment with gum Arabic and are water-soluble.
Watercolour is either transparent or opaque. Standard watercolours are transparent. Gouache is a
watercolour medium that is made opaque by the addition of inert or white pigments. The hiding
power of gouache is high in comparison with watercolours. The gouache paints can be applied
successfully to papers of various colours, but watercolours can only be applied to fine, brilliant white
paper. Gouache consists of a greater quantity of vehicle and pigment and inert than watercolours.
Watercolour in the restrained sense of the term is used for the transparent kind of painting, in which
the white of the paper furnishes the lights and no white pigment is used for the execution of the
picture. This last kind of painting originated, and reached its highest perfection, in England. In France
it is known as 'the English method', the French generally using a certain amount of white and light
opaque tints, known as BODY COLOUR.
Watercolour paints are very dependent on the absorbency of the painting surface, where the binder
remains after it is applied. If a smooth surface like glass or plastic is painted on using watercolour, it
will crawl, flake or rub off the surface. The surface has to have tooth for the watercolour to adhere
permanently. The purpose of using watercolour media is to control the flow of the paint to suit the
desire of the artist and the nature of the working surface.
Gum Arabic
Gum Arabic is a natural gum, which is

collected in the form exudates from the
branches of the acacia tree grown in Africa.
The best grade of gum is harvested from
plantations in Sudan. To test the quality of the
gum Arabic, dissolve some of the powder in
water, it should only leave very little or no
residue. Silica can be added to gum Arabic to
make a thicker watercolour medium.
The binder for watercolour is gum Arabic. It is

often used as a medium to aid diluted
watercolours from sinking into absorbent
surfaces, to give a crisp appearance to the
edges, to increase transparency, and to
provide a varnish like surface finish.
58
How to make a Watercolour vehicle
RECIPE N° 5
Materials
2 Parts by volume Gum Arabic.

4 parts by volume boiling Distilled Water.
1 part by volume H-Art plasticizer.
Small pot.
Fine-mesh cheesecloth.
Wooden spoon.
Clean glass jar with cover
Method
1. Place the gum Arabic in the small pot and pour the heated distilled water over it.
2. Stir in the plasticizers.
3. Allow the solution to cool before straining it through the cheesecloth into the glass jar.
Recipe for Watercolours

RECIPE N° 6
Tools required:
Palette knife
Medium size plate
Syringe 100 ml
Ice tray or similar
Materials required
100g Pigment (ensure that it complies with the ASTM STD’s)

65ml Vehicle from previous recipe
50g Tableting catalyst (for making tablets only)
Empty tube 100ml
20g Barium sulphate (for making tablets only)
Method
Step 1. Place pigment (add barium sulphate and kaolin when making tablets) in plate and gently
mix. Open up a well in centre of mound. For 100g pigment use about 65ml of vehicle.
Step 2. Draw vehicle up with the syringe. Add vehicle slowly to the powder mix, approximately 10ml
at a time, and mix with palette knife.
Step 3. Once correct consistency is achieved, with the palette knife scoop paint into the tube end as
59
with the oil paint recipe, or into the ice tray for Tableting. Paint in a tray dries in about 18
hours (depending on the quantity of paint made).
Gouache
Gouache paint contains the same binder as standard watercolour, except for the addition of
precipitated chalk to the vehicle. Gouache does not need to be ground finely as with
watercolours, as it covers well. It is quite easy to customise the colours. Paper is the usual
support for gouache paints, but other supports are quite satisfactory, i.e. chalk-glued gesso
primed panels and rag mat boards. The difference then between Gouache and Water-Colour is
simply that the one is used with white and opaquely, the other without white and transparently.
RECIPE N° 7
How to make Gouache
• Use vehicle prepared for watercolours

• Preservative, use sodium benzoate or pure camphor (optional). The reason for this is that
gouache paints are more susceptible to bacterial or fungal attack than watercolours.
• High-grade pigment.
• Precipitated chalk. Whiting, a coarser natural chalk, can be substituted.
• Collapsible tube.
• Glass plate
• Palette knife.
Method
1. Use prepared vehicle from previous recipe.

2. Mix pigment with precipitated chalk in the plate. To increase the opacity of the paint mix 1
part pigment with 1 part chalk.
3. Mix the powder mix with some of the vehicle into a smooth paste using a palette knife.
4. Mix the paint and add more vehicle until paint is correct consistency. A mix of 3 parts pigment
to 1 part vehicle is usually the best.
5. Fill the tubes as with the oil paint recipe.
6. Clean the equipment before proceeding to the next colour.
The recipe for modern watercolours consists of pigments dispersed in a vehicle or medium that
includes:
Binder, traditionally and still commonly gum Arabic but sometimes a synthetic glycol plasticizers
or humectants to soften the gum Arabic, traditionally glycerine but now more often less
expensive water retaining carbohydrates such as corn syrup or honey
Extenders or fillers, such as calcium carbonate, used to bulk out and thicken the paint without
noticeably affecting the colour.
Brighteners, transparent or "white" crystals that lighten the value or increase the chroma of the
60
dried paint
Manufacturing additives, in particular surfactants or dispersants to assist in milling the paint, and
Water.
These ingredients are described below. The backbone composition (As discussed in Pigment
chapter) is the foundation for the manufacturer's brand style and quality standards. Paints most
obviously vary in viscosity (from pasty to runny) but there are wide and invisible differences in
the amount and kind of additives in the vehicle.
The manufacturer's cost considerations aside — and those are an inescapable aspect of
commercial paint design — the pigment particle size and tinting strength primarily determine the
adjustments made to the backbone formulation.
As the same mass or quantity of pigment is divided into smaller and smaller particles, the total
surface area of the pigment particles increases exponentially, which greatly increases the amount
of vehicle (and the proportion of water and dispersant in the vehicle recipe) necessary to
completely wet (disperse) the pigment. Strongly tinting pigments — especially dark pigments
such as the phthalocyanines or Dioxazine violet — are often diluted with more vehicle (and the
proportion of extenders or fillers in the vehicle recipe) to make the colour intensity and mixing
strength comparable with other paints. Pigments that are both finely divided and strongly tinting
are usually formulated with the largest proportion of vehicle and filler.
Paints made with pigments that tend to cake or clump during milling, such as ultramarine blue or
cadmiums will shoot wet in wet simply because more dispersant was used to accelerate the
mixing of pigment and vehicle.
The proportion of pigment to vehicle in tube paints generally ranges from less than 10% to
around 20% of total volume for a finely divided, strongly tinting pigment such as the
phthalocyanines, red quinacridones, Dioxazine violet or alizarin crimson; from 20% to 30% for
Prussian blue, carbon blacks, the "raw" (uncalcinated) black and red iron oxides, zinc white,
ultramarine blue, yellow quinacridones, benzimidazolones and most other synthetic organic
pigments; 30% to 40% for the yellow iron oxides, viridian, ultramarine blue deep, ultramarine
violet and the finer grained cobalt pigments (blue, cerulean, turquoise, green); 40% to 50% for
the cadmium yellows, cobalt violet and "burnt" (calcinated) red and yellow iron oxides; and 50%
or more for cadmium orange, the cadmium reds and manganese blue.
Finally, tube paints contain about 15% by volume of water — the miraculous substance that
gives life to you and unpredictable energy to your watercolours ... and to the Thames.
Gum Arabic Binder.

Pigment particles are dispersed through milling in a liquid vehicle that consists primarily (about
65% of vehicle volume) of a transparent binder. This is most often and traditionally gum Arabic,
made from the solidified sap of thorny, shrubby Acacia trees (species Acacia Arabica or Acacia
Senegal). Gum is a pH neutral salt of acidic polysaccharides (which are types of sugar or
carbohydrate); the gum may include potassium or magnesium, but the primary component is
calcium. Gum Arabic is sticky when wet and quite hard and transparent when dry — in that
respect like household sugar.
Gum Arabic was originally exported from Turkey (as gum kordofan), but at present nearly all the
commercial gum producing plants are cultivated in various regions of Africa or Australia — hence
the alternative names gum Sudan or gum Senegal for the gum product. Gum Senegal is
considered superior, but it is hard to identify by appearance alone. In raw form, gums are
sometimes sold as yellow or brownish glassy beads or "tears," about the size of lentils. Most art
61
wholesalers and retailers sell dried gum as a powder or coarse grains, which are easier to
dissolve in water.
Pure gum Arabic dissolves in water more slowly than ordinary salt or sugar; some instructions
suggest letting the dried gum soak in water overnight. The best gums have a clear, pale honey
colour in solution, with very little or no visible sediment or residue. Impure or low grade gums
will contain significant amounts of sediment and may have a darker colour. (All gums are filtered
before use in commercial paints, where they are darker because they contain less water than the
filtered solution.) You can usually examine the manufacturer's pure vehicle in commercial paints
such as cobalt violet, cerulean blue or cadmium red that tend to separate from the vehicle in the
tube; beads of excess vehicle sometimes extrude from the crimp at the end of the paint tube.
Watercolour binders can also be formulated entirely of synthetic materials. A formulation
patented in 1953 by Binney & Smith, quoted by Marjorie Cohn in her Wash and Gouache (1977),
consists of approximately 85% water soluble, waxy polyethylene glycol, 4% stearyl alcohol, 6%
polyhydric alcohol and 5% water by volume. These synthetic vehicles appear clear and
completely colourless if they separate from the pigment in the tube.
The binder carries the pigment particles as a viscous liquid so they can be applied with a brush;
it binds the pigment to the watercolour paper; and it produces a brighter colour by holding the
pigment particles on the surface of the paper, rather than letting them be pulled by capillary
action deep between the paper fibres. A diluted solution of gum Arabic can be applied as a
varnish or top coat to reduce surface scattering and give the paint a deeper, richer colour.
Even after gum Arabic has completely dried, it can be dissolved again in water. This is why
watercolours can be blotted or lifted if they are rewetted, allowing the artist to manipulate the
finished colour — unlike oil or acrylic paints, which must be scraped off or painted over once they
have dried.
Plasticizers and Humectants

Unfortunately, watercolours formulated with pure gum Arabic have significant drawbacks. The
paint will dry to a resinous block that is very difficult to re-dissolve. (Watercolours were originally
formulated with gum Arabic only and were sold as small resinous bricks that had to be rubbed
out — laboriously dissolved in water — before the paint could be used.) Paints made with a high
proportion of gum binder will bronze (appear darkened, shiny or leathery) and will crack or flake
if the paint is applied as a thick or undiluted layer, or if it puddles in the depressions of cockled
paper.
To counteract these problems, the gum Arabic is buffered with a carbohydrate plasticizer, usually
20% or less of vehicle volume. Nowadays this is glycerine (glycerol), the trihydroxy form of
alcohol. Glycerine reduces the native brittleness of the gum Arabic and minimizes the cracking or
chipping of dried paint. It also helps the gum Arabic to dissolve in water more quickly, and
inhibits hardening. To counteract this, since the 19th century paint makers have also added a
carbohydrate moistener or humectant, either a sugar syrup (nowadays glucose, purchased as
corn syrup) or honey. These sweet carbohydrates are hygroscopic — they tend to absorb and
retain water from the atmosphere — which extends the paint drying time so that washes can be
manipulated more easily, makes the paints considerably easier to re-dissolve once they have
dried, and extends the life of the paint in the tube. Honey is more effective than corn syrup, but
is also 14 times more expensive. However, if too much sugar or honey is used, the mass tone
paint may remain sticky after it dries, or may absorb too much water on humid days, damaging
the painting; in thick paint layers, the sugars attract insects or mould. Humectants tend to
62
increase the staining action of paint by prolonging the capillary action that pulls small pigment
particles deep between the paper fibres.
As larger amounts of glycerine and gum Arabic are added to the paint — for example, in strongly
tinting, finely divided pigments — the paint texture becomes stringy, the gloss of the paint
increases, and the paint bronzes more readily. These paints tend to lift (re-dissolve) too easily
from the paper, which can lead to undesired blurring, bleeding or lifting of colour areas when
new paint is applied over or alongside them.
To counteract these problems, dextrin — a clear, gelatinous processed wheat or corn starch — is
added to thicken the vehicle, give it a smooth, buttery consistency, and reduce the surface gloss
or bronzing. Dextrin can also be used as an extender, to bulk out the paint and reduce the
proportion of costly pigment required. If too much dextrin is used the paint will dry to a dull,
matt finish and will be prone to cracking. The presence of dextrin is often indicated by a "short"
or stiff paint consistency that can be cut at the paint tube nozzle to a clean, flat edge.
Brighteners and Fillers.

Many watercolour brands are formulated with colourless, inert filler added to thicken or adjust
the various pigment and vehicle mixtures to the same homogeneous consistency, or to subdue
intensely tinting pigments such as the phthalocyanines or Dioxazine violet. Less expensive paint
brands also use a transparent filler (such as kaolin or china clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum)
to cut down on the amount of costly pigment used, especially in cobalt and cadmium paints. As
mentioned, dextrin can be used in this way, although it tends to dull and embrittle the paint
surface, so transparent, inert powders can be used instead. Some brands also add alumina
trihydrate (aluminium trihydroxide), titanium dioxide, or micrometerized barium sulphate (blanc
fixe) or other highly refracting substances as a brightener, to enhance the luminosity or chroma
of the finished colour.
It is possible with a microscopic examination of drawdown samples to determine whether the
paint contains a significant amount of particulate filler or brightener, though it is difficult to judge
the relative amount of additive by this method alone.
Are paints that contain fillers or brighteners inferior to paints that don't? Not necessarily. In some
cases — pigments that are dark or intensely staining, or pigments that tend to grey in mass tone
(such as the cadmiums) — the additives can enhance the handling attributes or colour
appearance of the paint. But it's also true that they are primarily used to cut product costs, and
can degrade colour appearance, producing a sparkly, whitish, thin or bland colour.
In the past, brighteners were commonly found in oil paints and house paints: their increasing use
in watercolours is a reflection both of consumer preferences and competitive cost pressures. The
best brands, if they use such additives, balance operating costs, profits, paint handling
characteristics, consumer preferences and finished colour in developing their formulations.
It should be apparent that creating an effective watercolour vehicle is a complex balancing act —
all the more because these substances are organic and may vary from one manufacturing lot to
the next, and because each has its own benefits and drawbacks which must be integrated with
the other ingredients.
Other Additives.
The binder, plasticizer and humectant are the most common vehicle ingredients. Most
manufacturers add trace amounts of other compounds.
Nearly all modern watercolours contain a small amount of preservative or fungicide to prevent
63
mould in the tube and on the palette or finished painting, especially as increased amounts of
sugar or honey are used in the formulation.
A wetting agent called a surfactant or dispersant is used to accelerate and enhance the mixing
(wetting and dispersing) of the pigment in the liquid vehicle, especially for finely divided
pigments such as the phthalocyanines, carbon black, alizarin crimson, transparent iron oxides
and Prussian blue. Ox gall (the yellowish extract of dried bovine gall bladders) was and still is
commonly used for this purpose, but several synthetic alternatives are now available. The painter
usually notices dispersants because they improve the solubility of the paint during use, cause the
paint to stain papers (especially absorbent papers) more readily, and make the paint diffuse
more or shoot wildly when applied wet in wet.
Most pigments also contain manufacturing additives, which are put into the pigment batch when
it is manufactured and are passed on to the artist when the pigment is made into paint. The
purpose of these additives is to increase the shelf life of the bulk pigment. They aid the
dispersion of the pigment particles in water, prevent the pigment solution from precipitating,
retard the hardening, clumping or skinning of the solution, inhibit the growth of mold, and so on.
They work to improve the consistency or handling of finished paints, but some can accelerate the
separation of pigment and vehicle in the tube or the degradation of the pigment) of the paint in
the tube.
Although alcohol is not a standard watercolour ingredient, it is sometimes added by artists to
improve the wetting action of washes or shorten the drying time in damp or cool conditions.
Many artists keep diluted solutions of gum Arabic, glycerine, and ox gall on hand to adjust the
attributes of commercial paints to suit the painting conditions or their painting preferences. For
example, glycerine or ox gall can be added to paints in especially dry or hot weather conditions
to delay the drying time and smooth the appearance of washes. I keep these additives, diluted
one part to six parts water, in plastic dropper s pout bottles; one drop is enough to alter a paint
mixture.
Mediums
Water is practically the only medium used in working water:-colours and gouaches, but a solution
to increase the handling qualities and adherence of the colours is:
Gum Arabic - 3 parts
Glycerine - I part
Melt in warm water to the desired consistency
Add a little grain alcohol.
Place in a bottle which should be kept well sealed
As gouache is very easily soiled, always work with your hand on a clean piece of paper, to
protect the paper and those parts of your painting already finished. Gouache can also be worked
with egg yolk or emulsified wax, and varnished with watercolour varnish.
Gouache, as has been mentioned, is no more than watercolour used with white. The gouache,
which is bought ready prepared in jars or tubes, is sometimes called 'opaque water-colour', a
good name, this being exactly what his. 'Mat Water-Colour', or in the cheaper grades,
'Distemper', or 'Tempera' colour, or 'Poster' colours are also employed, the name being
dependent on the type of binder, gum, emulsion, glue, etc.
64
Grounds
Any ground which is free from grease and oil will take gouache. A glue ground on cardboard,
composition board or wood is excellent. Cloth prepared with glue may also be used. Paper should
be of good quality and well filled with glue. One with a certain amount of grain is considered
preferable and supposed to be easier to work on, but I know painters who successfully use
papers with no apparent grain and which are quite un-absorbent.
Fixing
When a drawing has been made on the appropriate paper with charcoal, pencil, crayon, or
pastel, etc., it must be 'fixed', by the application of a liquid which will protect it and hold it firmly
to the paper as though it had been varnished by a thin coat of invisible varnish. These liquids are
called FIXATIVES.
Fixatives
Formula for making a fixative:

White shellac 5 parts
Alcohol 10 parts
The ordinary method of making this fixative is to put the shellac in a little muslin bag which
should be hung in a receptacle containing pure grain alcohol.
Distemper
A cheap and easy method of painting with water as a solvent or MEDIUM is that in which the
powdered colour is simply mixed with ordinary glue. Such colours are widely manufactured under
the names of POSTER-COLOURS and OPAQUE WATER-COLOURS, etc. The name which should
properly be applied to them is distemper, one of the oldest and simplest methods of painting.
Only in use today to any great extent for painting scenery. Artists should at least know the
principles, as it is cheap, quick to execute, and for special occasions of all sorts may come in very
handy. Well prepared and properly protected it is very permanent.
Binders
The sort of size you select for painting will largely depend on what you wish to do. You may
select one which is (a) insoluble in cold water and strongly gelatinizing, or (b) a partially soluble
and very sticky or adhesive one. The first sort is rather less liable to crack when dry.
The best binders used in distemper painting are:
I. Size made from parchment clippings.

2. Fish glue.
3. Gum Arabic (which is really Senegal gum).
4. Gum Tragacanth.
The gums may be diluted, as also the glues, with glycerine, honey (or substances derived from
it), water, wine, beer, or milk. A good quality of hide glue, such as rabbit-skin glue, can be
substituted for parchment clippings.
65
An excellent Binder
This may be made partially from parchment size and partiality from the finest fish glue. Two-
thirds parchment size to one-third of fish glue is a good proportion.
Preservation of Glue Binders
Glues, sizes, etc., used in distemper painting may be kept by adding a few drops of eugenol (the
active principle of oil of cloves). Goupil says that nitrate or chloride of zinc and sugar of lime has
the property of opposing the coagulation of the colours. Nitrate or chloride of zinc are also called
zinc nitrate and zinc chloride; sugar of lime is calcium acetate. H-Art provides all-purpose
preservative which is recommended for this purpose.
In the distemper process the ordinary powder Colours, damped down to a thick paste with
water, should be mixed with a glue or size solution almost the fluidity of a fresh cream. The best
proportions are about three parts of colour to one of glue. The colour should run easily off the
end of the brush. If it does not there is insufficient glue. The actual proportions of your glue to
water should be determined by trial and error as there can be no fixed measure, but too much
glue will make your colour crack, too little will allow it to be rubbed off as a powder when dry.
The colours mixed with the glue may be kept warm in a muffin tin, over an electric hot-plate or a
small gas-ring. This will need a certain amount of experience as they should not boil, which
would spell ruin to the adhesive.
The first coat may be applied very hot; the last may be applied cold. Never use more than two or
three coats as the colour, if too thick, may scale off.
The Gums
Gum Arabic has always been considered the best gum to hold the pigments in water-colour
painting. With so much water-colour being used on every side, it may seem surprising to find
that there is little or no genuine gum Arabic (from Arabia) to be had today. The gum now sold
under that name comes from the same species of acacia tree but growing in Africa, where
conditions are very different from those that used to prevail in Arabia. Gum Arabic is now really
gum Senegal and these Senegalese gums may have to be subjected to a heat treatment before
they can be used for water-colours. A choice of qualities, however, is on the market, with some
adulteration and falsification.
The gum Arabic used in water-colour painting is known commercially as Kordofan, Picked Turkey,
or White Sennaar. Sometimes, oddly enough, it is called Senegal Gum, although that is where it
all comes from.
Gum Tragacanth
Tragacanth gum, which is sometimes used in the
manufacture of pastels, was supposed by some authorities to
have been used by the ancient Egyptians. may be used as a
binder, but is not very easy to prepare of a uniform
consistency.
To prepare Gum Tragacanth for use in Painting

Powder the gum or buy it finely powdered place this powdered
gum in a bottle. Moisten it with spirits of wine or pure grain
alcohol. Then add the desired amount of water, shaking gently
66
at intervals. Water containing 3 or 4 per cent of gum tragacanth will make moderately thick mucilage.
Spirits of wine are the same as ethyl alcohol.
The use of gum from the cherry tree is advised in an old Byzantine manuscript.
Use of Pigments in Water-Colours

Some pigments, quite permanent in oils, are not permanent in water-colour. In gum they are
naturally less protected from the atmosphere. Vermilion blackens in the presence of sulphuretted
hydrogen. Artificial ultramarine is affected by sulphurous acid fumes. Cadmium Yellow, Aureolin,
Cobalt Green and Emerald Green will not withstand dampness. In water-colours covered by glass,
there is often a condensation of moisture on the inside of the glass. Paper will attract moisture,
which it absorbs and releases with every change in the atmosphere. This in time affects the
adherent quality of the gum. Other colours which are quite permanent when applied pure and in a
thick layer, as the madders, are more fugitive in thin washes. Lead White or Flake White is not used
in water-colour, Barium White, Zinc White and sometimes chalk whites taking the place.
Varnishes
A number of water-colour varnishes and fixatives may be used to protect water-colours against the
action of the air. An objection may be that they change the character of the water-colour by altering
the quality of the surface to a greater or lesser extent depending upon how thickly they are applied.
The objection is therefore one of taste.
67
Egg Tempera Making
Chapter 6 Egg Tempera Making
Tempera paints use a vehicle which is thinned with water, but when dry becomes water resistant.
The behaviour of the paint is somewhere between that of gouache and oil paint. Before the
discovery of oil paint, egg tempera was the prevalent painting technique. Several modern painters
have recently rediscovered this medium.
Tempera is luminous, matt and it is most glowing when used translucently. Opaque layers tend to
be much like gouache and it dries quickly to a partly soluble film. Much of the religious panel
painting done between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries was executed in this delicate and subtle
process, which is capable of highly detailed and complex development.
Pure egg tempera
Egg tempera is the best-known natural tempera. It is used thinly. Egg tempera does not allow for
any impasto effects as does oil or acrylic paints.
The binder in egg tempera is an oil in water emulsion, which can be defined as a suspension of a
resinous, oil, fatty, or waxy material in a watery material.
An emulsion is a liquid composed of two parts: an aqueous (watery) part, and an oily, greasy,
resinous, or fatty part. Emulsions of two normally immiscible ingredients can be made with any two
dissimilar ingredients, but artist’s emulsions usually have water as one of the components.
The binder is chicken egg yolk. The yolk is an emulsion of egg oil particles suspended in albumen
(the white of the egg, an aqueous solution). The eggs should be free-range and as fresh as
possible; the paint will last longer and the paint film will be far more durable.
Pigments
Any pigment can be used in tempera painting which is water thinned. See pigment chapter.
Distilled water
Only distilled water is used in tempera painting, leaving dusty pigment particles exposed on the
paint surface. Distilled water is not just boiled water; collecting the steam from boiling water
produces it.
The Paint
Tempera will not keep in a tube without preservatives, humidifiers and stabilisers. This makes the
recipe more complicated and consequently more likely to go wrong. It is much simpler if the paint is
prepared when it is required, therefore no preservatives are needed. Pigments must be mulled in
order to be wetted, dispersed and suspended.
68
Egg Tempera Making
Recipe for Egg Tempera vehicle
RECIPE N° 8
Materials
Fresh, raw free-range chicken egg.

Paper Towel
Distilled water. Normally, local soft water is not good enough.
Small glass jars or paper cup.
Sharp knife.
Method
1. Crack the egg and separate the yolk from the white by passing it from half shell to half shell.
Discard the white.
2. Dry the yolk by rolling it gently on a paper towel, or by passing it gently from hand to hand,
wiping each hand on a piece of paper towel between passes.
3. Pick up the yolk by grasping its skin between your forefinger and thumb, and hold it over a
small, clean glass jar or cup. With a sharp knife, puncture the sac and allow the yolk to run out
into the jar. You can squeeze out excess yolk with your fingers.
4. Mix about a teaspoonful of distilled water with the yolk. This mixture is the vehicle, which, as
noted, should be fresh for each day’s painting.
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Egg Tempera Making
Recipe for Egg Tempera Paint
RECIPE N° 9
Materials
Egg vehicle as prepared above

Artist-grade dry Pigments
Paint-making set-up as described for oil paints
Small containers to hold the paint
Distilled Water
Method
1. Prepare a pigment water paste with each pigment, using distilled water, to the consistency of
tubed oil paints.
2. For each colour, mix approximately 1 volume of pigment paste with 1 volume of egg vehicle.
The combination can be done directly on the palette, or separate jars can be used for each
colour. Watercolour palettes with depressions around the mixing surface are good for keeping
the prepared paints.
Although egg tempera is a relatively flexible medium compared to many of the water-thinned paints,
it is rather brittle when compared to oil paints. The support should be rigid. A glue-gesso panel, with
it’s brilliant white and absorbent ground, is the traditional support system. Finishing the gesso ground
off to an eggshell surface is important if you want to emphasise the delicate linear quality of the
medium. The ground should be perfectly smooth. If you prefer paper or a fine fabric support, mount
the support on a panel.
Egg-Oil Emulsions
Egg-Oil emulsion paints can be considered an intermediate step between pure egg tempera and pure
oil painting. In this variation, the character of the egg medium is considerably altered by the addition
of linseed stand oil, sun-thickened linseed oil, refined linseed oil, dammar varnish, ketone varnish or
other natural resinous varnishes. A whole egg is used as the emulsifier of the oily and aqueous
ingredients.
Depending on the materials in the vehicle and their proportions, the egg-oil emulsion paints can take
on some of the aspects of an oil paint while retaining the qualities of pure egg tempera. The paint
still dries quickly but can be blended more easily, and it can be painted on slightly more impasto than
the pure egg tempera.
If the amount of water in the emulsion is decreased, the resulting paint will be more like a fast
drying oil paint. Egg-oil emulsion paints made with the normal proportion of water can be thinned
with water, but these paints made with little or no water must be thinned only with the emulsion.
70
Egg Tempera Making
Recipe for Egg-Oil Emulsion Paint
RECIPE N° 10
Materials
Sterilised tall glass bottle.

Fresh raw free-range chicken egg.
Distilled water.
Any one, or combination, of the following ingredients: linseed stand oil, refined linseed oil, dammar
varnish or ketone varnish, beeswax solution.
Method
1. Chip a hole in the top of the egg and put the entire contents in the bottle. Cap the bottle and
shake vigorously to mix the egg.
2. Fill the eggshell with the oily ingredients. Various combinations of two or more of the
ingredients can be used, as long as the total volume is equal to that of the eggshell. Put the oily
materials into the bottle with the egg and shake again to mix them together.
3. To the egg-oil mixture, add one or two egg shell filled with distilled water. Shake vigorously to
emulsify the oil and water mixture. This is the vehicle.
4. Following the procedures outlined in the previous recipe combine the egg-oil emulsion with dry
artists pigments or with pigment and water pastes. The egg-oil emulsion vehicle will keep far
longer than pure egg binders, provided it is kept in a cool place (not a refrigerator). Do not use
preservatives.
Egg-oil emulsion paints work well on the same supports and grounds used for pure egg tempera.
Egg-oil paints are not more flexible than the pure egg tempera; they can crack quite easily on a
flexible support.
Egg tempera has a tradition behind it centuries older than that of oil-colours as now used. It is a
splendid method of painting and the fact that it is rapidly regaining popularity both in England and on
the Continent, among painters of all schools, will prove no surprise to those who are acquainted with
its great possibilities and advantages. Egg tempera colours may now be purchased in tubes ready for
use and the technique of their application is simplicity itself. Egg tempera paint is not available in
tubes in the V.S., however. Egg yolk, as an agglutinant or binder, permits, with the possible
exception of wax, a greater colour range than any other vehicle.
Egg tempera has a glorious record as a medium; its very limitations seem to have proved
advantageous.
One of the most permanent mediums known, it has stood the test of time-showing no fermentations,
cracks or bubbles. Furthermore, instead of becoming a possible agent for the destruction of its own
support, as oil-paint on canvas sometimes does, it protects the surface upon which it is painted.
Once thoroughly hard, it is unaffected by temperature or humidity.
R. Spencer Stanhope, writing in the Papers of the Society of Painters in Tempera, etc. (vol. i, p. 41)
sums up some of its advantages and disadvantages, as he sees them, as follows: 'There is no
medium of any kind in ordinary use in painting which so little, if at all, affects the colours with which
it is mixed.'
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Egg Tempera Making
It leaves them their soft effect, permanence and brilliance. It dries at once. The work may be com-
pleted at once and the colour never changes. It leaves a perfect surface with no brush marks, and
the painting may be looked at in any light.
In speaking of its disadvantages, he says: 'Perfect work with yolk of egg medium would mean
completing each day's work so that it would require no retouching, but it is rarely possible to reach
this point and retouching means the loss of a certain amount of purity and freshness in the work.
'Egg yolk will not keep. Mould may appear from time to time on the surface of the painting until age
has entirely dried up and hardened the medium. A safe remedy for this is rubbing the surface slightly
with cotton wool dipped in vinegar. This does not harm the colour in any way and may be used as
often as required.
As the surface remains soft for some time, precautions must be taken for its protection.
Yolk of Egg
Egg tempera painting, as practised today, has reduced itself to different methods and ways of
employing the yolk of the egg in combination with water and a little white of egg to increase the
transparency, or in emulsions, with the drying oils, glues or resins in the form of different varnishes,
etc. The yolk of egg may be bleached with pure grain alcohol and exposure to daylight. It will, of
course, not spoil while the alcohol is present. Vinegar was the only antiseptic known to the ancients,
and they used it both to neutralize the naturally alkaline properties of the yolk, and also to help in its
preservation. White wine may take the place of vinegar; camphor, cloves or essential oil of cloves are
other preservatives in current use. I found about half or one per cent of benzoate of soda very
successful.
Less might do as well. Formalin has been tried but, as it is liable to coagulate the albumen, without
great success. Benzoate of soda is also called sodium benzoate.
Effect of yolk of Egg on Certain Pigments

Egg yolk is supposed to have a deleterious effect on certain pigments. Any to which much vinegar
has been added should certainly not be mixed with genuine ultramarine, a colour readily affected by
acids, even in dilute solutions. The blues in general are supposed to be affected by the sulphur or
some more mysterious ingredient of the egg yolk, and we are therefore advised to temper them
separately with a glue emulsion or some other substitute, particularly when they are employed pure.
C. F. Collin pays no attention to these warnings and his blues, as far as I can see, have stood up
perfectly well in egg yolk without vinegar for five years. All blues may be considered safe with egg
yolk, though cobalt does not always disperse well with it.
TEMPERA
As used in this book, 'tempera' means any sort of paint which contains oil in emulsion, to be used
with water as a medium. In the widest application of the term, the Italian word 'tempera' meant any
more or less fluid medium with which pigments could be mixed, including even oil. In its most
restricted sense, it came to mean only colours tempered with the yolks or whites of eggs. The
meaning adopted here is now that generally accepted by 'the trade', the qualification 'containing oil
in emulsion' being applied to most, if not all of the ready prepared paints sold under the name of
Tempera Colours.
An oil emulsion can be made by mixing drying oil with water through the intermediary of gum, yolk
of egg or an alkali. Many tempera colours on the market are made from linseed oil and limewater. Of
several sorts some are very good, but so many are manufactured that it is no longer necessary for
72
Egg Tempera Making
the artist to make his own.

The emulsions made from yolk of egg, a gum or a resin, linseed oil and sometimes a little wax are
intimate, mechanical, but not chemical compounds. When egg yolk is used-as in the case of the two
products mentioned-a somewhat yellowish tinted 'fat' emulsion results. If gum Arabic is used, the
result is a whitish 'lean' emulsion.
Wax and oil emulsions usually dry with the waterproof character of their non-soluble constituents, at
least to some degree. All claims to the contrary notwithstanding, at their best these emulsions
provide mediums of an extremely durable character.
73
Alkyd Paint Making
Chapter 7 Alkyd Paint Making
A plastic resin called an alkyd is made by reacting a polyhydric alcohol

(usually glycerol) with a polydibasic acid (usually phthalic anhydride, which
is derived from petroleum). Adding synthetic or natural vegetable oils to
increase its flexibility can modify the resin, and the resin can then be used
as a paint binder.
The alkyd resins have been prepared from a number of different

ingredients leading to widely differing properties. There are many so-called
“alkyd resins”. Combined with drying oils, they are now much used in the
industrial preparation of paints, lacquers, and enamels which are durable
and flexible and do not yellow. The alkyd resins are the most important of
the synthetic resins in the industrial paint and lacquer field today.
The H-Art Alkyd Medium consists of a Synthetic Soya bean type drying
oil, which should be thinned with gum turpentine or mineral spirits. The alkyd paints are a significant
addition to the variety of materials offered to the artist mainly because of two factors. The drying
time is faster than that with oils, though slower than the acrylic emulsion. This medium is ideal for
artists who like the convenience of relatively quick drying paints, but prefer the optical qualities of an
oil-like vehicle. Cobalt, lead or calcium driers may be used along with alkyds to speed up the drying,
only about 1,5% driers should be added by volume.
Alkyd resins consist of more than 50% oil, which in fact make them oil paint, they are quite versatile,
non-yellowing and less apt to crack than linseed oil binders. The colour development in alkyds is
much better than in acrylic emulsion binders and they are excellent for use as a medium for glazing.
An excellent ground can also be produced using the oil-modified alkyd resin. This can be easily
produced using lead white pigment and turpentine mixed into the alkyd medium. The alkyd ground is
a significant improvement over the traditional oil grounds: The binder is relatively non-yellowing, the
vehicle is more flexible than straight linseed oil, and the drying time is shorter. However alkyds
should only be used under alkyd or oil paints, not under acrylics. Alkyd paints should be varnished
once dry in the same way as with oil paints.
Silica can be added to the alkyd to give extra body. Alkyds should not be used in an impasto
technique as it has a tendency to run because of the thixotropic nature of alkyds. Thixotropy is an
unusual phenomenon where a gel or paste suddenly loses its plasticity when disturbed or moved
mechanically, resulting in a liquid.
74
Alkyd Paint Making
Recipe for Alkyds
RECIPE N° 11
Tools required
Glass jar for mixing

Glass plate
Palette Knife
Pliers (long nose)
Cleaning rags
Firm working surface
Mineral turpentine
Materials
100g High quality Pigment

20ml Genuine Distilled Gum Turpentine
100ml Alkyd Medium
1 x 100ml tube or 2 x 50ml tubes
Method
Step 1. Place pigment in glass plate.
Step 2. Add Gum Turpentine to pigment mix a bit at a time until the pigment mix is thoroughly
wet.
Step 3. Pour all 100ml alkyd medium into glass plate.
Step 4. Slowly add wet pigment mix to alkyd medium, and carefully mix until correct consistency
is achieved.
Step 5. Tube alkyd paint as described in oil paint recipe No 2.
Step 6. Clean tools using rags and H-Art cleaning oil.
75
Ink Making
Chapter 8 Ink Making
Shellac
Shellac is a secretion from the

insect Laccifer lacca, scraped
from the twigs and branches of
several species of trees found
India and Indochina. The resin
may be reddish-orange in hue,
although the colour can range
from a deeper brown to a milky
white. The solvent for shellac is
denatured ethyl alcohol, which gives a cloudy solution. This mixture can be used as a size for
absorbent surfaces such as paper or wood.
Inks (Shellac based.)
Inks are prepared using either shellac solution; rabbit skin glue or gum Arabic. Seeing that inorganic
pigments are the most lightfast and stable it is suggested that they be used rather than organic
pigment, which does not have the same light fastness. Shellac can be used with water and pigment,
the ingredients need to be crushed with a mortar and pestle and water added to make a water
based waterproof ink.
Distemper (Rabbit Skin Glue Base) Ink
Rabbit skin glue mixed with a pigment produces an ink, which is called distemper ink or if of a
thicker consistency, paint.
India ink was invented in China, but the source of the carbon pigment was India - thus the name.
Traditional Chinese ink can be made simply by grinding with a mortar and pestle a small amount of
normal strength hot hide glue with a proportion of carbon black, lampblack, or bone black pigment.
Recipe 12
Recipe for Distemper Ink
Materials
Rabbit skin vehicle as mixed in Chapter 14. Water is the diluent.

High-grade artist pigments.
Distilled water.
Standard paint making set-up.
Small containers for the finished ink.
76
Ink Making
Method
1. Prepare the vehicle. It must be kept warm, not hot.

2. Mix pigments with distilled water, the consistency must be of a stiff paste.
3. Mix 1 part pigment paste in about 3 parts vehicle, by volume. Grind the mixture until it is
smooth, pour it into a shallow ceramic dish, and let it dry.
4. To use the dry ink, brush it with water until its surface re-liquifies.
5. You can also stir the mixture in the mortar until most of the water has evaporated and the ink is
thick and stiff; mould it into a stick and wrap it with waxed paper so that it can dry slowly
without cracking. To use ink in this form, rub the stick in water on a slate ink slab or a piece of
Formica.
Manufactured India inks are made of carbon black pigment ground in distilled water with a little
shellac and borax. Most India inks are considered reliably permanent in light. Do not confuse India
inks with the other black inks made for technical or fountain pens. These inks are generally not
water resistant. Worse, they may not be lightfast.
India inks can be applied in washes with a brush or with a very large variety of pens, including steel
dipping pens, lettering pens, bamboo pens, and reed and natural quill pens. Each type of pen gives
a different characteristic line. It is worth experimenting with all of them to see the possibilities.
Drawing Inks
Today most drawing inks are made from dyes. Inks such as India Ink and Chinese Ink are
pigmented inks (made with pigments). They use Gum Arabic or Methylcellulose as the binder.
Gum Arabic Recipe
 Soak one part Gum Arabic in two parts of water (preferably overnight).
 Mixture can be heated in a double boiler and strained if desired.
 Mixture can be strained to remove any sort of impurities
Methylcellulose Recipe
Stir 5g of Methylcellulose into 250ml water. Allow mixture to soak for 6 hours, until
methylcellulose is dissolved.
For both types of drawing ink
 Place pigment on a clean non-porous surface.

 Mix pigment with water, until it is of a thick consistency with no lumps.
77
Ink Making
 Add the binder (gum Arabic or methylcellulose) to the pigment paste.

 Place the paste into a small jar and add more binder until the desired consistency is
reached.
With either binder, the pigment paste and binder can be worked into stiff dough, shaped, and
allowed to dry. In order to be used as ink, simply wet the stick with water.
How do you make ink?
Ordinary black writing-ink contains a mixture of the tannates and gallates of the proto and
sesquioxide of iron. These are insoluble in water and are suspended by means of gum. Essential oils
or a preservative is added to prevent moulding.
Many recipes are given for inks; those found below are reliable. As a general rule, the use of
vinegar, logwood, and salts of copper is not to be recommended. Inks so prepared are richer at
first, but will fade and act on pens.
Most ink is pale when first written with, but becomes dark; this is owing to oxidation. Such ink lasts
better than that which is very black. When ink fades, it is from a decomposition of the organic
matter; it may be restored by brushing over with infusion of galls or solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium. The durability of any ink is impaired by the use of steel pens.
Writing Fluids
Ink which is blue when first used contains sulphate of indigo or soluble Prussian blue. It is an ink
which is a true solution, and not merely a suspended precipitate. Marking Ink, containing nitrate of
silver, are not indelible they may be removed by cyanide of potassium. Carbon inks, such as coal-tar
diluted with naphtha, are indelible.
To make common Black Ink
Pour 1 litre of boiling soft water on 700 g of powdered oak galls, previously put into a plastic
container. Ensure that the container is sealed, and place it in the sun in summer, or in winter where
it may be warmed by a heater, and let it stand 2 or 3 days. Then add 1/2 lb. of green vitriol
powdered (copperas), and having stirred the mixture well together with a wooden spatula, let it
stand again for 2 or 3 days, repeating the stirring, when add further to it 5 oz. of gum Arabic
dissolved in a quart of boiling water; and, lastly, 2 oz. of alum, after which let the ink be strained
through a coarse linen cloth for use.
Another.--A good and durable black ink may be made by the following directions: To 2 pts. of water
add 3 oz. of the dark-coloured, rough-skinned Aleppo galls in gross powder, and of rasped log-
wood, green vitriol, and gum Arabic, each, 1 oz.
This mixture is to be put in a convenient vessel, and well shaken four or five times a day, for ten or
twelve days, at the end of which time it will be fit for use, though it will improve by remaining longer
on the ingredients.
Stark's Ink (Writing Fluid).
Twelve oz. nut-galls, 8 oz. each, sulphate of indigo and copperas, a few cloves, 4 or 6 oz. of gum
Arabic for a gallon of ink. The addition of the sulphate of indigo renders the ink more permanent
and less liable to mould. It is blue when first written with, but soon becomes an intense black
78
Ink Making
Artists like to work with drawing inks that are permanent. Good ink should not fade in light,
and it should not run or fade in humid or wet conditions.
Modern black drawing inks are usually waterproof and fade proof, and some form of it is
available wherever art supplies are sold. These carbon-based drawing inks may be called
"India", "Japan" or "China", They must be used with a dip pen or a brush. They will
certainly ruin a fountain pen. Modern writing inks may be used in a fountain pen, but they
will fade gradually in bright light. Most will bleed, run, or fade in humid conditions.
In addition to the carbon-based India inks which have been used for many centuries, there
was another kind of ink that was used for millions of texts and drawings, retaining their
crisp legibility after several centuries. This ink, called "Gallotannate" or "Iron Gall" ink, is
made from insect leaf galls.
You can make a Gallotannate ink that will be permanent for drawing and writing This type
of ink is acidic and should not be used in most fountain pens unless you are experienced
in cleaning and repairing them. Use it entirely at your own risk. These inks were designed
to be used with bird quills which are naturally resistant to the acid in the ink. Corrosive
action of this ink could damage dip pens, fountain pen nibs, and brushes. They could foul
or damage some types of filling systems used in modern fountain pens.
Recipe 13
Basic Permanent Black Ink:
1 egg yolk
1 tsp gum Arabic
1/2 cup honey
1/2 tsp lamp black (buy in a tube or make by holding a plate over a lit candle)
Mix egg yolk, gum Arabic and honey in a small bowl. Add lamp black to make a thick paste. Store
in a jar. To use, mix a little paste w/ a little water to make a fluid.
At least as far back as the Middle Ages, there were two kinds of black ink in common use. One
type is still being used today, the other is not available from ink manufacturers.
Carbon inks
A very old type of permanent ink that is often used today by artists is best known by such
names as "India" or "Sumi". It consists of carbon pigments in suspension in a weak gum or
glue solution which acts as a binder.
Since the Middle Ages, the carbon pigment that has generally been used is soot, or lampblack.
It is made by scraping up fine particles of soot and mixing them with gum or animal glue
dissolved in water. While this type of ink is regarded as being a permanent ink, some examples
of documents and drawings have been found in which the binder has failed to hold the ink
79
Ink Making
particles firmly to the paper or parchment.
Gallotannate inks
The other type of ink commonly in use since before the Middle Ages is not often used today. It
is a suspension of an inorganic salt of iron which may be mixed with a solution of other salts.
This forms a liquid which turns black after application. This kind of ink may be called "iron-gall"
or "gallotannate" ink.
The best ink begins with gallnuts or oak galls.. The gallnuts are created as a result of certain
insects stinging and laying eggs on the leaf stems of oak trees. Soon afterward, a nut-like
swelling will form. When the galls are collected and immersed in water, tannic and gallic acids
may be soaked out. If a solution of an iron salt is mixed with it, the liquid will turn darker,
acquiring its darkest colour as it oxidizes after being applied to paper or parchment.
Many substitutes for gallnuts have been tried, with excellent results being derived from some
and failure from others. Many experiments have involved various kinds of bark, nut shells and
leaves as sources of tannin.
The dark colour which finally appears is a result of oxidation, a kind of "slow burning" which is
taking place in the fibres of the paper. Our word "ink", the Italian word "inchiostro", and the
French "encre", are all derived from the Latin word "incaustum", meaning "burnt in".
A temporary colouring agent was always mixed into the clear (or perhaps light-coloured) ink so
the writer would be able to see what was being written.
This is the kind of ink our grandparents and great grandparents usually used every day in their
fountain pens or dip pens, and they probably knew it as "blue-black" ink. Through the
centuries, documents written with these iron-gall inks have usually retained their crisp legibility;
but occasionally, some drawings or documents turn up in which the inks have faded, changed
to a yellowish colour, or even burnt holes through the paper, suggesting that something might
have gone wrong in mixing the inks. Or perhaps the documents might have been stored under
adverse circumstances.
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Ink Making
This advertisement for

"The Egyptian Ink", a
carbon-based ink, was
published about 1870.
It describes carbon inks
as being superior to
iron-gall inks and lists
several reasons to use
carbon ink (most people
knew it by the name of
"India ink"). After
people began to use
fountain pens (early in
the 20th century) they
discovered that carbon
ink was not good to use
in the expensive new
fountain pens, but it
continued to be used by
artists and illustrators.
"The Egyptian Ink" is
not a special type of
ink. It is simply a brand
name for the carbon ink
sold by this merchant or
agent in Michigan.
The paper is part of the equation.
Any comparisons between early inks, later inks, and modern inks should consider the surface
on which the ink was to be used. There are major differences to be found in the variety of
writing surfaces. An ideal ink for parchment or vellum might miss the mark on paper. A good
ink for early 19th century paper might be too acidic for 20th century paper, and through the
centuries many types of paper have been in use. Various inks had to behave suitably for wood,
metal, cloth, leather, glass, celluloid, ivory, etc.
81
Encaustic Paint Making
Chapter 9 Encaustic Paint Making
Encaustic
Encaustic (Hot Wax) painting dates back to ancient Greece. Beeswax is the oldest known
pigment binder. Encaustic literally means "Burning In". The process itself is very simple.
Pigment is added to molten bees wax and (often) resin, which is applied to a surface. The
surface itself may be warm allowing for manipulation of the encaustic paint. It may also be cool
causing the brush stroke to "Freeze" immediately. The final treatment is the "burning in" which
consists of passing a heat source over the surface, causing a fusing and bonding of the
painting. The surface may then be polished with a soft cloth for a nice sheen. This is the
"Classic Way"; today there are any number of ways of working with wax. Encaustic has the
advantage of not yellowing, of weathering well, being unaffected by moister and being able to
with stand higher heat than oil paintings. Encaustic is good for creating texture and can be
painted on any number of surfaces (Canvas, Paper, Stone Wood Panels, and so on). The
advantage of adding balsams and resins to the wax is argued endlessly. To the beeswax you
can add Linseed oil, Larch Turpentine, Dammar Crystals, Mastic, Colophony, Carnauba Wax,
Copal, and so on. With a little research you will find many "encaustic" recipes. Be willing to
experiment to find what works.
Wax Paste
Ingredients
 1 part Beeswax (bleached or natural)

 3-6 parts Turpentine
Directions
Melt beeswax in a double boiler. When wax is molten turn off heat source and add turpentine
to wax. Mix gently and completely. Cover and allow to cool. Store in an air tight container.
Use
This will render a soft paste that can be used as an oil painting medium as well as a binder for
pigment. To make a paint moisten pigment w/ turpentine to form a paste. Add wax paste to
pigment paste until desired consistency is reached.
Hardened Wax Paste
Ingredients
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 2 Parts white Beeswax (by weight)

 1 Part unbleached Carnauba Wax (by weight)
 6 Parts Turpentine (by weight)
Directions
As in the Wax Paste, the beeswax is heated in a double boiler water bath and combined with 3 parts
of the Turpentine. In a separate double boiler heat the Carnauba wax. Combine the melted Carnauba
Wax with the remaining 3 parts of turpentine. Blend the beeswax mixture with Carnauba wax
mixture, by vigorously stirring the two together while they are cooling.
Use
Makes a great finish, because it can be polished into a rich lustrous surface after application.
Recipe 14
Basic Encaustic
Materials
Beeswax
Pigment
Carnauba Wax (if desired)
Dammar Crystals (if desired)
Method
Melt beeswax in a double boiler, moisten pigment into a paste w/ turpentine, add to molten wax until
desired opacity is achieved. When Encaustics are cooling they should be stirred so the heavier
pigments don't settle to the bottom.
Carnauba wax should be melted w/ beeswax before adding pigment. The additions of Carnauba Wax
Gives the final paint a more rigid surface and a higher melting point.
Dammar should be added to beeswax before adding pigment. The addition of dammar also makes
for a more rigid surface. Adds a slight sheen as well.
83
Avoid over heating as it will cause the wax and pigment to separate.
Caution: Do not allow the turpentine-wax mixture to splash onto the hotplate or heating
flame. Wax paste is extremely flammable and difficult to extinguish once lit.
Waxes and Encaustic Paint
Waxes are derived from vegetable, mineral, and animal sources. They have been used as binders,
ingredients in painting mediums, protective coatings, and stabilisers for pigments and binders. Waxes
are stable and versatile, and they do not oxidise at room temperature. Although waxes react to
extremes in temperature, they do not decay. Waxes do not attract moulds, insects, or bacteria. They
are waterproof but soluble in organic solvents. They “dry” by solidifying from the molten state.
A Note of Caution: When waxes are added to paints in the form of a medium they can produce soft
paint films. As a general rule do not add more than 10% of wax containing medium, by volume, to
any paint. In addition, although waxes are very stable they are susceptible to extreme changes in
temperature, and can crack when exposed to extreme cold temperatures. Do not expose paintings
made of wax (encaustic), or containing wax mediums, to extreme cold.
Bleached Beeswax
Beeswax in the honeycomb form is well known to
everyone. When the honey is extracted, a crude yellow
wax is left that can be melted and refined. When
yellow beeswax is melted, formed into thin sheets, and
bleached by sunlight, it becomes white; this bleaching
process also raises the melting point (MP) of the wax.
Because the wax once bleached is colourless, it is the
recommended choice for most techniques calling for
wax ingredients; it is the binder for encaustic paints.
The melting point of beeswax is about 63°C.
Carnauba Wax
This creamy yellowish-white comparatively hard wax
is scraped from the leaves of a Brazilian palm tree.
The young leaves are cut and dried and the wax
powder is scraped off and melted in boiling water. It
is bleached with fuller’s earth or charcoal or by a
chemical oxidant such as chromic acid. Carnauba is
the hardest of the waxes. It is useful for imparting
hardness and durability to wax mixtures. It is an
ingredient in some specialised automobile waxes. It
is used as a hardener in encaustic paints, as it raises
84
the melting point of the encaustic paint and when layers are built up the under layer does not tend to
melt and lift off when more hot paint is applied. The Melting Point of Carnauba wax is 83°C-86°C. The
melting point increases somewhat with age. It has been recommended as a coating material for
paintings, when mixed with other waxes.
Microcrystalline Wax
Microcrystalline wax is a petroleum by-product. It is

used when a softer paint is required when preparing
encaustic paint. Microcrystalline wax is also less
sensitive to heat than beeswax. The MP of
microcrystalline wax is 72°C. Microcrystalline wax may
also be used as a matting agent for varnishes and
paints.
Paraffin Wax
A refined petroleum product. It is more inert than the animal or vegetable waxes and is unaffected
by alkalis. It is sold in a number of grades with melting points ranging form about 50-60°C. Paraffin
waxes are not recommended for artistic use because they yellow and embrittle in the course of time.
The Process
The “classic” or “basic” encaustic method is extremely simple; it consists of painting on any ground
or surface with paints made by mixing dry pigments with molten white refined beeswax plus a
variable percentage of resin (usually dammar), working from a warm palette. Warming and chilling
the surface can also assist the brush or palette knife manipulations. A final heat treatment, or
“burning in” (which is the meaning of the name encaustic) by passing a heat source over the surface,
fuses and bonds the painting into a permanent form without altering it, and a light polishing with a
soft cotton rag brings out a dull, satiny sheen. When cool, the picture is finished; no further change
ever takes place. The work, however, may be set-aside at any moment to be taken up again later.
The results, which can be obtained by variations in manipulating the colours, run nearly the entire
palette of easel painting. The effects of a heavily encrusted, robust impasto can be produced without
overloading the canvas or panel with an exaggerated thickness, and complete opacity and hiding
power or transparent and revealing effects can be achieved. Practically any desired surface texture is
possible. If the surface is kept warm, free-flowing manipulations and blending may be carried out as
with oil colours or enamels; on a cooler surface touches will stand out brilliantly and separately.
Heating Equipment
An electrically heated palette is generally used to keep the encaustics fluid. If it is required to warm
the canvas or panel an electric light bulb or heat element in a reflector can be clamped and
positioned at the surface of a panel or at the rear of the canvas, or be held in the left hand and
applied and withdrawn as required.
85
An aluminium tray with indentations to hold the molten colours can be purchased; the electric
element is designed to maintain the colours at the correct temperature. The artist may also construct
a palette by using a box with a metal top heated by the means of electric light bulbs within.
The Colours
All the pigments used in oil painting are suitable for encaustic. The pigments must be finely
micronised.
How to make an encaustic vehicle
RECIPE 15
Materials
Refined white beeswax.

Linseed Stand oil (oily) or three parts dammar.
Double boiler.
Hot plate.
Method
1. Break the beeswax into small pieces. Place the wax in the double boiler. Heat it gently until it
just melts. Do not heat the wax until it begins to smoke. Caution: hot wax can cause severe
burns, and the vapours may be harmful
2. Remove the melted wax from the heat, and stir in the oily or resinous ingredients. The
proportion of the added ingredients should not be more than 25% of the volume of the wax.
Consider the wax to be four parts by volume: Add one part by volume of the oily or resinous
mixture.
The binder
The binder is beeswax or a combination of waxes. Beeswax is best as it does not yellow or embrittle
over time. Carnauba wax is used to produce a harder paint and to make it less sensitive to heat.
Beeswax must not be burnt or scorched. It will turn brown which will affect the colour of the paint
and reduce its flexibility. Be careful not to inhale the fumes of the burning wax, as they are toxic. A
double boiler should be used to avoid the above.
How to make Encaustic Paint
RECIPE 16
Materials
• Vehicle prepared in previous recipe.

• High-grade permanent artist pigments
• Muffin tin, containing a few as six indentations or as many as twelve, depending on the number
86
of colours to be mixed.
• Hotplate.
• Spatula or stiff palette knife.
Method
1. Heat the muffin tin on the hot plate. Place dry pigments in the depressions in the tin, a different
colour for each depression. Be careful not to mix the pigments accidentally, or do so making
customised mixtures, as required. The tin should be warm, not hot.
2. Reheat the vehicle until it melts. Pour some of the vehicle into one of the indentations, and use
the spatula to mix the wax and pigment thoroughly. The consistency of the mixture should be
smooth, without lumps of pigments, and about the consistency of thin-tubed oil paint.
3. If the wax vehicle in the saucepan begins to set, gently reheat it. Continue pouring and mixing
each colour until all the pigments have been used to make encaustic paints.
4. Leave the cakes of colour to cool and set. They can be removed from the tin and wrapped in
wax paper for storage, or stored in the tin. For use in painting, they are simply melted on the
heated palette to make a puddle of liquid paint.
Caution: Do not use the muffin tin to make food after using it to make encaustic paints.
Supports and Grounds
The addition of the oily or resinous components to the vehicle makes the wax binder slightly more
flexible, even though it does not make the paints flexible enough to use on unmounted paper or
fabric supports. A rigid panel, braced in the correct manner at the rear is the best support for an
encaustic painting. Papers, fabrics, and museum boards can be used as supports if they are mounted
on a rigid panel.
Adding a larger amount of oil to the vehicle could make the paint unstable on a flexible support, but
then you have the chance of producing a paint that will possibly yellow badly (the wax is
transparent), or one that takes too long to dry.
The preferred ground for encaustic is glue gesso, because it is absorbent enough to allow firm
attachment of the paint layers when they are fused and burned in when the painting is completed.
Natural waxes with no resins or oils added produces a hard finish that takes a high polish.
87
Making Pastels
Chapter 10 MAKING PASTELS (OIL AND CHALK)
Pastels, like the oil and wax crayons, is sometimes

thought of a primarily a drawing medium because the
material is applied dry. Since it uses colour, however, it
is just as well to think of it as a painting medium. Pastel
is, in fact, the purest of the painting techniques: the
sticks of colour are composed mostly of pigment, with
very little vehicle added.
Most artists prefer to purchase their pastels ready-

made, but they are very easy to prepare in the average
artist studio. Artist grade pigments are simply combined with the binder; combining a white
pigment or inert filler with the full-strength colours makes the lighter tints of the various hues. As
in all other paint-making processes, you can make up special colours that are not available
commercially. It is easy to make very large pastel sticks if you wish to work with big sweeps of
colour.
Artist-grade dry pigments used for water-thinned paints are appropriate for pastel. During and
after the painting process, fixative is sprayed on, so that the particles will not brush off.
Good pastel binders can be made from gum Arabic or methylcellulose. Each of these ingredients
requires a slightly different method of preparation, and each in turn is made as a stock solution to
be diluted further for making pastels. Oil paint stick manufacture is quite straightforward.
RECIPE N° 17
Recipe for Oil paint sticks
15ml refined linseed oil

10ml refined beeswax
50ml microcrystalline wax
50g pigment
20g Calcium Carbonate or barium sulphate
Tools you will require:
Double boiler
100mm long 20mm diameter tube
Stanley knife
Insulation tape
Funnel
Method
To mix the above the microcrystalline wax needs to be melted in a double boiler. Mix beeswax
88
Making Pastels
solution with linseed oil and add to melted wax. Thoroughly mix pigment into warm medium.
To mould paint sticks take a tube about 15-20mm inside diameter and slit it along the length, then
block up one end and tape up split in pipe along the length. Pour mixture in end of tube and leave to
harden for about 2 hours, then remove paint stick and wrap wax paper around paint stick. It is now
ready for use.
Another option would be to pour the hot paint stick mix into the rear end of a 50ml paint tube. Once
it has set, tear off the aluminium in a spiral until enough of the paint stick protrudes so as to facilitate
its use.
Chalk Pastel Preparation
Chalk pastels are somewhat easier to prepare than their oil counterpart. No heat is required and the
mess is far less and all the tools can be rinsed down with water. Another difference is that a fixative
has to be applied to chalk pastels but is not required for oil pastels.
Recipe 18
Chalk Pastel
Tools Required
Glass mixing plate

Palette knife
2 Hardboard sheets: 1 which is about 100mm square and another about 150mm x 250mm
Materials Required
50g dry pigment

Binder Mixture (see recipe for this binder below)
20g Barium Sulphate_
100g Calcium Carbonate_
Binder Recipe
2.0 litres Distilled Water

20g H-Art Chalk Pastel Binder
2 litre clean container
Wooden spoon
Place binder in container, and slowly add 1 litre of water, using the wooden spoon stir briskly for 30
seconds. Leave for 15 minutes to soak. Binder needs to be diluted further as required by adding 1
litre distilled water. The mixture is now ready to be used.
89
Making Pastels
Method
Step 1. Mix pigment with barium Sulphate and calcium carbonate in glass plate using a palette
knife.
Step 2. Add the methylcellulose mix gradually to the mixture made in step 1 using the palette
knife.
Step 3. Once mixture becomes too stiff to work with the palette knife take mixture with your
hands and work moisture into entire lump of clay like mixture. Be careful not to have it
too dry, as this will make the next step more difficult. The mixture should be slightly
tacky.
Step 4. Take the lump of mixture and place it on the larger piece of hardboard and flatten to
about 8mm thick.
Step 5. Using the palette knife cut the mixture into about 10mm wide strips.
Step 6. Take one strip and roll between both hardboard sheets with rough faces making contact
with the mixture, in other words the rough side must be on the insides of the sheets. It
is easy to form the pastel into a triangular cross section which is convenient if you need
a relatively sharp point.
Step 7. Once pastel is the correct shape cut to desired length and leave to dry on some
newspaper overnight.
This mixture will make a large amount of pastels about 15, so you could mix small amounts up for
each colour to the same ratio as given in the recipe above.
The makeup of soft pastels has not been changed much since the fifteenth century when this
medium came into existence. Pulverized colour pigments combined usually with white chalk were
rolled together into cylinders or other shapes with a small amount of binder. Gum tragacanth and
methyl cellulose are probably the most favourable binders in modern manufacturing of soft
pastels, although in early recipes, milk, beer, ale, or fish glue had been employed.
Methods for fixing pastels have been a great concern for artists working in this medium. Various
techniques, from powdering the surface of pastel with gum Arabic and then fixing it with hot
steam and spraying it with a mixture of water, glue and spirit, to spraying the surface of the
pastel with skimmed milk, have been implemented by artists in order to protect this fragile
medium from unavoidable deterioration. Milk, water, thin tempera, resin, spirit, and also glue
solutions have been the main components of many recipes for pastel fixatives.
Among the artists seriously searching for a method to stabilize the pastel medium and
experimenting with isinglass glue, as a component of fixatives are Latour and Degas. The
following recipe described by Loriot, and perhaps also used by Latour, includes isinglass glue:
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Making Pastels
Melt about 150 grains of isinglass in about 3/4 pt. of pure water in a double saucepan over a
low fire. Strain through fine linen and pour on to a plate while hot. Add 2 parts of wine spirit to
1 part of glue. The method of fixing pastel with this solution is by spraying it.
Besides its applications in graphic arts, fish glue material can be found in priming, binding paint
medium, glazing, and coating of easel and encaustic paintings and icons. It proved to be an
excellent adhesive for wooden objects since the time of ancient Egyptians, who knew the unique
qualities of this material.
Start with one pigment colour and then using white to make tints.
You can and should use colour pigments to grade your custom colours as well. By mixing different
pigments together you can make different shades to work with and then create tints from your
new custom shades.
To take the mixture further with more tints, just mix your custom colours with the next darkest or
lightest tint and make an in-between custom colour.
Experiment as noted above with using black paste in place of the white paste or select two pure
pigments to experiment with and grade your colours from those two pure pigment mixes. This will
produce shades of your original pigment colours and is an excellent way to get those deep dark
colours that we all search for.
Remember to keep notes on all the different pigments you mix together and what measurement
you used. Then you can make that same colour again and again showing all the colour tints that
have been made.
Store your new custom pastels in boxes that are lined with foam, or use pre-made boxes that you
can buy from art supply houses.
91
Drying Oils/Binders/Glazing
Chapter 11 Drying oils/Binders/Glazing
What is a drying oil?
A drying oil is both the binder and vehicle for the pigments used in oil painting. Drying oils are
fatty oils of vegetable matter that can react chemically with the oxygen in the air, eventually
to solidify and become dry to the touch.
What is a binder, and what is a vehicle?
A binder is an adhesive liquid that distinguishes one paint from another, and it is different from a
vehicle. A vehicle is the entire liquid content of a paint system and may contain, in addition to
the binder, such additives as fillers, solvents, driers or preservatives that modify the binder and
enhance the performance of the paint system.
How a drying oil works?
It is important to understand that drying oils do not dry through evaporation but oxidation, so
placing a painting in the sun won’t necessarily speed up the drying process of paint on a
painting. They dry by oxidation or absorption of oxygen to form a layer of linoxyn. Other
complex chemical changes take place in this process but the oxidation process is the most
important. The chemistry of the oxidation process causes gases to form under the drying oil,
this force their way through the surface layer making it porous and admitting more oxygen to
the layer beneath so
that the process is
continuous until a
solid skin is formed.
If paint is applied in
layers, the first coat
must be dry before
the next is laid on.
The second or the
subsequent layer
usually contains more
oil than the first. The
pores in the lower
layer absorb this. The
paint surface can be
varied - opaque or
transparent, matt or
gloss - according to
92
the amounts of oil, wax, resin or thinners used

Oil paint should be ground with as little oil as possible. The historical reason is this: excess oil will
separate from the paint and, depending on the absorbency of the ground, come to the surface.
Once there, the layer of oil will increase the appearance of yellowing with age. As stated by De
Mayerne: "Colours die when the oil floating on the surface dries and forms a skin which turns
dark in the air."
The second point made above by Mayer is that one should use pure, high quality oils. The
problem discussed by artists of the Middle Ages in regard to linseed oil yellowing is due to impure
oil. Painters from the cooler, cloudier north had an especially hard time, since linseed oil is best
purified in the sun. Some artists proposed mixing whites and blues (most affected by yellowed
oil) with lighter oils (walnut or poppy seed).
The chemical purification processes and industrial production of refined linseed oils in today’s
marketplace make it easier for lighter colours to be mixed into linseed oil. Nonetheless walnut oil
is still significantly lighter in colour than that of even the refined linseed oils and doesn’t yellow
with time.
Purified and bleached oil will still yellow slightly and should be kept to a minimum in the binder.
"It is for this reason," said French art theoretician Andre Felibien, "that those who wish their
paintings to maintain their [colours'] freshness, should use as little oil as possible and keep their
colours as firm as possible." Modern tube colours may have excess oil, especially in cheaper
grades, to prevent them from drying out and caking in the tube.
Which vegetable oils can be used in oil paint?
The following vegetable oils are commonly used in artist oil paint manufacture:
Linseed oil, Walnut oil, Stand oil, Poppy seed oil & Safflower oil.
Oil Paint Binder Comparison Table
Binder type Linseed Oil Walnut Oil Stand Oil Poppy Seed Oil Safflower Oil
Plant Origin Flax seed Walnuts Flax seed Poppy or Opium Safflower Plant
plant
How processed Cold Pressed & Cold pressed Heated without Cold pressed Cold pressed
steam pressed oxygen, not
oxidised
History First used First used AD 1300 First used AD First used AD 1410 First used
AD 1200 Italy 1660 Netherlands oil 1900’s
England Oil Paint Netherlands paint
Protecting wood Oil paint
with oil paint medium
Chemistry Contains Contains Contains Contains Contains

Oleic, Linoleic, Oleic, Linoleic, and Oleic, Linoleic, Oleic, Linoleic, and Oleic, Linoleic,
and Linolenic Linolenic acids and Linolenic Linolenic acids and Linolenic
acids acids acids
93
Uses Paint binder, Paint binder, Edible Oil paint Semi drying paint Semi drying
ingredient for oil, wood protector, medium oil for pale coloured paint oil for pale
paint mediums, anti-aging and sun pigments, edible. coloured
wood creams pigments
protection, usually with
Linoleum & driers added to
Medical (Only speed up drying
fresh), times, edible.
How it works Dries by Dries by oxidation or Dries by Dries by oxidation Dries by

oxidation or absorption of oxygen oxidation or or absorption of oxidation or
absorption of to form a layer of absorption of oxygen to form a absorption of
oxygen to form linoxyn oxygen to form layer of linoxyn oxygen to form
a layer of a layer of a layer of
linoxyn. linoxyn linoxyn
Advantages Most widely More transparent and Dries more Pale in colour, not Pale in colour,
used binder in flexible than Linseed flexible than much yellowing not much
oils, good oil, better flow cold pressed yellowing
wetting ability properties, good linseed oil
through drier,
excellent wetting
ability
Disadvantages Yellows more Slower drier than Limited to use in Susceptible to Brittle when
with time, linseed oil mediums, cracking used on it’s own
embrittles with Cannot be used
time, not as as a binder,
good through slow drier
drier as walnut
oil
Materials Compatible with Compatible with all Compatible with Compatible with all Compatible with
all pigments, pigments, poor all pigments, pigments, poor all pigments,
compatibility poor resistance resistance to acid poor resistance resistance to acid poor resistance
to acid to acid to acid
Recipes See Chapter X See Chapter X See Chapter X See Chapter X See Chapter X
Varieties Cold Pressed, Cold pressed, Walnut Water Cold pressed Cold pressed
Steam pressed, Alkyd medium, emulsifiable,
available Alkali Refined, various
Water viscosities
emulsifiable (Poise) available
94
Health & Safety Highly volatile

when combined
with turpentine,
can self-
combust on a
rag.
Availability Only art shops The edible sort the Only art shops Only art shops Art shops and
best quality available health stores
from most local
supermarkets
Shelf life Shorter than all Approx 2 years for Approx 3 years Approx 4 years if Approx 4 years
other binders, paint, 1 year for if not exposed not exposed to air if not exposed
Approx 3 years consumption to air or light or light to air or light
if not exposed
to air or light
95
Linseed Oil
Linseed Oil: the yellow oil obtained by cold pressing the

seed of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum), which contain
40% oil and 6-8% water. The flax fibre plant is a different
variety of the same plant which is the material used to
make artist’s linen. There is a considerable variation in the
iodine value of linseed oil from different regions. The
iodine value of the oil tends to increase with the severity of
the climate, but genetic and seasonal variations also have
an influence. While 180-185 is a typical iodine value range
for individual lots, it may vary from 140-205. Most
applications require a linseed oil with a linolenic acid
content of about 50% and an iodine value of 170-190.
Linseed oil must not contain any foots (sediment), as this
should be filtered out.
Linseed oil has apparently been the most important drying
oil whole of the oil painting history. It dries comparatively
fast, and a layer of paint containing this of oil on a canvas
is quite durable. The only weak point is yellowing. The film tends to change its colour into
yellow or dark. Therefore most paint manufacturers and painters avoid this oil for bright colours
like white or yellow. Another problem with linseed oil is that if it is mixed only with pigment the
paint has a stringy/syrupy consistency; this is why beeswax and other stabilisers are usually
added to the paint mix.
It is known to dry from the surface after forming a skin, and therefore takes many months to
dry through completely after becoming dry to the touch. This oil contains Linoleic Acid, an
unsaturated fatty acid occurring as a glyceride (an ester). Early painters neutralized this acid by
the addition of lime or other siccative additives so that it would not deteriorate the painting
surface. Linseed also contains Linolenic acid which attributes to its yellowing but also to its
desirable flexibility. Linseed oil can become rancid (Advanced stage of the polymerisation
process) in storage, impairing its usefulness as a medium, the characteristic smell of linseed oil
is as a result of it’s decomposition (polymerisation process). Linseed oil was one of the very
first drying oils to be used in varnishing and has become the predominant oil for paint vehicles
and mediums through the ages due to its perceived superior balance of qualities. It is only
recently through modern organic chemistry that the truth regarding the drying oils has been
discovered, that linseed oil is not the best binder for artist’s paints.
96
Linseed oil is the most widely used of all the drying oils or binders. Basically, oil paints for artists
consist of pigments mixed with drying oils such as linseed, walnut, safflower, and poppy seed
oils. Linseed oil that was just expressed has a golden bright brown or yellow colour. It becomes
clear and transparent by refining and bleaching process. These oils are called refined oil or Sun-
Bleached oil. Linseed oil in commerce for art use is already refined and bleached. But sometimes
Manufacturers use strong chemicals to bleach, and some technologist’s say it may destroys some
of the good properties of the oil. Painters can buy untreated linseed oil, this is called cold-
pressed linseed oil.
The most important characteristic is that a layer of linseed oil is somewhat more durable than by
poppy. It is recommended to use linseed oil for the ground colour. Manufacturers use linseed oil
as a binder for tube oil paint for darker colours, and use poppy or safflower oil for white or bright
colours (Only white for grounds are made using linseed oil).
The production of linseed oil is a highly developed modern industry in which much scientific work
is constantly being undertaken to promote efficiency and the uniform production of oils, which
have the best properties for the purposes they are produced. Because art materials make up
such a small part of the linseed oil industry, very little results of the research is directly relevant
to the artist.
Normally the seed is pressed and the linseed oil extracted with the aid of steam. The reason for
using the steam is to best secure the most economical output, but the oil thus produced is very
definitely inferior to that extracted by the cold pressing method. Cold Pressed- linseed oil is often
thought of as the best oil for artists. With such a reputation, it carries a considerably higher price
than other oils. It is made by crushing the flax seed with great pressure. The oil can vary in colour
from a light yellow to a somewhat darker golden yellow, but is always very clean and clear. The
drying time is reasonably fast when compared to some other oils. The hot press method extracts
more oil from the seed, but there is a down side, the oil becomes more brittle with age, as
compared with the cold pressed oil. Cold pressed oil when correctly aged and filtered has a
medium or pale golden colour, and is used for pigment grinding purposes without further
refinement. If linseed oil has been bleached or refined to a very pale straw colour, it could be
problematic, as it has a tendency to revert to a deeper tone on ageing, as it is better to have a
golden or light amber colour as it will not darken with age.
Refined Linseed Oil: Alkali Refined Linseed Oil is a very pure, highly refined artist quality linseed
oil. It provides an ideal grinding vehicle for artists desiring to make their own oil paints. Alkali
Refined Linseed Oil can be used to reduce oil colour viscosity as well as extend the drying time.
Using Alkali Refined Linseed Oil will increase the gloss and transparency of oil colours.
Water emulsifiable drying (linseed, linseed stand oil) oils, can be used in surface coatings and paint
formulations. The water emulsifiable oils retain the properties associated with their equivalent grade
of oil (i.e. drying properties, solubilities, gloss, durability etc.)The main advantage is that the need
for traditional solvents such as white spirit can be effectively eliminated.
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This leads to the following benefits:
- zero V.O.C. (volatile organic content)

- eliminates health risks associated with solvents e.g. respiratory problems, etc.
- environmentally friendly – solvent free and expected to be 100% biodegradable in nature
- brushes and other equipment can be easily cleaned with water
- minimises fire risk (very high flash point) by eliminating solvent
Emulsifiable oils have found particular success when used in artist’s oil paints.
Emulsifiable linseed oil has also been used as the drying component in latex based paints
Comparison between Linseed oil and Poppy seed oil
Chemically the oils are very similar in nature and they may therefore be considered together
from this standpoint. They both consist of saturated and non-saturated glycerides. The
saturated glycerides, palmitin and stearin, do not change chemically while drying. They are very
durable. Glycerides of this sort have been discovered in old Egyptian graves still in good
condition. The unsaturated glycerides, olein, linol, and linolein are those that absorb oxygen
from the air in drying. They change partially into gaseous substances called aldehydes. What is
left of the olein remains syrupy. The linol and linolein solidify. With the palmitin and stearin they
form the elastic substance of dried oil that is called linolin.
Drying oils do not really 'dry' in the technical sense of the term, meaning that some liquid
evaporates. They exchange aldehydes for oxygen and possibly absorb some moisture from the
air, which might account for the fact that they are heavier when dry than when wet! The drying
of oil paint is often called polymerisation.
Linseed forms more linoxyn, and less gaseous products, than poppy oil.
The drying process begins naturally at the surface where the oxygen of the air comes into
contact with the oil. While the skin is thus forming gases develop and in escaping perforate this
oil filmmaking channels in it. These channels allow further penetration of oxygen into the oil and
so the process of absorbing oxygen and giving off gaseous aldehydes continues until the oil is
solidified throughout. Siccatives either attract oxygen or furnish it by these means, hastening
the solidification of the oil. Certain colours do the same, such as the oxides for instance. That is
why they are 'good driers'.
This generation and escape of gases makes the linoxyn or dried oil layer porous. The more gas,
the more and larger pores. Poppy oil, as has been said, gives off more gas than linseed and so is
the more porous when dry. A layer of paint put over such a porous surface dries mat as the
pores absorb its oil. An oil film, not quite hard, is like a sponge. It expands while sucking up the
liquid furnished by the layer of wet paint placed over it. It may extract so much oil that the new
layer of paint cracks.
This is why ONE COAT OF PAINT SHOULD NEVER BE LAID OVER ANOTHER ONE UNTIL THE
FIRST IS THOROUGHLY DRY. THE LESS OIL IN THE SECOND COAT AND THE MORE IN THE
FIRST, THE GREATER THE DANGER OF THE OILS CRACKING; HENCE THE RULE: START LEAN
AND FINISH FAT.
Lay your first coat with turpentine as a diluent thinning down the oil. The successive coats may
contain proportionately more oil.
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Linseed oil being more acid and less liable to keep well in tubes, colour makers more frequently
use poppy oil. Linseed oil is more siccative, less porous and becomes harder when dry. To add
more poppy oil, as many painters do, while painting with colours which have already been
ground in an excess of it, is clearly dangerous to the life of the picture.
Even linseed oil in the paint mix, particularly if in excess and if stored in the dark or in a place
poorly illuminated, tends to darken and thus may affect the colours with which it is mixed. This
tendency has, however, been much exaggerated. Unless the picture painted with a great deal of
oil has been left a long time in the dark, the oil will not change colour in a noticeable way. Even
then it will probably not be very noticeable except in the case of the whites and the pale blues.
Furthermore, if a picture with such a darkened oil film is placed in the sunlight or even in strong
daylight, the film will bleach again no matter how long it has been in the dark.
A director of Talens and Company during a lecture delivered in London in 1928, made the
following statement regarding this darkening tendency of linseed oil:
'The property of a linseed oil film to change its colour when placed from the dark into bright light
and vice versa cannot be removed, no matter how the linseed oil is clarified, and from what
variety of seed it is pressed. The more linoxyn the oil forms, the greater its durability, but also
the more it darkens.'
Boiled Oil
Boiled oil has quite different properties from the uncooked article. In buying it one must be
careful indeed; its reputation has suffered from the fact that many boiled oils on the market
(including the product known in Germany as 'gekochtes Leinoel') are merely oils which have
been boiled slightly with a large amount of driers. The genuine product, which is very
durable, is known as Stand-oil and as prepared in Holland is obtained from linseed oil which
has been boiled for six or eight hours at a temperature of 290 degrees Celsius. Boiling in
this way removes about 10 per cent of the unsaturated glycerides and polymerizes the oil,
that is, two or more molecules unite and become one. The polymerized part of the oil takes
up less oxygen, is less subject to disintegration, and of course dries more slowly. Painters
and decorators have used this oil for centuries in the damp and unfavourable climate of
Holland. Quite probably they were already using it when the Van Eycks started to paint
pictures with oils and the artists may have merely imitated the decorators.
Refined linseed oil usually becomes touch dry in three to five days. Each particle of pigment
must be thoroughly coated with oil to protect it from reacting chemically with other pigment
particles, for luminosity, and to provide a workable and durable paint film.
Linseed oil can also be used in various paint media; egg tempera emulsions and is
compatible with alkyd mediums and paints. When mixing linseed oil with pigments the
artist will realise that pigments vary in the percentage of oil they absorb. Generally this is
established with experimentation. Cold pressed linseed oil BP is the only edible linseed oil.
Do not consume especially the boiled linseed oil as it contains driers such as litharge, which
is lead based. Linseed, in its low acid forms (stand oil and sun-thickened), is of greater
durability than Poppy seed or Safflower oil and is generally recommended as a good drying
oil for mediums.
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When linseed oil is exposed to the air, as we have seen its volume increases as it begins to
oxidize. The increase is largest at the surface and so the oil wrinkles or ripples at the top
when the layer exposed is too thick. This is the reason why several colours that contain
much oil, or are bad driers, such as ivory black or raw sienna, are apt to wrinkle on the
support. Copaiba, oil of spike, or lavender oil should be used very sparingly. First, because
they are often, too freely used by the manufacturer to ensure that the colours will not dry
up in the tube, and secondly, Because they cause the oil to expel more gas than the
amount of oxygen absorbed, so that its volume gradually begins to shrink, a shrinking
which will continue until the process of oxidation comes to a standstill (under ordinary
conditions a period of some two years). If much slow evaporating oil is still in the paint
when the oil begins to shrink, the paint contracts twice as much as should be normal, and,
as a result, will crack.
Walnut Oil
It was one of the most important drying oils around the
Renaissance. It seems that Leonard Da Vinci frequently used this
oil. A layer of walnut oil paint is more durable than all the other
drying oils. Walnut oil was originally used for making the paler
colours. Oil early favoured by oil painters (i.e. Leonardo Da Vinci)
for its drying properties, since it dries quickly and evenly
(depending on the pigment type used) throughout unlike that of
linseed oil. It is significantly paler than linseed oil and does not
yellow over time. Slightly aged nuts produce higher quality
(purer) oil. The wetting ability flow properties of walnut oil are
very good. Another benefit of walnut oil over the other binders is
that it is of a ‘short’ buttery consistency, which means that no
beeswax or stabiliser is required in the paint mix. It is said that
Walnut oil can become rancid in storage, but far less so than
linseed oil, becoming rancid impairs its usefulness as a medium.
Its primary use has been as a vehicle for grinding paints and
from a health and environmental perspective is unsurpassed due
to not requiring turpentine for thinning purposes.
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All through the history of art, artists

have used, preferred and recommended
walnut oil over linseed oil except for a
brief period during the mid-19th century
when poppy seed oil was used to good
effect by the French Impressionists.
Then in the 1920's, debate arose over
which oil, walnut, poppy seed or
linseed, was better for artists' colour.
Because many opinions about drying
oils are offered without experience or
scientific proof and continue to be
repeated as truth in some contemporary
American art material manuals, we
decided to clarify the issues and origins
of this debate.
First some history:
Artists have used walnut oil since the 5th century and have found it to be superior to linseed oil
because it yellows and cracks less while being easier to manipulate.
During the middle part of the 15th century, artists throughout Europe were using nut oil on an
extensive basis for the creation of their paintings. By the mid 1500's the use of walnut oil was
recommended over linseed oil for all forms of painting as said by Vasari, "Nut oil is better because
it yellows less". This from an Italian painter and author of one of the most valuable treatises on
the technical methods of the painters of his
time.
It is known that painters of the Renaissance
such as Jan Van Eyck, Albrecht Durer,
Leonardo Da Vinci, Titian and later,
Reubens and Van Dyck, among others used
nut oil interchangeably with linseed oil and
preferred nut oil because it yellowed less
and offered greater ease of manipulation.
The modern science of organic chemistry
proves that linseed oil is the least stable of
all vegetable drying oils and turns rancid far
more rapidly than any other.
For this reason, unlike Walnut Oil, Linseed
Oil cannot be used in the food industry even
with large quantities of preservatives.
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Walnut oil was recommended by Heraclius and Theophilus, Leonardo liked it because it didn't
yellow as much as linseed oil, Durer and Van Eyck used it in the
1400's. It was used all through the high renaissance in Italy; the
greatest artists that ever lived used it and preferred it to all others. It
is a much paler colour than linseed oil. Nut oil is pressed from the
seeds of ripe but not brown walnuts. It was also recommended by
Vasari, Borghini, Lornazzo, Armenini, Bisagno, Volpato, etc., as late
as De Mayerne and even later. No doubt nut oil was more popular
then, than now. When the rules for correct procedures are
disregarded, when inferior oils, poorly compounded oil colours, or
faulty methods of application are employed that failures occur from
this cause. The proper dispersion of the pigments will prevent
settling in the film or the formation of a layer of clear oil on top; and
holding the oil content to a minimum and using the best kind of
drying oil for the purpose will further safeguard the paint layer from
yellowing or cracking." –Mayer
How do the two oils compare chemically?
All drying oils depend upon the amount of

unsaturated fatty acids in them to dry and form
films. The composition of these fatty acids
determine how stable the oil is, how much
yellowing will take place, how brittle the film will
become over time and how rapidly the film will
dry. The composition tells us how well oil will
perform as an artist's vehicle.
A comparison of linseed and walnut oil fatty acid
composition indicates that linseed oil is less stable,
turns rancid more readily, yellows badly and
becomes brittle rapidly leading to cracking.
The primary fatty acids that make up walnut oil
and linseed oil are the same. What is different is
the amount occurring in each. Following is a list of
the primary fatty acids' typical percentages found
in walnut and linseed oils and the effect of each.
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Acid Walnut Linseed Effect
Ensures stability. The higher the percentage, the less

Oleic 17% 14%
likely the oil will turn rancid or crack upon drying.
A stable component responsible for the drying of the oil to

Linoleic 60% 42% a tough, flexible film. The higher the percentage, the
better the film.
An unstable component responsible for drying, rancidity,

yellowing, embrittlement and cracking due to the rapid
Linolenic 12% 38%
oxidation of the paint film. The higher the percentage, the
more rapidly the oil changes.
Because of its high linolenic acid content, linseed oil forms what is known as conjugated fatty
acids which, when combined with oxygen from the air, form polyunsaturated hydroxy
compounds causing both extreme yellowing and brittleness. Linolenic acid unfortunately is
one of the most unstable fatty acids in the vegetable world. As the technical staff at one of
the largest suppliers of linseed oil in the world, point out: "linseed oil is not well suited for
artists colour because it yellows badly, becomes brittle and turns rancid due to its high
linolenic acid content. In fact the characteristic odour associated with linseed oil is caused by
its decomposition or rancidity".
Where did the rancidity controversy begin?
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A woman named Mrs Mary P. Merrifield was hired by the English government in 1845 to
procure information on the traditional oil painting methods, of the Italian Renaissance, from
manuscripts and interviews. In every manuscript Merrifield quotes, walnut and linseed oils are
used
interchangeably
with walnut oil
being preferred
because of its
lack of yellowing.
In only one
instance, during
an interview,
does she quote a
mid-19th century
painter, "Sig. C."
as saying that
Titian painted
both with nut oil
and with linseed
oil but that he
(Sig C.) found
linseed oil was
better because
the "Nut oil soon becomes rancid".
So there we find it. One quote, opposing scores of others, gets repeated throughout history
even into modern literature including the well-respected work of Ralph Mayer.
It is interesting to note, at the time Titian painted, artists manufactured their own colour and
mediums. One recipe for "boiled oil” included the addition of garlic cloves and was tested for
cooking completion by dipping a hen's feather into the roiling liquid to see if the feather
burned. Is it any surprise that oils occasionally became polluted or rancid? After much
research, we find that one opinion and findings from some primitive chemistry are wrongly
repeated, even today, in spite of the facts proven by modern technology
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Why do some contend that linseed oil is superior to walnut oil?

Linseed oil is commonly available and very inexpensive (one third or less the cost of walnut oil)
due to its extensive use in commercial house paints and varnishes. For obvious reasons
manufacturers using linseed oil would proclaim superiority.
Because of the lack of commercial importance of drying oils in artists’ applications, and lack of
funding for dedicated fine arts research, many authors of today's painting manuals rely on
research done in Germany during the 1920's by Alexander Eibner.
Eibner studied the drying of linseed, walnut and poppy seed oils, without pigments, when
applied on glass plates. Eibner assumed from variations in the weight of the dry oil films that
linseed oil would shrink less over time and therefore be more stable. He failed to take into
account the effect of pigments, supports and application methodology normally used by artists,
as well as, variations in temperature and humidity. Most importantly, he never continued his
tests to verify or disprove his conclusions.
Modern chemists, familiar with oil and coatings technology, characterize Eibner's work as
untested, inconclusive, and full of unsubstantiated assumptions and of little practical use.
According to industrial paint and coatings specialists, familiar with the properties of both walnut
and linseed oils, they typically substitute one for the other in practical applications except where
the cost of walnut oil or the yellowing of linseed oil is a factor.
Walnut Oil & Walnut Alkyd Mediums:

A Safer Method For Traditional Oil Painting
A Little History
Historically artists created their own colour in the texture and viscosity of their preference.
In 1550 Vassari wrote "When the artist wishes to begin, that is, after he has laid the gesso on the
panels or framed canvases and smoothed it, he spreads over this with a sponge four or five coats
of the smoothest size, and proceeds to grind the colours with walnut or linseed oil, though walnut
oil is better because it yellows less with time. When they are ground with these oils, which is
their tempera (medium), nothing else is needed so far as the colours are concerned, but to lay
them on with a brush.
Distillation was known in antiquity and early painters used various "turpentines" and resins for
the creation of varnishes. Some of these concoctions were actually incorporated into the colour,
but only as mixtures, not as pure solvent.
The contemporary practice of diluting oil colour with copious quantities of volatile organic solvent
was unknown during the renaissance.
Walnut Oil
Preferred by artists for over five centuries, Walnut Oil gives the artist greater freedom and control
over all types of applications.
Free flowing Walnut Oil allows delicate passages of finely blended colour or achievement of rich,
jewel-like glazes without addition of solvents.
Colours dispersed in Walnut Oil retain a smooth, creamy consistency that does not require
additives to create manipulative properties.
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Solvent Free Brush Cleaning

Brushes may be cleaned during and after painting with Walnut Oil or with the H-Art cleaning
oil which is cheaper than walnut oil and a final washing in mild detergent.
No harsh thinners or turpentines are required for clean-up. Reduces disposal of harmful
chemicals and unnecessary pollution.
Nut oil was formerly used to a great extent, and some painters, though few, still use it. It is
very light in colour and is as good a dryer as linseed oil, but it is usually fairly expensive, and,
as it is not supposed to possess advantages comparable with its price, its use has been
dropped. A mixture of equal parts of linseed and poppy oils is supposed to have the same
properties as nut oil
Rancidity and Vegetable Oil
Some reputed authors of books on art materials, i.e. Kay and Mayer, have made
unsubstantiated statements regarding rancidity peculiar to walnut oil. This has no foundation or
any reliable published data or analytical testing which support their statements. As a result we
believe there is a high degree of misinformation among artists and art educators about
rancidity and vegetable oils.
All vegetable drying oils go rancid in the process of drying and linseed does so much faster than
walnut oil and the other drying oils. The shelf life of the majority of vegetable oils is about a
year with that of linseed even less. If the rancidity of vegetable drying oils, used as an artists’
drying oil or medium was an issue, then it would be impossible to paint with linseed oil. Since
all drying oils turn rancid and walnut oil exhibits superior stability in this regard, it is incorrect
therefore to conclude that walnut oil is inferior to linseed oil as a binder in artists oil paints.
When something is written about walnut oil and rancidity

without including all oils, especially linseed, it does a disservice
to all serious artists. This only continues the promotion of
misleading information, which is unsubstantiated and prevents
artists from achieving a clearer understanding of the properties
of the materials they use. Artists have been deprived of the
benefits of vibrancy, fluidity and resistance to cracking and
yellowing.
Rancidity is a natural oxidative process (polymerisation) common

to all vegetable drying oils. In artists’ paints it is part of the
drying process by which the paint turns into a tough, leathery film that makes oil painting
viable.
While all vegetable oils turn rancid over time and the aroma increases proportionate to the
rancidity, some do this more rapidly than others. Both degree and rate of rancidity are directly
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linked with oxidation (polymerisation) and the rate at which the oil dries. In artists’ oil paints,
linseed oil is the top of the list amongst oils with the greatest percentage of rancidity achieved
at the fastest rate.
Rancidity is determined by the fatty acid composition of the drying oil in question. The amount
of unstable compounds such as linolenic acid and the total percentage of saturated vs.
unsaturated acids determine the rate and degree of rancidity. Drying oils such as linseed
containing a greater percentage of linolenic acid are prone to turn rancid more rapidly than oils
such as walnut.
Oil chemists, for all major producers such as Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill, etc. test
vegetable oils at time of manufacture for their resistance to rancidity and utilize quantitative
measures to determine stability and shelf life. These tests include Iodine Value, Peroxide
Value, Free Fatty Acid Content and Oxidative Stability Index. Linseed oil consistently shows
poor resistance to rancidity in these tests. Linseed oil is also known on an empirical basis to
turn rancid more rapidly than Walnut or Sunflower oils.
Manufacturers of linseed oil typically include a shelf life restriction of one year after which they
recommend the oil be discarded. Linseed oil is so unstable that by the time the artist
purchases it in an art store, it has already begun to turn rancid. (The characteristic aroma
artist’s associate with linseed oil is as a result of its rancidity.)
To further prove the point commercially specimens obtained from an art material retailer of
walnut oil and two brands of linseed oil were sent to an independent research laboratory for
analysis. This laboratory found that both oils turned rancid but that walnut oil does so at a
slower rate than linseed oil.
Notwithstanding, all these oils perform fairly well for painting purposes, can be used almost
indefinitely, have equivalent shelf lives when stored in collapsible metal tubes and should be
evaluated by artists for meaningful attributes such as yellowing, flow and drying rate rather
than rancidity which has no practical meaning for artists’ colour other than to tell us the oil
was subject to the drying process.
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Quotes on Rancidity
“Rancidity is the natural oxidation chemical degradation of oils. This process converts fatty acid
esters of oils into free fatty acids by reaction with air and other materials. It is the free fatty acids
that have the peculiar tainted smell of spoilage such as is seen in butter and most any vegetable
oil over time. Some oils are more prone to rancidity than others, but all vegetable oils easily
degrade through this oxidation mechanism.”
The Nutrition Farm www.nutritionfarm.com/message%20board/Message_Board/flaxseed2.htm
“LNA (Alpha Linolenic Acid) is 5 times more unstable than LA (Linoleic Acid) and quickly goes
rancid if exposed to light or oxygen. It is so unstable, in fact, that when it is pressed from the
seeds that possess it, the pressing must be done in the total absence of light and oxygen. It
must be handled this way right through the packaging stage, then quickly refrigerated or frozen”
CureZone www.curezone.org/foods/flaxseed_oil.asp
“Oxygen is eight times more soluble in fats than in water and it is the oxidation resulting from
this exposure that is the primary cause of rancidity. The more polyunsaturated a fat is, the faster
it will go rancid. This may not, at first, be readily apparent because vegetable oils have to
become several times more rancid than animal fats before our noses can detect it. An extreme
example of rancidity is the linseed oil (flaxseed) that we use as a wood finish and a base for oil
paints. In just a matter of hours the oil oxidizes into a solid polymer. This is very desirable for
wood and paint, very undesirable for food.”
“Unless they have been specially treated, *unopened* cooking oils have a shelf life of about a
year, depending upon the above conditions. Some specialty oils such as sesame and flax seed
have even shorter usable lives. If you don’t use a great deal of it, try not to buy your fats in large
containers. This way you won’t be exposing a large quantity to the air after you’ve opened it, to
grow old and possibly rancid, before you can use it all up.”
Food Storage FAQ www.survival-center.com/foodfaq/ff10-fat.htm
“Flaxseed oil is not suitable for cooking and should be stored in an opaque, airtight container in
the refrigerator or freezer. If the oil has a noticeable odour it is probably rancid and should be
discarded.”
Vitamin Guide www.gnc.com/health_notes/Supp/Flaxseed.htm
“Description-The U.S.P. describes linseed oil as a “yellowish, or yellow oily liquid having a slight,
peculiar odour, and a bland taste. When exposed to the air, it gradually thickens, and acquires a
strong odour and taste; and if spread, in a thin layer, on a glass plate, and allowed to stand in a
warm place, it is gradually converted into a hard, transparent, resin-like mass (absence of non-
drying oils). Specific gravity 0.930 to 0.940 at 15o C. (59o F.). It does not congeal above –20o C.
(-4o F.). Soluble in about 10 parts of absolute alcohol and, in all proportions, in ether,
chloroform, benzene, carbon disulphide, or oil of turpentine :-(U.S.P.). When cooled to –27o C. (-
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16.6o F.) linseed oil congeals to a yellowish mass. Upon exposure to the air, old oil is liable to
become rancid. On account of its drying properties, facilitated by warmth, linseed oil is a most
important article, being used in the making of paints and varnishes, of printer’s ink, oil cloth, etc.
Its affinity for the oxygen of the air is so great that it is liable to inflame cotton waste and other
fibrous materials soaked with it.”
King’s American Dispensatory www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/kings/linum_oleu.html
“All oils are subject to the onset of rancidity, but the rate rancidity occurs differs from oil to oil.
Of the more common vegetable oils flaxseed oil is the most susceptible. Walnut oil is also fairly
susceptible but not nearly as much as flaxseed, although probably more so than other vegetable
oils such as Soya or sunflower oils.
In a true sense, all oils are “rancid” to some extent as the process starts as soon as the oil is
extracted, but it can be minimized by limiting exposure to air, light and higher temperatures
and we would recommend storage in a cool dark place.”
Norman Harris
For Anglia Oils www.angliaoils.co.uk
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Walnut Alkyd Medium
Walnut Alkyd Medium has been developed to provide artists with a safer, environmentally
responsible alternative to solvent based, rapid drying alkyd mediums.
This medium closely resembles the wonderful combinations of sun-thickened oil and natural
resins and balsams used so effectively throughout the history of art but with the singular
advantage of being completely free from all solvents.
Walnut oil combined with alkyd resin gives the artist greater freedom and control over all
types of applications. It works like traditional light bodied, oil for easy blending and self-
levelling, creating enamel like transparent glazes or free flowing, opaque brush strokes.
Colours retain their brilliance and are free from the discolouration associated with linseed oil.
This is enhanced by the flexible, highly durable, non-yellowing nature of alkyd.
Widespread use of solvents by artists appears to have begun during the mid 19th century with
the advent of cheap and readily available distillates.
The practice of thinning colours with solvent has continued unabated throughout the entirety
of the 20th century. It is only recently that we have begun to examine the effects of solvents
upon both the environment and health.
Through increased concerns for safety in the handling of art materials it has become apparent
that exposure to volatile organic solvents is a primary hazard to the artist.
Solvent based materials may only be safely used in an area with adequate ventilation. This
requires an exhaust system that replaces every cubic foot of air with fresh air on a continuous
basis.
Most studios are not efficiently equipped and worst yet, many artists who live in their studios
or work within the home environment are exposing themselves, children and pets to
dangerous fumes.
Solvents are primarily used in thinning colour and cleaning brushes, utensils and hands. This
can be safely accomplished with Walnut Alkyd Medium and Walnut Oil without the dangers of
turpentines and odourless thinners.
Effects of Solvents on Colour
Solvents are not binders and over extension of colour may cause a breakdown of the film and
adhesion. Solvents may also cause a dulling effect and detract from the luminous nature of the
work.
Experience the rich feel of traditional oil colour without exposure to toxic solvents.
Unaltered and unadulterated oil colours made with natural, non-yellowing Walnut Oil.
Enjoy real oil colour without fumes from turpentine, "odourless thinners" or citrus based
materials.
Use Walnut Oil and Walnut Alkyd Medium for a safer, solvent free approach to oil painting.
Walnut Oil and Walnut Alkyd products are completely compatible with other artist's oil
mediums and oil and alkyd colours.
The various oils used as mediums in oil painting are known as drying oils. The term is useful
as a reminder that different oils have different drying times and properties. These mediums
are mixed with oil paint both to modify the way the paint handles straight from the tube (for
example, make it thinner or lengthen the drying time) and to alter the character of the paint
from what you get straight from a paint tube (for example, make it transparent or opaque,
gloss or matt). Ideal mediums are colourless, permanent, flexible, and do not influence the
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colour of a pigment. Learning the particular properties of a drying oil is part of the essential
technical knowledge an oil painter should have. Remember that when an oil paint feels dry to
the touch, it will still be drying under the surface for some time, which is why the principle of
painting 'fat over lean' is so important in oil painting.
Linseed oil is made from the seeds of the flax plant. It adds gloss and transparency to paints
and is available in several forms. It dries very thoroughly, making it ideal for under painting
and initial layers in a painting. Refined linseed oil is a popular, all-purpose, pale to light yellow
oil which dries within three to five days. Cold-pressed linseed oil dries slightly faster than
refined linseed oil and is considered to be the best quality linseed oil.
Stand oil is a thicker processed form of linseed oil, with a slower drying time (about a week to
be dry to the touch, though it'll remain tacky for some time). It's ideal for glazing (when mixed
with a diluent or solvent such as turpentine) and produces a smooth, enamel-like finish
without any visible brush marks. Sun-thickened linseed oil is a mixture of linseed oil and water
which has been exposed to the sun for weeks to create a thick, syrupy, somewhat bleached
oil, with similar brushing qualities to stand oil.
As linseed oil has a tendency to yellow as it dries, avoid using it in whites, pale colours, and
light blues (except in under paintings or lower layers in an oil painting when painting wet on
dry). Stand oil and sun-thickened oil yellows very little.
Walnut oil is a pale yellow-brown oil (when newly made it's a pale oil with a greenish tinge)
that has a distinctive smell. As it's a thin oil, it's used to make oil paint more fluid. As it yellows
less than linseed oil (but more than safflower oil) it's good for pale colours. Walnut oil dries in
four or five days. It's an expensive oil and must be stored correctly otherwise it goes rancid
(off). Walnuts naturally contain about 65 per cent oil.
Boiled oils are oils that have been heated and mixed with a dryer to create a faster-drying oil
that gives a glossy finish. They tend to yellow and darken with age, so are best limited to
lower layers in a painting and darker colours. If you're not sure what effect an oil is going to
have, rather take the time to do a test than 'lose' or 'damage' a whole painting.
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Stand Oil
Stand Oil is produced when linseed oil is heated to
about 550° F in a vacuum to change its molecular
structure, resulting in viscous oil with improved
properties and is kept at that temperature for 16 to
20 hours. When complete, the physical and
mechanical properties of the linseed oil change and
go through a polymerisation process. The oil may be
heavy and viscous with the consistency very much
like that of honey. Stand oil should not be used in
the grinding of pigments, because there are other
oils that will produce better results.
Linseed stand oil is a light golden yellow and is
made in various viscosities. It dries to a smooth
enamel-like film that is free of brush marks and does
not become dark with age. For most applications it
is practical to thin stand oil with a diluent, but note
that whilst stand oil will mix with all organic
solvents, it will not dissolve in all of them and
separates out from some solvents if left to stand.
Stand oil dries slowly, taking around seven days to
become touch dry. As it is processed in the absence
of air, stand oil has a different structure to its parent
oil (linseed oil); once dry, it produces a tougher and flexible film that age extremely well. It yellows
little, even after a considerable time and is unlikely to crack. Stand oil resists the atmosphere,
moisture and heat well. As with linseed oil, it is used in mediums, egg tempera and alkyds. Because
it is a fatter oil, it is not advisable to use it for under painting, but rather as a final layer. Stand oil
is best used as an ingredient for glazing or painting mediums. Over time stand oil becomes less
yellow than many other oils. And when thinned and mixed to create other mediums it is virtually
non-yellowing. One of the other most beneficial properties of stand oil is that it dries to an enamel-
like film, smooth and free of brush strokes. When it is added to paints and mediums, it tends to
extent this property to them as well.
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Sun thickened oil

Painters expose raw linseed oil to the sun's rays for bleaching. It takes for 3 or 4 months. At
that moment, the oil is just Sun-Refined or Sun-Bleached oil. After that if it also exposed to air,
it will oxidize and become viscous little by little. The oil is
called Sun-Thickened oil. This oil produces a tough, enamel-
like, none-yellowing film. And the drying speed is the fastest
in all drying oils. It has been used since medieval times and
one of the most recommendable mediums Stand oil
Stand oil (sometimes called Polymerised oil) is made by
heating linseed oil at high temperature (250 to 350 degree
centigrade), cutting off oxygen. Because the oil hasn't
involved oxygen, the drying speed is very slow. The oil has a
pale clear colour and extremely high viscosity. It produces a
tough, enamel-like, none-yellowing film.
Though bodied heavy-boiled oil like this has been used since
medieval times, some technologists say the modern stand oil
is very different from the traditional stand oil. Stand Oil:
Stand Oil is a purified polymerized linseed oil. This product
has a superior resistance to yellowing and darkening than
traditional linseed oil making it the ideal oil painting medium. This oil is made by heating
refined linseed oil in a vacuum, allowing it to partially polymerize without oxidation. As a
result, it produces a tougher film than linseed oil while maintaining a high degree of flexibility.
Stand oil is paler in colour to linseed oil with a greater viscosity and will also serve to increase
the flow and open time of oil colours.
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Safflower Oil
As same as poppy oil, the film by safflower oil hardly
change its colour into dark. Recently this oil is
frequently used as binder of tube oil paint instead of
poppy as it is cheaper than poppy oil. Safflower oil
was started as a medium for oil paint since 20th
century.
The drying rate is relatively slow but faster than
poppy. Safflower oil is obtained from the seeds of the
Carthamus tinctorius and C. oxyacantha, plants which
have long been extensively cultivated, principally in
India, but also in East Africa, Egypt, Turkey, and
elsewhere, for the sake of the safflower dye which is
obtained from their blossoms. After some years of
research into growing the seed in the United States,
it is now in large-scale industrial production and is
used both as edible oil and paint oil, especially in the
manufacture of non-yellowing alkyd resins.
Safflower oil has come into use only recently. It is
presently used as a substitute for linseed oil when
making some of the paler colours. It is also used in
the manufacture of alkyd resins. Although at this time it appears that safflower oil can be
safely used in the manufacture of some colours, they are not recommended for use in
media and are not expected to substitute linseed oil as it is more brittle with ageing.
Painters have also worked with the oil expressed from the seed of the Safflower plant, a
thistle like composite herb, Carthamus tinctorius, native to the Old World, having large,
orange-red flower heads. It is said to be unsound when layered with linseed oil, though
some modern manufacturers use it to grind their whites. It generally has the same
properties and problems as Poppy seed oil.
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Poppy oil
Poppy oil is a slow drying oil that seldom yellows; it will stay
wet for ten days and wrinkles less then linseed oil. Poppy oil
is pressed from the seeds of the white poppy, its major use
is in the processing of tube oil colour’s Poppy Oil: derived
from the seed of the poppy flower (Papaver somniferum), "it
is a fine drying oil when treated." Its light colour makes it
ideal for grinding whites and blues and many paint
manufacturers use it so. However, poppy seed oil will yellow
some, so that its superiority over linseed oil in this respect is
not so great when compared with its weaknesses. The
absence of linolenic acid in poppy oil is what adds to its
lighter colour, but also to its brittleness. It dries very slowly
and forms films that are soft and spongy and have a greater
tendency to crack when compared to those formed by
walnut or linseed oil. It is therefore not to be used in
complex or layered painting techniques and is best used for
alla prima, or direct (one coat) painting. The reduced
flexibility of the paint film means that a white ground in pure
poppy seed should never be used in under-painting and,
following the rule of more flexible over less flexible, cannot
be painted over linseed ground whites in top layers.
Although, added in small percentage (15 - 25%) to linseed-oil-ground paint, it can reduce stringing
and add a buttery consistency to some pigments (such as ultramarine). Poppy seed oil is a very
pale oil, more transparent and less likely to yellow than linseed oil, so it is often used for whites,
pale colours, and blues. It gives oil paint a consistency similar to soft butter. Poppy seed oil takes
longer to dry than linseed oil, from five to seven days, making it ideal for working wet on wet.
Because it dries slowly and less thoroughly, avoid using poppy seed oil in lower layers of a painting
when working wet on dry and when applying paint thickly, as the paint will be liable to crack when
it finally dries completely. Poppy seeds naturally contain about 50 per cent oil.
One author states that, used in this manner, "poppy seed oil might preferably be substituted for
the essential oils (clove or spike lavender) when a slow-drying oil colour is desired."
Poppy oil (Poppy seed oil) is as popular as linseed oil nowadays. The advantage of this oil is that a
layer by poppy doesn't change its colour easily which is not the case with linseed oil. Therefore
many painters used poppy since Impressionists (they painted thick layers of bright colour) instead
of linseed. But Poppy oil dries very slow and a layer of poppy oil paint is not very durable.
Do not use poppy for ground and lower layer. And shouldn't paint a linseed layer on a poppy layer.
In that case upper linseed layer dries faster than lower poppy layer. It will be result in the paint
layer cracking. Also after layers dried perfectly, you shouldn't paint a durable layer of paint over a
weaker layer such as a poppy layer.
Poppy oil does not wrinkle while drying because there is hardly any difference between the
expansion of the upper skin and that of the oil underneath. It dries with a more or less viscous
surface, which, with some pigments, may remain viscous for years.
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DRYING OILS: any of a group of oily, organic liquids that, when applied as a thin coating, absorb
atmospheric oxygen and polymerize, forming a tough, elastic layer.
HISTORICAL PREPARATIONS OF OIL FOR USE IN PAINTING
Oils should be cleansed and purified of their mucilage to prevent discolouration with age. "By
removing the fermentable particles which the oil contained, its affinity for oxygen has been
reduced; and a larger duration, a longer resistance to the atmosphere, is secured for it." --
Tripier-Deveaux
The early painters had numerous recipes for preparing oil. The actions taken were meant both to
purify the liquid and to make it more drying, especially for use as a semi-resinous varnish, which
quality it achieved upon thickening. Cennini writes of "How to prepare good and perfect oil, by
baking it in the sun -- Oil may be prepared in another mode: it is thus more fit for colouring,
nevertheless the fire is indispensable in preparing oil for mordants. Put linseed oil in a bronze or
copper vessel, and in July or August keep it in the sun; and, if you leave it so exposed till it be
reduced one half, it will be perfect for colouring [that is, colourless in itself]. In Florence I have
found it to be of the best possible quality." Some instructions tell of laying the oil out in a shallow
pan with a cover raised above it to keep out dust, while letting air enter. The oil is stirred
occasionally as well. It is said that purified oil can be made "clear as water."
(Note: The length of time used in this preparation polymerizes the oil into a heavy resinous
varnish, not the liquid that we use today for fluid painting. The modern version of this process is
known as Sun-Thickened Oil which is thick, but is not left to oxidize as long. The bleaching of the
sun is not permanent, and the oil will return to a more yellow appearance when dry.
Materials required for glazing: Linseed Stand Oil, Ketone Varnish, Cobalt/Lead driers. Rather
than mixing the colours to produce a uniform colour, glazing allows mixing to be achieved by
transparent layers of different colours are superimposed on another colour to achieve a resultant
colour which has depth and transparency which cannot be achieved in any other way. An example
is that of doing portraiture, the under layer for the skin is scarlet and lighter transparent colours
mute the scarlet, in much the same way as skin mutes the colour of blood below the surface of the
skin. Glazing is usually thought of as the traditional technique, since its slow and deliberate method
that has a long history. Glazing was probably a necessity in the early days of pure oil painting,
because slow-drying oils and the damp, cold damp climate of Northern Europe did not lend itself to
provide the ideal circumstances for a quick drying and convenient paint medium. In this method,
considerably more complex
The glaze medium can also be used as an additional diluent for oil paint giving an inner glow to the
paint.
Glaze mediums are most effective when they use a mixture of oil, varnish and thinners; although,
stand oil and thinners will produce a more stable structure.
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Glaze medium
Recipe 19
Materials
1 part stand oil
1 part (or less) ketone gloss
5 parts white spirit
(Or dammar) varnish
Method
Using one fluid ounce as one part will make a jar full of medium. Keep lid on the medium,
decanting a small amount at a time, otherwise the solvent will evaporate.
Ketone resin gives the glassy effect to the glaze and is non-yellowing. Ketone varnish should be
used sparingly and never without the stand oil because of its solubility in thinners, i.e. subsequent
layers of paint could dissolve previous ones which contained ketone. That would not only make it
difficult to paint and varnish but very difficult to clean such pictures. Its solubility is partly inhibited
by the stand oil.
Type of resin
Ketone varnish is water white, whilst dammar varnish is pale yellow. Ketone varnish is suggested
because it does not yellow like dammar and does not contain turpentine. No results are yet known
to be more satisfactory in the long run than from the use of dammar. Neither resins are satisfactory
ingredients in an oil paint film, but essential for the glaze effect.
Alkyd resin tends to yellow, so is not an ideal substitute.
Keeping the use of a glaze medium to a minimum is the best advice.
Stand oil levels extremely well, i.e. it does not hold brush marks. It adds elasticity which
compensates for any brittleness of the ketone and it is pale and non-yellowing. Commercial
mediums can contain unsatisfactory ingredients. Check ingredients in manufacturers' catalogues
before use.
Do not mix mediums within one painting because an over-complicated weak structure would result.
See end of this chapter for notes on other ingredients/mediums.
Matt oil painting
Using white spirit to affect mattness can thin the paint too much and give uneven mattness across
the painting. For a thin matt painting, using a sized but not primed canvas may be more effective
(see page 23). For a heavier matt painting, using wax is possible. See Impasto, page 33.
Using an absorbent ground e.g. unsized gesso is not recommended for achieving mattness because
the pigment would be left underbound on the surface.
The easiest way to achieve an even, matt oil painting is to varnish it with a matt removable picture
varnish when the painting is dry. Using a spray gun will give a fine layer which will matt the
painting but not show as a varnish layer.
Economical use of thinners

Thinners can be used in a wide-lipped jar or tin, replacing the lid at the end of the painting session.
By the next day, most of the pigment will have settled at the bottom and you can decant the
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thinners into another tin. The first can be wiped clean for the following session, and so on. The
thinners can be topped up as needed. Dispose of solvent-soaked rags safely, not on an open fire.
Gradation of layers
When building up an oil painting, each underlayer will absorb oil from the paint of each subsequent
layer. In the extreme this will be very noticeable in sunken patches. If time is no object, careful
oiling out between layers will prevent subsequent layers being weakened. See Oiling out, page 36.
As time is usually a consideration, the thinners can include some oil instead. Approximately 10%
stand oil should be used in white spirit.
Up to 50% can be used, if with experience 10% is not enough. Stand oil is used because it is non-
yellowing. This also goes some way towards keeping the 'fat over lean' rule
Impasto
Oil paint was not designed to be used as a heavy impasto technique. You should consider acrylic or
encaustic; or sculptural pieces can be made out of wood, gessoed and then oil painted over the
top; all are more durable than using oil paint for impasto.
If necessary, beeswax paste is the safest impasto medium. Mix it well into the oil paint on the
palette with a palette knife. It will however make the oil paint susceptible to heat, denting, and
scuffing, and will make the paint matt and slower drying.
Glaze mediums
MAKE YOUR OWN OIL MEDIUMS
Dammar and Mastic dries differently than oil, the film dries as a whole, without a skin, and can be
re-dissolved with a solvent. Because of this fact, layers can be applied over any stage of drying
paint. Oil only, may chip off an under layer if it's not completely dry, as oil is not a good binder by
itself but stand oil is.
Venetian Balsam Turpentine, can be re-dissolved, it imparts a high glaze and is a non-yellowing
good binder. It flows like sun-thickened linseed oil and stand oil. By itself it has a sticky, heavy
tacky drag that lifts the undercoat as you paint, turpentine will make it slick and smooth. Venetian
and Stand Oil together melt the paint too much; they need Linseed Oil to make a medium worth
painting with.
Stand Oil is greasy and self-flowing and lifts the under-strokes. Stand Oil by itself is the slowest
drying oil of all, with turpentine to keep it fluid it paints well. Stand oil does not react well with any
drier by itself, it does not yellow. Stand oil and Venetian Turpentine, 1:1:1 with turpentine makes
the best of both worlds’ combining tacky with slick; it still has an edge bleeding problem though.
Venetian Turpentine or Dammar will inhibit Stand Oil's tendency to wrinkle, and oil mixed in will
correct the edge bleeding caused by the balsam.
Both Linseed oil and Stand Oil wrinkle by themselves, add dammar or balsam.
Cold Pressed Linseed Oil is an all-round good medium used on its own. It has no flow-out and
turpentine isn't needed to thin it out. Adding Venetian turpentine and drier make it a great blending
glaze. Oil by itself is not a good binder, under coats must be dry.
Poppy Oil paints like soft wax, it yellows the least of the oils and is very slow drying so it can be
painted into for days, great for portraits. Most pigments are ground in poppy oil with a small
addition of wax to retard drying in the tube.
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Alkyd Oil Paint is made of long oil, it's fast drying and has no solvent action on dried paint, so
successive layers can chip off the shrinking drying under paint. Unless the under coat is completely
dry.
Siccatives and Driers
These are substances added to the paint to increase the rate of its oxidation, to aid it to absorb
oxygen, or to cause it to harden or 'dry'.
Oxides of manganese and of lead are the best known, the strongest and the commonest driers for
linseed oil. Siccative de Courtrai, which is known in English by the name of 'strong drying oil', is
made of purified linseed oil into which has been introduced the oxides of manganese and lead. It
must be used very sparingly indeed and in fact has just as powerful an action in small as in large
quantities! A siccative made with manganese
Glazing
Glazing is now less used than it was in the past. A glaze consists of a transparent or semi-
transparent coat of colour applied over another colour (which must be thoroughly dry) to get certain
effects. The modern painter who uses glazes to the extreme possibility is my friend, Francis Picabia.
I have seen late pictures of his where as many as three or four glazes were superimposed in certain
parts. Sometimes where forms of six different colours met at a common point, a glaze was applied
covering portions of all of them and thus giving rise to a very interesting if somewhat complicated
gamme of combinations.
To explain: suppose that in a wheel with five spokes giving rise to as many divisions, each division
was filled with a different colour. Let's say red, green, yellow, blue and white. The surface adjoining
the hub is then glazed with rose madder to a distance about half-way to the circumference. This
transparent coating of red at once gives rise to five new colours: over the red, to a
A FEW RULES FOR OIL-PAINTING

Of course, the surface to be glazed must be clean, entirely free from dust, and perfectly dry. The
glaze may be applied in any medium or mixture of mediums having sufficiently adherent qualities:
painting varnishes or pure linseed oil. An objection to glazes is, that they are liable to be removed at
some future time when the varnish of the picture must be removed to clean it, but if the picture is
properly painted and varnished, the time for this sad event becomes very problematical. In case the
glaze does not take, Merimee advises washing and carefully drying the part to be glazed with a
mixture of water and grain alcohol, or mixing a little grain alcohol thoroughly with the glaze. I have
never found this necessary. Rudhardt advises rubbing the portion to be glazed with half a raw
potato or potato peelings, and rinsing and drying before glazing.
If your Glaze is not successful

And it requires a certain ability to apply a glaze successfully, it must be taken off. Of course, in
glazing the canvas is laid flat, and a soft brush is used. The glaze is mixed in a white china saucer
(mix too much rather than too little) and applied perfectly evenly and without streaks. Then, if you
must take it off, go over it with a brush and some oil and wipe it off with a fine lint free rag, of silk,
or old well-washed cheesecloth. Fresh breadcrumbs may then be sprinkled over it being careful not
to get any pieces of the crust mixed in, and they are rubbed around with the palm of the hand. All
the oil and colour will be absorbed by the crumbs and come off cleanly. Dark red; over the yellow,
to an orange; over the blue, to a violet; over the green, to a dark warm green, over the white, to a
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pink, etc. The possibilities of glazing may be, therefore, recognized at once as endless. It is a
method, and is discussed here only for some purely mechanical technical hints in connection with it.
Contemporary painters generally avoid these resins which crack and darken readily. For the purists
the preferred natural resin is dammar mixed with stand oil and spirit of turpentine to create a
medium for painting, but a modern equivalent resin is Ketone, which is much clearer and more
flexible than dammar and is proven to be the better choice as it can be dissolved in mineral spirits.
Mineral spirits (including the low odour solvents like turpenoid) will not dissolve dammar. Because
dammar can be re-dissolved by turpentine, it should be used in no more than equal amounts with
oil, and preferably less.
A quick drying medium consists of 2 parts sun-thickened linseed oil to 1 part dammar diluted with 6
parts rectified turpentine.
A superior, but slower drying medium consists of 3 parts stand oil with 1 part dammar. Dilute with
turpentine to desired consistency, decreasing the amount of turpentine in each successive layer
following the "fat-over-lean" principle.
A third medium, one recommended by Ralph Mayer as a good universal medium and one which I
use, mixes 1 part stand oil with 1 part dammar thinned with 5 parts turpentine. The turpentine can
be increased to as much as 7 parts for more fluid underpainting and reduced proportionally in each
successive layer as above. The increased dammar cuts the viscosity of the stand oil, speeds drying
(since it dries by evaporation), and adds toughness to the film, while mixing with stand oil maintains
the paint film's flexibility. When stirred into manufactured tube colours that have been ground in
linseed oil, the percent of dammar is cut to an acceptable level to resist the action of solvents in
varnishing, over painting, or cleaning. A few drops of cobalt drier may be added for faster drying
glazes if you desire. However, I have never found the need for it.
For a glossier glaze medium mix 2 parts sun-thickened or stand oil with 2 parts dammar and add 1
part Venice turpentine and dilute with spirit of turpentine.
Other Venice turpentine mediums include the following:
For a slow drying medium good for soft blending mix equal parts of stand oil, Venice turpentine, and
spirit of turpentine.
For layering, mix 4 parts Venice turpentine with 1 part stand oil and dilute with spirit of turpentine.
For following layers increase the amount of drying oil and dilute with turpentine as needed.
Rubens used a medium similar to the following in at least some of his work: 3 parts Venice
turpentine, 2 parts sun-thickened oil, and 1 part dammar. For the glossy look of the Flemish
painters, the use of Venice turpentine is advisable in place of resins that have a greater tendency to
darken and crack (amber, mastic, copal, etc.)
Linseed oil (stand oil or sun thickened) can be used, thinned with turpentine as needed, as a
medium by itself.
APPLICATION
Superimposed paint layers must be as, and preferably slightly more, flexible than the layer beneath.
To achieve this, each successive layer of paint film must contain an increasing amount of fatty oil.
This is known as painting Fat-Over-Lean. This truth is applicable not only to the medium used, but
to the amount of oil necessary as a binder for a given pigment. Therefore artists should be aware of
the type and amount of oil that is used in producing a given pigment.
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Dangers:
If an excessively fat layer is applied over a dry, lean layer, the oil in the top layer will shrivel and
wrinkle.
If a layer of paint is applied with less fatty oil than the preceding layer (lean-over-fat) then the
surface of the painting will dry more quickly and will be less flexible than the layers still drying (and
moving) beneath it, causing it to crack. Reed Kay explains, "linseed oil oxidizes as it dries. It unites
with oxygen from the atmosphere, becoming heavier in the process. Furthermore, it moves as it
dries, expanding and contracting its bulk considerably. Since the film dries from the top (where the
air is) toward the bottom, it may be dry or tacky on the surface while it is still oxidizing and swelling
below the surface. If a film of "leaner" paint containing less oil is placed over such a half-dry
underpainting, the lean film may become thoroughly solid and dry before the fat film has completely
gone through its drying process. In such a case the movements of the lower film may cause the dry
upper film to crack and fracture, in much the same way that heaving ground may cause a concrete
sidewalk to crack." Linseed oil, once it reaches its peak weight gain during drying, declines in weight
at a slower rate than poppy seed oil which is why it is better suited to layering techniques.
Why can’t it always be like this?

Handmade oil paint on Belgian linen
80x60cm
Private collection USA
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Diluents and Thinners
Chapter 12 Diluents and Thinners
DILUENTS AND THINNERS
Genuine Steam Distilled Turpentine, Mineral Turpentine and Alcohol

The diluents used in, and with oil paint are turpentine or white spirit.
Turpentine (genuine gum turpentine)
Turpentine is distilled from the sap of pine trees (a distilled oleoresin). Fresh turpentine is
colourless or slightly yellow and has a distinctive odour. Gum turpentine is classified as a
moderately toxic solvent. Turpentine will oxidise, leaving a gummy residue, which yellows badly
and leaves the oil paint sticky and non-drying. To reduce the risk of this, use only steam distilled
genuine turpentine.
Both turpentine and white spirit are toxic. See Health and safety (page 37).
White spirit is significantly cheaper than turpentine.
Turpentine can be reserved for use if you find it easier to manipulate, prefer the smell, or if it is
needed as a superior solvent to white spirit. It is slower drying and more viscous than white spirit.
Using thinners
Thinners should not be used to thin the paint to a water-like consistency. This will prevent any oil
film forming because it has been thinned to the extreme and the pigment will be left under/un-
bound on the ground. If a stain is required, paint on the water-like paint and then immediately
rub it off with a rag. This will leave a stain without loose pigment. If you find yourself wanting this
effect often, consider using tempera or watercolour
When using dammar varnish only genuine steam double distilled turpentine should be used. Gum
turpentine is used in the preparation of retouching varnish, final picture varnish and a diluent for
wax and heavy painting media, such as stand oil. It is also useful as an addition to the white lead
colour in the preparation of the oil ground, by making such a ground slightly absorbent and
facilitating the distribution of the white lead paste on the canvas. Genuine gum turpentine can
also be used as a diluent for alkyd paint or resin.
Mineral Spirits
White spirit (also mineral spirits, odourless paint thinner) is a petrol distillate, which does not
oxidise. This product is distilled from crude petroleum oils, and as a thinner it has properties
similar to those of gum turpentine. It is also called turpentine substitute. It replaces gum
turpentine as a paint thinner and for most studio purposes, except in dammar varnish or recipes
containing dammar, which is incompletely soluble in it. Mineral turpentine takes longer to
evaporate than gum turpentine. The decidedly oily smell of mineral turpentine is quite offensive
when compared to that of the genuine distilled gum turpentine. Mineral turpentine is
recommended for painters who are allergic to genuine distilled gum turpentine.
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Ethyl Alcohol
This is also called ethanol or grain alcohol. Ethyl alcohol is most often used for studio operations.
It can be used to: dissolve shellac, it acts as a dispersant for watercolours improving the flow
properties of the paint, is also used to clean brushes that have dried paint on them and has many
more uses.
DILUENTS
In order to dilute the paints ground in oil to the desired consistency, liquids of little body, capable
of easy admixture with the oils in which they are ground, are used. They correspond, as solvents,
to the water, used as a medium in water-colour, gouache, etc. The diluents in use today are:
Turpentine and white spirits
Turpentine
Under the name of Rectified Spirits of Turpentine, this sold by the art stores is supposed to have
been doubly distilled and purified. The product is usually of a good quality and lives up to the
claims made for it, but it is unwarrantably expensive. The chemistry of spirits, or oil of turpentine,
is complicated. The tendency of turpentine is, upon exposure to air and light, to turn back to the
resin from which it comes. This resin is a sort that is worse than useless for any purposes of
painting and so this tendency must be avoided if possible. The resin may be noticed at times in
the sticky film that collects around the cork and neck of the turpentine bottle. Turpentines vary
much in quality and, naturally, the best is the only sort fit for oil painting.
A Simple Test for the Quality of Turpentine
Drop a little on a clean white blotting paper. In evaporating it should leave no ring or stain on the
paper. As turpentine is best fresh, and always oxidizes more or less no matter how well prepared
or how purified, it should be purchased in small sealed bottles and promptly used up as soon as
opened. Buying turpentine by the quart from a house-painter's supply store may save you about
75 to 80 per cent in cost, depending on your colour dealer. This is how I buy it. Into the quart
bottle, in which it is purchased, drop a few small pieces of hard quicklime. These will absorb any
moisture produced by oxidation in the bottle, and any acids that may be formed at the same time.
Such turpentine, filtered as described on page 69 of this copy, will be as clear as crystal. When
quicklime is kept in a well-corked and full bottle there is no necessity for using the small bottles,
although it may be filtered into these. Contrary to linseed oil, which should always be kept 74 in
as bright a light as possible, turpentine should be kept in the dark. Most household shops keep a
very good quality at a quite reasonable price.
Oil of Spike
If you can't stand the odour of the turpentine, which gives some people headaches, this may be
used instead. It dries or evaporates more slowly than turpentine, which is advantageous for
certain techniques. It is better than turpentine for painting where wax enters III as an ingredient,
being a better solvent for the wax.
Technique of Working with Diluents

The technique of working with paints much thinned with diluents became popular in the
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eighteenth century. It gave a mat and somewhat chalky effect. It seems sound enough
technically, for the works of Chardin, Hubert-Robert, Fragonard and Joseph Vernet have lasted
very well. Gainsborough is supposed to have used it so freely that he had to pour the excess of
turpentine off his palette from time to time.
As modern colours contain almost more than ample oil in the tubes, a good modern technique is
furnished by the use of petrol with the colours just as they come from the tubes, as water is with
moist water-colours. A little wax, dissolved in it to give body, will in no way hurt the durability of
the colours; quite the contrary. The best way to protect them from the atmosphere (most
necessary, as the oil film will probably be very thin) is to use a good wax varnish. Theoretically,
thus treated they should be exceedingly durable. The ground should be semi-absorbent.
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Varnishes and Waxes
Chapter 13 Varnishes and Waxes
Varnishes
Varnishes are solutions of natural or synthetic resins that dry, usually by evaporation, when spread
thinly on a surface. The dried films are solid and relatively transparent. According to the
composition of the solution, the films exhibit varying qualities of gloss, protective ability, flexibility,
and durability.
Uses of varnishes:
For Picture Protection
A varnish is used as a final coating on a finished painting to give the surface a consistent
appearance and to protect the painting from dirt, dust, and atmospheric impurities. The
permanence of oil paint is affected by atmospheric pollution, such as sulphur dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide present in city air. Unprotected (unvarnished) metal-based paints like the chrome colours,
such as chrome yellow, and chrome green, white lead, cinnabar green, as well as ultramarine blue
and permanent blue, can discolour when they come into contact with these pollutants. To function
well in this capacity, a varnish chosen for use, as picture protection should meet the requirements
listed below.
Dammar Resin and Varnish Ketone Resin and Varnish
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Varnishes and Waxes
• A varnish should provide protection from atmospheric impurities. Dust and chemical pollutants,
even in air- conditioned environments, can wreak havoc on a painting by discolouring and
disfiguring or pitting and physically deteriorating the picture is surface. A varnish should take
the brunt of this damage. Its removal during cleaning saves the picture.
• A varnish should expand and contract in response to atmospheric changes. This is particularly
important if the varnish is used on a picture painted on a flexible support.
• Varnish should preserve the elasticity of the painting. A brittle varnish can easily transfer its
mechanical action to inflexible areas of the painting.
• The varnish should be transparent and colourless. Ketone varnish is the most transparent
varnish; dammar has a slight yellow tint and does get slightly darker as it ages.
• The varnish film should be able to be applied in a thin layer. A thin coating of varnish will not
disturb any textural effects on the painting. A thick coating is apt to change colour more rapidly
or present such a reflective surface that the work cannot be easily seen. A thin coating is less
likely to crack as it expands and contracts. Too thin a coating, however, can be too easily
removed or may deteriorate too rapidly.
• A varnish should be reversible. The conservation or restoration of a painting often includes the
removal of imbedded surface dirt by carefully removing the varnish coating. Many varnishes do
not remain soluble in their original solvents, even though they were thought to. The removal of
irreversible varnishes requires stronger agents that may be dangerous to the pained layer
underneath. Some varnishes grow less soluble by such slow degrees that the fact that they are
not entirely reversible is not important.
• The varnish should not cloud. This defect is known as bloom, and results from the penetration
of water vapour into the film or condensation of water vapour within the film. The painting may
look like it is covered with frosted glass. Blooming can occur on an overcast day or when it is
very humid, so it is advisable to varnish a painting when the air is warm and dry, this is due to
water vapour being trapped beneath the varnish.
• A varnish should have the proper degree of gloss. Glossiness is an attractive quality, and a hard
gloss gives a surface that dust and dirt will not stick to. But glossy paintings are hard to see
unless they are lighted carefully. Matte surfaces are easier to view, but they have a microscopic
texture that allows the deposit of surface dirt. Semi-gloss surfaces are a reasonable alternative.
Dammar resin dissolved in gum turpentine, while subject to yellowing and embitterment with
ageing, is still recommended to the artist who wishes to manufacture and use varnish
containing painting mediums.
Varnish as a medium
Varnish can be used in painting or glazing mediums, emulsion binders, and in some wax vehicles to
impart hardness and I a degree of gloss to the painted films.
Use in a 10-parts-by-volume medium, no more than 1 part solution varnish, including the thinner. As
parts of emulsion or wax vehicles, the varnish content can be slightly higher.
Dammar Varnish
Dammar resin, also spelled dammar is a natural product tapped from the dammar fir tree
(dipterocarpaceae family) found chiefly in Indonesia and Malaya. Gum turpentine is the solvent of
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Varnishes and Waxes
choice for the artist; other solvents either dissolve the resin incompletely or are not safely kept in
the average studio.
Dammar’s distinguishing characteristic is that it is completely soluble in coal-tar hydrocarbons and

in turpentine, and is only partially soluble in alcohol. It is light in colour, lustrous, and adherent.
The film is soft, however, is less durable than ketone resin, and has a tendency to slightly remain
tacky. Its paleness and the ease with which it may be used have caused it to be very popular, and
it is regarded by some as the best varnish for pictures.
Dammar varnish or dammar resin solution is used in resin oil paint and egg tempera paint
preparation. In tempera emulsions use one part resin in two parts of genuine turpentine. Two
percent dammar in petroleum spirit may be used as a pastel fixative.
Dammar when used in painting media assists paint films to set quickly so that they may be worked
over within a day. It is possible to interlock paint layers by taking advantage of the two forms of
drying that take place with a drying-drying oil mixture. Several hours after using this combination,
the dammar has solidified and the drying oil has begun to polymerise through oxidation. If, after
one and a half to two days, the drying oil should be roughly half dry, a subsequent paint layer
containing the same medium is applied, the two layers will interlock. The turpentine of the medium
when applied will re-dissolve part of the resin and soften the drying oil of the paint film, and the
two should lock well together.
Dammar Resin
Dammar is a pale, yellowish, brittle resin with sharp

edges. Dammar originates from Southeast Asia; the
name is Malay and means "resin" or "torch" (torches
made of dammar are very good because they do not
drip). The trees from which Dammar is obtained belong
to the Diptocarpaceae family. The most common dammar
on the market is obtained from Sumatra and may have a
prefix according to the place of origin. Padang- or
Palembang dammar is the most common type.
Dammar is obtained by cutting deep grooves into the

trees, in which the resin accumulates. Dammar pieces,
which look like a pear or club, are obtained naturally. The
resin is thus "sweated-out" by the tree, and not obtained
by cutting the trees.
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Varnishes and Waxes
Dammar contains about 40% resin, dissolvable in alcohol (alpha-resin), and about 22% resin,
which is non-dissolvable in alcohol (beta-resin). Furthermore it contains about 23% dammarol acid
and 2.5% water. The slight odour is obtained from the small amount of ethereal oils.
Dammar resin starts to soften at about 90° C and melts at approx 180°C. Dammar is partially
dissolvable in alcohol and ether, and dissolves well in turpentine oil, chloroform, carbon disulphide
and petroleum ether. The acid value fluctuates between 20 and 30, depending on its origin.
Dammar is suitable for the preparation of light, clear and easily volatile varnishes. This resin is used
as a final varnish in both oil and tempera painting. In addition, it is also used in oil painting as an
additive or diluting agent, which reduces the drying time. During the preparation of varnishes or
paints, turpentine oil of high quality should be used (double-rectified). The resin is dissolved in a
cold diluent by a slow stirring action. If stored in dark bottles, the dammar solution is more stable
than under the influence of light. Further dilution should only be carried out with the same solvent
used to dissolve the resin.
Ketone Varnish
Ketone varnish is a
polycyclohexanone resin dissolved
in mineral turpentine. The
advantage of Ketone is that it
dries rapidly, is crystal clear
(unless a wax is added to create a
matte finish), and is non-
yellowing. It is prepared much in
the same way as with dammar.
The advantage is that it is
optically clearer than, and yellows
less than, dammar. However, it is
slightly more brittle than dammar.
Ketone resin varnish is
recommended because it does not
yellow as fast as natural resin
varnishes (dammar and mastic)
and they do not bloom. Ketone
resin need only be mixed with
mineral turpentine and not gum turpentine as in the case of the dammar. Ketone adds clarity, and
resins like dammar adds flexibility.
Adding a small quantity of beeswax or zinc stearate to ketone can make a matte varnish or dammar
varnish, the proportion of wax to dammar or ketone is 1:3. The reason a matte varnish is used is to
minimise surface glare from a painting. This has become an important consideration for some
contemporary artists.
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Varnishes and Waxes
Historical Development
Ketone Resins based on condensation reactions involving methylcyclohexanone and/or

cyclohexanone were first patented in the 1920s. By the late 1930s several hundred tons per year of
these resins were sold into the textiles and coatings industries. They were used particularly in a
range of specialty paints and varnishes as light-fast additives which improved gloss and hardness.
The resins have a high solubility in low polarity solvents coupled with a high refractive index. This
enables the formulation of high-solids, low viscosity varnishes which are fairly easy to apply by brush
or spray and provide attractive optical properties. During the 1950s ketone resins were evaluated as
a more stable alternative to dammar in conservation varnishes for works of art. Whilst fast drying
rate was an advantage in many cases the varnish films were found to break down even in museum
conditions. A major problem associated with these resins is the tendency of the ketone groups and
double bonds to degrade in light, resulting in yellowing and a loss of solubility over time.
Preparation, Application, and Properties varnishes
Ketone varnish recipes are as follows:
Recipe 20
(A) Basic varnish for brushing or spraying: Ketone resin broken down to small granules and
suspended in a muslin bag (if desired) is dissolved in white spirits to BS 245 having less than 20%
aromatics content. The resin dissolves overnight, or more quickly with frequent stirring and a little
heating. (The final conc. is 31% weight/final volume; 50g of Ketone resin plus 110 ml white spirit
equals a total volume of 160 ml). This varnish may be used from a spray gun as prepared or diluted
with white spirit or odourless kerosene (4 parts to 1 part diluent) to provide a more slowly drying
varnish solution suitable as a brushed isolating layer. (25%)
(B) Basic matt varnish solution: 7 g microcrystalline wax (or bleached beeswax) is dissolved,
with the aid of heating, in 150 ml’s white spirit, followed by the addition of 18ml basic varnish
solution type (A). The wax reduces brittleness in the dried varnish and enables the gloss to be
varied. (4% wax and 3% Ketone)
Diluted matt varnish as finishing layer: 3 parts basic soln. (A) is mixed with 1 part basic matt
varnish (B). (24% Ketone and 1% wax) This formulation diminishes the brittleness of the applied
varnish without affecting the gloss. By increasing the proportion of (B) to (A) the matt effect is
introduced and heightened. This is further controlled by adjusting the spray aperture and distance
from the painting, and can be modified again by gently polishing the dried varnish with a soft cloth.
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Varnishes and Waxes
Open/working time. Ketone may be easily worked with a brush following application. Dried
varnish may be reworked with additional varnish application by brush to build in uneven areas. The
silky soft optical appearance is optimal in the thinnest coats.
Cleaning. Dust which may accumulate as surface film, often over a number of years and particularly
on paintings frequently transported for exhibitions, is easily removed by gently washing with distilled
water, followed by gentle polishing with a soft cloth. Varnishes most affected by dust accumulation
have been reported to be those containing higher levels of wax.
Ageing. Accelerating ageing trials have shown that oxidation/ cross linking can occur to induce slight
yellowing and reduce solubility in white spirit. Such effects should occur much more slowly than in
the case of natural or ketone resins. In practice, Ketone varnishes examined to date, almost 40 years
after first application have remained unchanged to the naked eye in terms of gloss and clarity, and
have remained fully soluble in white spirit with no evidence of discolouration in removed varnish.
Synthetic resins are used as lacquers or binding media for paints. Ketone resin can be used as a
substitute for dammar. Paraloid B 72 is a highly solid and durable, UV-resistant lacquer, and is also
used as a retouch varnish.
Typical retouching varnish contains up to 25% w/w resin in solvent. Typical brushing varnishes
contain 35% w/w or more resin in solvent. Picture varnish for spraying is diluted by further addition
of solvent as above.
Topcoat varnish layers often contain approx. 3% microcrystalline wax or 5% bleached beeswax to
reduce brittleness (improve resistance to abrasion) and modify varnish gloss. Varnishes can be
formulated/manipulated to achieve any desired effect from full saturation (gloss) to leaving the
picture with an un-varnished appearance.
Obviously varnish formulations vary considerably and this is only a guideline that I hope will be
useful.
Varnishing
Using a soft rag and some white spirit, test an area of the painting to ensure it is dry enough to
varnish. If anything more than a trace of colour comes off, the painting must be left longer to dry.
Any dirt or dust that has accumulated whilst the painting has been drying should be removed. Use a
soft cloth dampened with distilled water. There must not be enough water to deposit a residue on
the painting. Varnish in a well ventilated dry dust-free atmosphere.
Use a dry 7cm varnishing brush. Thin the varnish if necessary in order for it to brush out thinly and
smoothly. A spray gun can be used to apply very thin layers of varnish. Dilute the varnish as
necessary to get it through the gun. Do not use a mouth atomiser because you will introduce
moisture from your mouth into the varnish.
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Varnishes and Waxes
Apply the varnish with the painting horizontal. In 15 minutes the varnish will have set and the
picture can be leant face-inwards against a wall to prevent dust settling on it whilst it dries.
Use of Retouching Varnish while Painting

On pictures that have gone flat or 'dead' in drying, retouching varnish, a quick-drying varnish, is
sometimes used to bring out parts, so that their original tone may be seen. Many authorities advise
filling the pores of the oil film with a good retouching varnish before repainting, advice which is
based upon reasons theoretically sound, as may be remembered from the explanation of how the
siccative or drying oils dry. The varnish, thus used, not only restores the brilliancy of the colours, but
also reduces the absorbing power of the ground layer of paint and helps to prevent cracking.
Be careful, though, not to use more retouching varnish than is strictly required to fill the pores. A
heavy coating of varnish is not a good ground to paint on. The superfluous resin will dissolve in the
oil of the superimposed paint, and the latter, having no longer a solid foundation to rest on, will
start to drift, form floes, and crack while still wet.
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Painting Supports and Grounds
Chapter 14 Painting Supports and Grounds

Support
The material or basic substructure that carries the paint is called a support — stretched linen or
canvas, wooden panel, paper, glass, metal sheets or other substance—on which a painting or
other two-dimensional work is executed; in mural painting the support is the wall
POOR SUPPORT= FAILURE OF ENTIRE PAINTING
Ground
What is a ground?
A support is prepared with a ground before paint is applied. The support on which a painting or
drawing is executed e.g. canvas for oils; or, more specifically, a preparatory coating applied to
such a surface before the picture is begun. The purpose of the ground in the second sense is to
isolate the paint from the support so as to prevent chemical interaction, to render the support
less absorbent, to provide a satisfactory surface for painting or drawing on, and to heighten the
brilliance of the colours
SUPPORT + GROUND = PROTECTED SUPPORT + GOOD PAINTING SURFACE
PREPARATION OF SUPPORTS FOR PAINTING
Over the centuries, artists have used a wide range of supports -. Each of the support materials
imparts a certain character to the surface of the painting. Preparing your own support is neither
expensive nor difficult. You can therefore have full control over the quality of your artwork and
develop various combinations of supports and grounds that meet your own specific needs.
Whichever kind of support you choose, it should satisfy the following minimum requirements:
- It should age without becoming so brittle or fragile that it will suffer when being handled
for storage or exhibitions.
- It should be able to withstand the effects of atmospheric changes.
- It should have enough absorbency or tooth to provide a good key for various types of
paints and grounds.
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Flexible supports
Supports made of textiles or paper - Flexible supports have advantages over rigid supports.
They are lightweight and portable. These supports are generally more easily treated if they
need to be repaired. Depending on the specific material, most textiles and papers are unstable
in response to atmospheric changes. Constant movement resulting from changes in
temperature and humidity can contribute to the physical deterioration of a relatively rigid paint
layer. Supporting them on a stretcher or mounting them on a rigid panel can counteract the
instability of fabrics.
Stretchers
Tools required
133
Either store bought or studio made stretchers can be used for stretching linen or canvas. Studio
made stretchers work out far more economical than its counterpart, the store bought stretcher.
The problem with bought stretchers is that one cannot get the rigidity of frame as that of studio
made stretchers; this is especially the case when large canvases need to be stretched. One aspect
about the frame of the stretchers must be mentioned, it is that once the canvas is stretched the
frame must be square, for the purpose of framing. Even the bought stretchers do not guarantee
squareness.
Making up a Stretcher
134
For artworks about 600mm x 600mm, 45mm wide stretcher pieces should be used. For
larger artworks 57mm and 70mm pieces. A crossbar should be used for artworks over
700mm x 900mm. Multiple crossbars should be used for artworks that are larger than
mentioned above. Without them the stretchers are very flimsy.
Use a wooden mallet to put the stretcher pieces together. Drive the corners together until
they butt against each other. The stretcher must have some sort of bevel along the edge,
and ensure that no surface of the stretcher stands proud of the edge, as this will deform the
canvas that is to be stretched on it.
A carpenter’s square (at least 600mm long) should be used to ensure that the chassis (the
combined stretcher pieces) is square. The chassis must be placed on a flat surface and the
square must butt up against each corner. Keep working around the chassis until all the
corners are square.
Once the chassis is square use a 12mm tacks to pin the tongue and groove joints to prevent
it from moving out of true. This can be removed later before the wedges are inserted.
Stretching linen or canvas
It is not advisable to buy primed canvas or linen as you do not know exactly what the primer
consists of and it can never be stretched the same way as when you do it in the studio. The
reason is that the primer on pre-primed canvas has to stretch with the canvas or linen and
thus has unnecessary stresses placed on it besides the natural expansion and contraction that
occurs in various climatic conditions. Pre- primed linen or canvas is ideally suited for mounting
on a sheet of hardboard.
Linen is by far the most superior flexible support available. Because the fibre length of linen
(flax) is far longer than that of cotton canvas or any of the fabric supports, it is the recommend
support for the serious artist to use. Linen and linseed oil originates from the flax plant.
Place the canvas on a firm flat surface and place the chassis bevel-side down, remembering
that the canvas must be at least 60mm larger at each side of the chassis. The additional
material allows you to grip the canvas with your fingers enough to stretch it, besides allowing
for a neat edge. No sharp edges must be left on the wood where it will come into contact with
the canvas. The weave of the canvas should run parallel to the stretcher bars, so as not to be
visually interfering and to promote equal tension. Unevenly stretched canvas will cause the
weave to become wavy or distorted. When using size_ on the canvas it causes it to shrink.
Belgian linen_ stretches more successfully than cotton as it needs much less pulling over the
stretcher and can in fact be fairly loose before sizing.
Put the staples or tacks into the back of the chassis. Using the edge is awkward, makes
framing difficult and reduces the durability of the canvas. Use 12mm staples or tacks. Use
heavy duty staples as lightweight ones will rust too quickly. Put the first staple in the centre of
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one side and then in the centre of the opposite side once you have pulled the canvas taught
horizontally, then in the centre of one of the other two remaining sides, and then finally in the
last side. The canvas will then have a diamond- shaped wrinkle. Work your way around in this
fashion ensuring that the staples are driven in at regular intervals.
Once you reach the corner pull the canvas diagonally towards the corner and staple the
canvas, then move to the diagonally opposite corner and do likewise, but be careful not to pull
it too taught in one direction as this could cause the chassis to warp.
Rabbit Skin Glue
The glue made from animal skins is the correct material for sizing canvas or board as it has
far greater adhesive properties, the glue made from bones is not ideal for use in this
application. It comes in the form of tough leathery sheets, roughly ground granules, or
finely ground powder (the H-Art rabbit skin glue is the latter).
The dry glue mixed with hot water to make a powerful adhesive, a binder for paints, or a
size, depending on the strength of the mixture. Rabbit skin glue is known to be far stronger
than any other component in an oil painting on fabric (the other components are the paint
and the fabric). Size is glue used in a certain dilution to reduce absorbency of a surface. It is
employed in this case to stop the canvas/linen absorbing any oil from the ground.
Oil paint is destructive to its support, and therefore the support needs to be protected from
it. Size does this by preventing oil being absorbed into the fibres, i.e. the strands which
make up the cloth. Size should not fill the holes in the cloth itself, the ground has to be
pushed into these holes later for structural reasons. A size is therefore never a continuous
layer. The size supplied by MtPaints.net is the most suitable rabbit-skin glue to achieve the
best results.
As size is a natural product it is not possible to give exact measurements. The

measurements will be between 30-45g of glue to 1.13 litres of water. The only way of
knowing the correct strength is to test the set of the cold size. 1.13 litres of size will be
enough to cover a 122x183 cm canvas, a double boiler is used so that the glue is not
scorched and is evenly distributed. Scorching or boiling the size makes it brittle and reduces
its pore filling properties.
Uneven distribution will mean some parts of the canvas will have too strong a sizing and
other parts too weak. A double boiler can be two pans, as long as there is water in the
bottom one so that the size can be heated without it boiling.
If size is too strong it will be too hygroscopic. Taken to the extreme, if the size has acted as
a layer then the ground and painting can peel off. If the size is too weak the oil from the
ground will sink into the cloth. There is water in the bottom one so that the size can be
heated without it boiling.
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If size is too strong it will be too hygroscopic. Taken to the extreme, if the size has acted as
a layer then the ground and painting can peel off. If the size is too weak the oil from the
ground will sink into the cloth.
Making and using the size
RECIPE N° 21
Method
1. As a starting point put 40g of glue with 1.13 litres of water into the top part of a clean double
boiler .
2. When using a new bag of glue, make the initial batch by estimating the proportion of glue on
the high side. It is quicker to adjust the glue if it is too strong than if it is too weak. This is
because if you soak more granules in the prepared size it takes up to 12 hours for them to
swell. The granules will swell in the water to a uniform pale beige colour in approximately 2
hours.
3. Once swollen, the glue is melted by heating in the double boiler. It melts in a few minutes.
Leave the glue in a cool place to set. This can take between 2-10 hours. Keep the lid on the
double boiler when possible throughout the process to prevent loss of water through
evaporation.
4. Test when it is at room temperature, otherwise it might appear stronger than it really is.
When split with the finger the walls of the jelly should be uneven and not smooth and if you
mix the size up with your finger the resultant lumpy consistency should be that of apple
sauce. If it is like soup then it is too weak and needs some extra granules. If the set is like
fruit jelly then it is too strong and needs more water. Add whichever is necessary.
5. If the size is too weak, add an extra 5-10g of glue and leave to soak for at least 12 hours. If it
is too strong add extra 70-140ml water. Melt it again and leave to set. Repeat the process
until you have the right set. Continued heating reduces the strength of the size. Once you
know the workable proportions for your glue, the size should only need soaking, melting,
setting, testing and reheating to use, i.e. only heated twice.
6. Extra heating is probably unavoidable whilst you are learning. Also you may need to melt it
more than twice in order to use it on other stretched canvases. The size is applied hot. Heat it
until it feels hot with your finger in it. Heat ensures even distribution.
7. Use a 7 cm varnishing brush for sizing; it does not flood the Canvas with size, like a cheap
decorators brush does. Let the canvas absorb the size from a short brush stroke and then
move on to the next bit of canvas. Do not make back and forth movements with your brush.
It is wasted effort and too much size will be applied. Do not go over a wetted area again as
too much size will be deposited. Cotton does not absorb the size like linen and it is often
necessary to go over a patch again where the size has floated off. Just try to apply it evenly
and sparingly.
8. Size the edges of the canvas as well as the painting plane. This will give you the same surface
to paint on right up to and over the edge if required. Only one layer of size is necessary. More
than one is similar to having too strong a size.
9. Leave the canvas to dry flat naturally. This will take approximately 12 hours. After six hours or
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so, run your fingers gently round between the chassis and canvas to ensure none of the
canvas has stuck to the stretcher.
10. Size will keep in the refrigerator for up to a week before beginning to decompose. Make sure
size is fresh before use or make a new batch. The size will be watery and smelly if its gone
off. If the canvas is not flat when thoroughly dry, spray the canvas with water and leave it to
dry again.
The alternative to the rabbit skin glue is Carboxymethylcellulose.
SUPPORTS
The paper, canvas, wooden panel or wall, sheet of metal or other material upon which a
painting is executed is called the support or substrate. The materials in most current use today
are: for paintings in the water mediums-paper; and for oil-paintings-canvas and cardboard.
Paper usually requires little or no preparation, but the other supports are generally coated with a
preparation suited to receive the paint, which is called the ground, or priming. This ground, as
will be seen on further consideration, is very important, more important than the support itself,
for the life of the picture depends upon it.
Every picture is composed of three distinct elements:
I. The support, substrate or material upon which one paints.
II. The ground, which covers the support and fits it to receive the paint.
The paint itself in one or more coats, which is applied to the ground.
Of these three elements the support, while certainly indispensable, is the least
important. Nevertheless, logically it should be considered first, as it is the
foundation upon which the assumed work of art is to be built.
This statement may require some explanation, and it is to be explained readily enough by the
fact that restorers are so clever that they are able to remove any picture that is painted on a
proper ground, from its support and place it upon another one at will. Most pictures of any age
in the museums have been re-canvassed, or rebacked, that is to say, that their supports have
been removed, one or several times. The process, no matter how cleverly or carefully carried
out, naturally does them no good, and therein lays the reason to study supports as carefully as
possible so that this tedious, delicate and costly operation of re-entoilage, or re-canvassing, and
its attendant risks, may be postponed as long as possible, or, better, made quite unnecessary.
CANVAS
The two most popular supports-canvas and wood -are the two least durable. Some authorities
say that canvas is the least desirable support, others that wood is. Canvas should take the
'booby prize'. Nevertheless it has several advantages. It may be bought ready prepared almost
anywhere. It is light and pictures painted upon it may be taken off the chassis and rolled up for
shipment. On the other hand, it is fragile and apt to be ripped or to have holes punched through
it. It does not properly protect the picture from the back either from shocks or violence, or from
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dampness or impurities in the air. It is readily affected by moisture, constantly becoming loose
and sagging when in the least damp and getting tight as a drumhead again when it dries out.
This elasticity is undoubtedly a great factor in cracking the paint. Chassis is another term for
stretchers.
When canvas is primed with oil, if there is not an impermeable coating of glue between to
isolate them, the oil, which becomes acid in time, due to oxidation, eats into the material, drying
out the fibres, and thus makes it as fragile as the thinnest paper. Furthermore, as the priming
must be very flexible, so that it may be rolled up and take up little space in the art store, it is
bound always to contain an excess of oil (usually rancid, and more supple in that state), which
takes a very long time to dry thoroughly.
Good canvas should be at least two or three years old before it is used, as too fresh priming will
cause paint applied on it to crack. Rolling the priming between the fingers to see if it is flexible
and adherent is not a conclusive test unless you know the age of the canvas.
The under priming should be of waterproof casein glue, the only sort which has sufficient
moisture-resisting qualities to be appropriately employed with another sort of backing. Casein
glue is difficult to render flexible and so is very seldom used. Often the oil priming is put directly
on the canvas, which absorbs the oil from the white lead, and in that case its life will be short
indeed. Absorbent canvases are primed with glue without oil priming, or with but one coat.
Though they give a mat surface that is fashionable and sought after by many modern painters,
they also take up most of the binding material from the paint which is thus left in a fragile state.
Their use is not very favourable to permanence.
Having now discussed some of canvas's advantages and disadvantages, and realizing that some
99 per cent of the people who read this will undoubtedly still go on using it, let us see the
possibilities of producing the best results possible.
GROUNDS
GROUND COAT OR UNDER-PAINTING
When preparing surfaces for oil or tempera painting, more than one layer of paint is generally
applied, the under-painting has special qualities and specific functions of its own. For certain
mediums there are obvious standard colours used in the under-painting, arrived at by experience
and tried and tested procedures as being the least likely to pose problems in the future. The under-
painting must always be 'lean', that is, low in oil, so the layers or coats to follow may be sufficiently
absorbed to have good adherence.
The artist is encouraged to experiment with various recipes and find a method suitable to their
particular style. It is not within the scope of this book, or the desire of the author, to go into every
possible method, as every painter should find or adopt one suited to his individuality, but methods
of under-painting are inseparable from technique, and a few ideas of painters and writers on the
subject may at least give a notion of the mechanical principles involved. Technically also, the under-
painting may be considered as it has so often been in the past, particularly in the Middle Ages, as
appertaining directly to or really a part of the ground quality of commercially prepared canvas. Don’t
assume that the commercially prepared canvases will be of an acceptable standard and will
automatically do the job that a proper method of under painting would achieve, and doing it
correctly might sound like too much work. I have discovered that some of the companies use
household wall paints to prime the canvases. It is annoying to have to be dependent on
circumstances entirely out of one's control. The idea of this book is to aid the artist to understand
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the principles of paint making so that when developing and experimenting with new recipes and
techniques the artist can do so intelligently. The formerly used organic grounds are being replaced
by a number of newer materials. The pigment is typically Titanium (Dioxide) White plus Calcium
carbonate, Magnesium, Barium Sulphate, Lead Carbonate, Aluminium Carbonates and Silicates. The
commercially prepared base is apt to be an Acrylic Polymer Latex. Such grounds may be used with
the newer 'Quick Drying Under painting Whites' which dries in two to four hours. These Whites
would be used for a wide variety of textural effects
Before going into the subject of grounds, it might be well to mention in passing their effect upon
painting in relation to what the French call the ebauche, which may be translated as under-painting.
In the cases where the painting is finished in one sitting, this coat is the whole work, or this is only
another way of saying that the under-painting forms the painting, or that the painting consists of
one coat only. From a technical standpoint, this method leaves nothing to be desired, but for most
painters, it is too limited to be practical.
Grounds
The traditional ground for oil painting is called an oil ground but the modern advent of acrylics
has given us an alternative, acrylic grounds. Oil grounds reapplied over sizing and are usually
white in colour. The ground for oil painting will be discussed firstly, then the acrylic ground will
be discussed.
An Oil ground consists of lead carbonate pigment (remember this pigment is toxic, so wear a
dust mask when working with it), refined linseed oil, Barium sulphate and distilled turpentine, oil
modified alkyds can also be added to speed up drying. The reason lead carbonate is used is
because of the small amount of oil that is absorbed by the pigment. It makes the most flexible
paint film and is quick drying compared with titanium white or zinc white. The fat over lean
principle can be better adhered to when using this pigment.
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Fat over Lean
Whichever method is used with oil paints the rule of fat over lean must be observed to ensure
that the paint does not crack up. “Fat”, or more oily paint, is always to be applied over “lean”
or less oily paint. The reason why this principle should be followed is because if thinned down
oil paint is applied over a thick glossy paint layer, it will not adhere correctly to the under
painting; the over painting will also dry more quickly and is then liable to crack. The oily
under painting will develop a skin and will appear to be dry, but the paint underneath this
skin will remain wet and continue to expand and contract. Use only pigments that have low oil
absorption for under painting (i.e. the ground), which is the reason that flake white pigments
are used. Use pigments that have high oil absorption ability only for final layers of painting.
Oil Ground
RECIPE N° 22
Materials
500g Flake white pigment (lead carbonate) titanium white pigment can also be used to make
the ground whiter.
100g Calcium Carbonate or Barium Sulphate (gives surface tooth and is a stabiliser)
300ml Refined Linseed oil_ (binder)
200ml Genuine distilled gum turpentine (diluent)
50g Titanium White pigment.
Method
Step 1. Place flake white, titanium white pigment and barium sulphate in a 1 litre container
which has a sealing lid.
Step 2. Mix linseed oil and turpentine in a separate container.
Step 3. Slowly pour about 250ml of liquid mix into pigment without spilling
pigment (as flake white is toxic).
Step 4. Stir liquid carefully until it is absorbed into pigment and then add remainder of
liquid.
Step 5. Close container tightly and shake until paint has a creamy consistency.
Step 6. When applying the ground lay the canvas flat as you will be less likely to mess, just
ensure that the surface is flat so that the canvas will not dent.
Step 7. Apply one layer of the ground evenly; do not apply it too thick as this will take too
long to dry. Do a small area at a time, and work the priming thoroughly into the
weave of the fabric. Cover the entire front of the support, and coat the edges
where the fabric turns over the stretcher. This will prevent oil paint from seeping
into the support. Leave canvas to dry for between 5 and 14 days.
Step 8. Once the first layer of ground is dry check the surface for raised lumps or bumps
and if these occur remove them with a fine sandpaper (just be careful not to
damage the weave of the canvas/linen). Another two points to remember is when
you are sanding to wear a dust mask and to place a thin board behind the canvas
when sanding the surface, so as not to dent it.
Step 9. Apply second coat of ground and leave 2 weeks to dry. The surface of this ground
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is the most exciting to paint on with oil paint and improves the quality of the
colours in subsequent layers. The resulting surface is unique in its texture, look,
and effect on a painting.
Acrylic Emulsion Grounds
To make an acrylic emulsion ground is quite simple affordable and it is more flexible than the oil
ground discussed earlier.
Acrylic Ground
RECIPE N° 23
Materials
- 500g Titanium white pigment (flake white is not suitable for acrylics)
- 200g Barium sulphate (gives tooth to ground and is a stabiliser)
- 1000ml Acrylic emulsion
Method
1. Mix the titanium pigment and the barium sulphate thoroughly in a dish using a palette
knife and add the acrylic emulsion, 100ml at a time and gradually stir into pigment.
2. Place mixture in a container that can be sealed and vigorously shake until mixture is
smooth and creamy. The emulsion is now ready for use. When using this ground no
rabbit skin glue is required.
3. Stretch canvas onto a stretcher (make it more taught than one would when using rabbit
skin glue as it does not shrink as much) and apply one layer of acrylic ground in an even
continuous layer (remember to apply the ground on the edges as well), allow this to dry
for about 3 hours and sand ground smooth with fine sand paper.
4. Apply another layer of ground and sand again, then apply final layer of ground without
sanding.
5. Oil paint can be applied over this ground, but it is better to rather use an oil ground such
as the lead ground described above.
6. If a collage is made it is preferable to use an acrylic ground as the emulsion is the best
adhesive to adhere materials such as cotton, paper, cardboard etc.
7. When wanting to use thick impasto paints it is recommended to use the acrylic ground
and acrylic paint as this dries thoroughly, which is not the case with oil paints.
8. When too thick a layer of oil paint is applied to canvas or board it will take over a year to
dry, but what usually happens is that the painting is varnished before the paint is
thoroughly dry and the linseed oil cannot continue to polymerise (this is the process of
oxygen reacting with the linseed oil) and starts to decompose or at best the paint film
remains soft permanently.
9. Under painting can be carried out in acrylics (blocking in) and impasto acrylic paint be
applied and finally the artwork can be finished off with oil paints.
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Rigid supports
Oil grounds and acrylic emulsion grounds can be applied to rigid supports as well as flexible ones.
The surfaces of these grounds, however, tend to be slicker and less absorbent on rigid substrates.
A ground perfectly suited for rigid supports is made from a combination of chalk, pigment, and hide
glue. This is the traditional glue gesso; the word “gesso” is Italian for gypsum, or plaster.
Gesso grounds are smooth, hard, and white. They do not yellow with age and are quite absorbent.
They are suitable for a wide variety of water - and oil-based mediums, as long as the absorbency of
the surface is adjusted for the type of paint. Because they are hard and brittle, gesso grounds
should only be applied to rigid supports such as hardboards. They can also be applied to fabrics or
papers that have been mounted on a rigid support.
The recipes for gesso vary in measurements and proportions. Some call for equal parts of chalk and
pigment, while others reduce the amount of pigment. Some require that the glue be fairly strong,
while others recommend that the glue solution be weak. The chalk provides the bulk of the paint,
and the pigment provides the opacity and whiteness. The strength of the glue is very important.
Weak glue may not act as a strong enough binder for the chalk and can result in a ground that is
too soft and crumbly. Glue that is too strong will result in a ground that could crack when it is dry.
Observe and keep note of the results of the recipes and make adjustments accordingly. Remember
that the source and type of glue can affect the performance.
The grade of the chalk is also important. All chalk is composed of calcium carbonate, derived from
natural deposits of limestone or dolomite, with textures ranging from fine to coarse. Grades labelled
“gilder’s whiting or Paris white” are smoother, finer grained varieties. Artificial chalk, also called
precipitated chalk, is the smoothest of the available chalks- it consists of micronised uniform
particles of calcium carbonate made in a laboratory.
Chalk Glue Gesso
There are three different ways to prepare this gesso; they differ only in the method the glue is
combined with the filler, as it is vital to avoid forming bubbles when mixing the chalk and glue. The
slow and laborious nature of the first technique seems to reduce bubbling. In the second and third
methods, you might be tempted to rush and pour the glue too quickly. If there are bubbles in the
gesso during application, pinholes or tiny pits will appear in the drying surface as the bubbles burst.
It is difficult to remove these pits, and is it quite difficult to cover these up by subsequent layers of
gesso. They will remain visible through thin coats of paint as dark specs.
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How to make Glue Chalk Gesso
RECIPE N° 24
Materials
Dry rabbit skin glue

Titanium white pigment or zinc white pigment.
Natural or precipitated chalk.
Separate container for mixing and heating the glue.
A graduated litre measuring jug.
Distilled water.
Double boiler.
Hot plate with temperature controls.
Fine-mesh kitchen strainer.
Fine cheesecloth.
Method
Method A: Adding the filler to the glue
1. Mix the filler, that is, the mixture of pigment and chalk. Avoid raising dust and breathing it
during this operation. The proportions of pigment to chalk may vary, though generally only
a little pigment is needed. Use 4 parts chalk and 1 part pigment, by volume. When it is
mixed the total volume of the filler should be the same quantity as the glue solution. For
every 1 part of glue, make 1 part filler. If a coarse natural chalk is being used, increase the
volume of the filler to about 1,5 times that of the glue. So then, the filler-to-glue ratio is 3 to
2.
2. In a separate container, add 2 parts by volume of dry glue to 10 parts cold water. Leave the
mixture to soak for 3 hours, and heat it gently in the top of the double boiler until the glue
dissolves. Remember to not let it boil, or it will lose its binding strength. Remove the glue
from the heat but keep it warm.
3. Slowly sprinkle the filler through the strainer into the warm glue. To prevent the formation
of air bubbles, add small amounts at a time. As the filler absorbs the glue it will sink to the
bottom of the pot.
4. After the filler has been added, gently stir the mixture with the wooden spoon. Avoid
vigorous agitation or rapid stirring, both of which can cause air bubbles. The colour and
texture of the gesso should be like that of light coffee cream.
5. If the gesso has coarse particles or bits of undissolved glue floating on the surface, strain it
through the cheesecloth before using it.
Method B: Adding the glue to the filler
1. Follow Steps 1 and 2 of Method A. Then place the container of filler in a hot ware bath. Add
a small amount of glue to the filler, enough to make a thick paste. Mix the paste with the
wooden spoon until it is smooth and free of lumps; this should have the consistency of
flour-based gravy.
2. Slowly add the remainder of the glue in a thin, intermittent stream, while gently stirring with
the spoon.
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3. Strain if gritty.
Method C: Adding water to the dry glue and filler
1. Mix dry glue and the filler materials, in the correct proportions, in a large container. Pour in
very hot but not boiling water, and slowly stir and mix until all lumps have dispersed and the
glue has dispersed. This is exactly how you would prepare commercially prepared glue
gesso.
Carboxymethylcellulose or Natrosol can be used in the place of rabbit skin glue, the process of
preparation is far simpler and once the size is dry it will not be attacked by bacteria or insects as is
the case with rabbit skin glue. The recipe is to add 30ml by volume of the powder to 1000ml water
and add a preservative such as Preventol if you intend to keep the mix for a prolonged period. You
need not heat the water and it can be applied cold to the stretched canvas or linen.
Gouache on Paper and Board: Glazing and Coating
In the nineteenth century some artists experimented with non-traditional techniques. Some of
these innovations were taken seriously by other artists of the time, but they often failed. The
gouache paintings by M. Pierran, for example, which were coated heavily with glue in order to
obtain a special effect, were exhibited in the 1834 Salon. These gouaches with their glossy
surfaces resembled oil paintings. The technique involves application of the mixture of gouache
with a large amount of gum and fish glue. These paintings over time have developed
delamination and cracking (Bazzi 1960, 109).
Another method of painting with watercolour on specially prepared Bristol board was developed
by C. J. Robertson, for which he received the Medal of Isis from the Society for Encouragement of
the Arts, London. The process, from the backing of a Bristol board to the coating, was elaborate.
When the picture was completed it was "varnished" with a solution of fish glue and then with a
good quality picture varnish. "The advantages of the method are that the colour, which stays very
brilliant and transparent, may be worked over in a way impossible by any ordinary method. A
similar method is described by Vibert" (Bazzi 1960, 108).
Artists' experiments with coating and glazing of paintings and drawings with fish glue were
recorded as early as the seventeenth century. Fish glue produced by boiling of the swim bladders
of sturgeons was experimentally used by Van Dyck in his tempera paintings. When fish glue was
applied in many layers and in glazed coats, the film formed was easily chipped off (Doerner 1984,
224-225).
These earlier attempts demonstrate that fish glue used alone forms a brittle film. As with any
other adhesive, when and where it is appropriate to apply should be considered carefully. Perhaps
the brittleness of the film formed by this glue motivated artists to introduce various plasticizers
that are also used in conjunction with fish glue in restoration. Molasses in England and honey in
Russia have often been used as natural plasticizers. For example, isinglass glue mixed with honey
had been used for the consolidation of delaminated paint in Russian icons as early as the
seventeenth century (Petukhova 1993).
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PRIMING GROUNDS
ADHESIVES FOR GROUNDS
ANIMAL: The best animal glue is rabbit skin glue, don't boil it. Casein is good if you use a stiff
support, casein is skim-milk curd that dissolves in ammonia.
ACRYLIC: Gel is a good adhesive medium for grounds for acrylic painting.
VEGETABLE RYE: Paste is an adhesive, add ten percent alum [by weight] to glue to make it
insoluble in water for tempera or, better still, add one percent of formaldehyde which is an anti-
fungicide also. Whole egg will improve a ground by isolating it from the paint.
BODY ADDITIVES TO GROUNDS

GROUNDS NEED BODY, NOT JUST COLOUR.
CHALK- Chalk is calcium carbonate, marble dust or neutralized plaster of Paris. Make it by adding
water, drying it, adding more water and drying it again and again until it's neutral to the tongue.
A small quantity of skim milk is good in chalk grounds.
GYPSUM- Hydrated calcium sulphate, is light spar. It is dense and can be applied with a wide
putty knife, that's the best way to apply a ground. Heated gypsum makes plaster of Paris.
KAOLIN CLAY- Kaolin is decomposed feldspar; it retains moisture too long, chalk is better.
BARYTA WHITE- This is a heavy spar with very little colouring power; usually it's a pigment
additive.
TESTING THE GROUND- A good ground will not crackle when pressed form behind, oil should not
change its colour, and the ground should have an even sheen to it.
BODY COLOUR FOR GROUNDS- Lead, titanium and zinc white are best; lead white was used up
until the Flemish painters of the 1600's. Apply the mixture to a dry, lightly stretched canvas or
support with out soaking through it. This will tight shrink it, pre-sizing will save time and money,
and spatula applying is always the best way to go.
COLOURED GROUNDS
GLAZING THE GROUND- This method is called imprimatura; it reduces the absorbing quality of
the ground. The Renaissance used this method as the middle tones of the picture, using the
colours red, yellow and green earth, green earth was especially good because it was so
transparent.
SOLID COLOUR GROUND- Bolus grounds were toned red, brown or grey, like Rubins, Van Dyck
and Rembrandt used. Egg tempera, lead or zinc white, was the first colour down on the coloured
ground, it was like laying out a painting on a blackboard with chalk. Glazes coloured the painting
and egg tempera white highlights were put in last. Mastic resin was the final varnish.
ISOLATING MEDIUMS
ISOLATING MEDIUMS- Mediums that won't mix or disturb the current painting medium, like
dammar and turpentine over tempera or egg over oil or shellac and alcohol/lac over either.
Theophilus Presbyter, in the 12th century, recommended cherry gum as a medium and at the
same time as an intermediate layer for oil glazes. Collectively, fruit tree gums were called
"ceresin".
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Glossary
Glossary of Terms
Acrylic Emulsion: A water dispersion of polymers or co-polymers of acrylic acid,

methacrylic acid, or acrylonitrile. Paints made with the acrylic emulsion
as a binder have a variety of other ingredients added to control the
performance of the paint. Acrylic emulsions dry by evaporation of the
water and film coalescence; the dried layer is consequently filled with
voids and is quite porous.
Albumen: The adhesive substance of egg white, the white of the egg. As a pure
film it is clear and brittle and readily dissolves in water.
Alkyd: A synthetic resin formed by the condensation of polyhydric alcohol’s with

polydibasic acids.
Aqueous: Made from, with, or by means of, water; watery; soluble in water.
Diluted with or containing water.
Base: The inert pigment used in the manufacture of lakes. In chemistry, an

alkaline or alkaline-forming substance.
Beeswax: A material secreted by the common bee and used to form the cells of a
honeycomb. The wax can vary in colour, texture and, to some degree,
chemical composition, depending on the area from which it is obtained.
A fairly brittle wax that becomes slightly more brittle when bleached.
Binder: The non-volatile adhesive liquid in paints that hold particles of pigment
together and fasten them to a support. The word is used inter-
changeability with vehicle and medium.
Bloom: A foggy, whitish (or blue-white), dull surface effect, which forms on,
varnished pictures or other varnished objects.
B.P: When these letters follow the name of a material they indicate that the
material conforms to the specifications of the British Pharmacopoeia, and
that it is approved for use in medicinal preparations. This grade is usually
below the C.P. grade in absolute chemical purity, but of more than
adequate purity for average technical use.
Calcine: To heat to drive off volatile chemically combined components in order to

effect useful physical and chemical change. To cause a substance to lose
moisture or impurities or to be oxidised or reduced by heating it to a
high temperature. Limestone is calcined to make lime.
Chassis: Another name for the auxiliary support on which a textile is stretched.
Also called a stretcher or a strainer.
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Glossary
Clay: Variously coloured fine-grained earths, consisting mainly of hydrous

aluminium silicates; formed by decomposition of feldspathic rock. It is
plastic when wet, becomes rigid when it dries in a body, and vitrifies
when fired to a sufficiently high temperature.
Collage: Artistic composition with emphasis on texture and pattern, made by

pasting objects and paper, cloth, or other materials together on a
surface. From the French word colle glue, or paste.
Covering power: The extent to which a certain volume of paint will spread over a given
area when applied in a normal layer. Sometimes confused with hiding
power.
C.P.: Chemically pure, or a grade of material as free as possible from all traces
of impurities. Sometimes applied to commercial pigments to designate a
grade free from extender or added inert pigment.
Dammar varnish: An almost colourless varnish made from dammar resin, a product of
trees in Southeast Asia. It is marketed in lump form and is dissolved in
turpentine.
Denatured alcohol: Ethyl alcohol, or grain alcohol, which has been made unfit for
consumption as a beverage by addition of various materials. It is used as
a solvent for spirit varnishes, especially shellac.
Dispersion: Applied to paint, a smooth homogeneous mixture of hetero-generous

ingredients; the process of dispersal, in which pigment particles are
evenly distributed throughout the vehicle.
Distemper: A painting medium prepared by mixing pigments with a glutinous

medium, as egg yolks or rabbit skin glue, used primarily for scene
painting or mural decoration.
Drier: A material that accelerates or initiates the drying of an oil paint or oil by
promoting oxidation.
Dyes Colouring agents that dissolves in their medium; no trace of particles of

colouring matter is present. It is either obtained from natural substances
in plants, animals, and minerals, or produced artificially from coal-tar
substances. Most dyes used commercially today are synthetic rather than
natural.
Earth pigments: Those colouring agents derived from minerals, ores, and sedimentary
deposits on the earth’s crust.
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Glossary
Emulsions: A mixture of two liquids that are usually immiscible (oil and water);
consisting of very small droplets of one liquid suspended, rather than
dissolved, in another liquid with the aid of an emulsifying agent.
Enamel: A liquid paint or varnish that dries to a hard highly glossy surface.
Encaustic: Method of painting or decorating in which dry pigments are mixed with
melted beeswax (a binder) and applied to a surface, usually with heated
instruments so that the coloured wax melts into the surface. The word
literally means, “to burn in”.
Gesso: A mixture of plaster of Paris and rabbit skin glue or other materials used
as a ground for painting or gilding.
Glaze: A very thin, transparent coloured paint applied over a previously painted
surface to alter the appearance and colour of the surface.
Gouache: A watercolour medium which is made opaque by the addition of inert or

white pigments.
Ground: The coating material, usually white, applied to a support in preparation

for receiving paint.
Gums: Materials that exude from trees and bushes. They either dissolve in
water or swell in water. Gum Arabic, produced from acacia trees in
Africa, dissolves in water.
Gypsum: Calcium sulphate dihydrate (CaSO4-2H2O). Raw gypsum, which is white

or colourless, serves only as an inert pigment. When it is heated, the
combined water is driven off and plaster of Paris is formed.
Hiding power: The degree of opacity that a paint or pigment has; the capacity to
conceal the surface on which it is applied.
Hue: The property of a colour that determines its position in the spectrum, for
example, red, orange, bluish green, etc.
Hydrous: Containing water; usually water chemically combined.
Hygroscopic: Readily attracting or absorbing moisture from the atmosphere.
Impasto: Thick, heavy applications of paint, usually made with a brush or palette
knife.
Inert pigments: A term applied to finely powdered natural substances that appear to be
149
Glossary
white. Their tinctorial strength and hiding power depends on the binders
with which they are mixed. With oil binders both are minimal, while with
water soluble binders there can be significant whiteness. Inerts are used
mainly used as extenders or fillers for more intense pigments and as the
base or carrier of some chemically made pigments.
Lacquer: A fast-drying varnish usually consisting of a cellulose derivative in a

mixture of solvents, plasticizers, and synthetic resins that dry by
evaporation of the solvent. Term applied to paints or varnishes that dry
with a high gloss. In the Orient, a paint made from natural materials, the
exudation of a particular tree, was known as lacquer.
Lake: A dye that has been chemically or electrically attached to a particle and
then it does not migrate or bleed.
Linseed oil: A yellow or brown oil obtained from the seeds of certain flax plants. It is
used in making such items as paints, varnish, printing ink, and linoleum.
For artists use it is usually bleached by exposure to sunlight.
Litharge: A red or yellow oxide of lead. Formula: PbO.
Lightfast: Resistant to fading or other changes due to exposure to light. When

used in reference to artist materials it means absolute permanence.
Matte: Having a dull, flat, lustreless finish or surface. Also spelled matt.
Medium: The binding material or vehicle that holds pigment particles together in
paint. A liquid with which pigments are mixed and made sufficiently fluid
for application. The word is also frequently used to describe a technique,
process, or form of expression.
Mineral Turpentine: A refined petroleum distillate, comprising essentially aliphatic

hydrocarbons, used as a solvent or thinner for paints, varnishes, and
similar products. It is identified by trade names that vary with the oil
company that markets it.
Monomer: One of the small simple molecules making up a polymer. A material with
low molecular weight that can react with similar or dissimilar materials to
form a polymer.
Mortar and pestle: A grinding vessel of bowl shape (mortar) in which an elongated shape
(pestle) is rotated to pulverise materials. Formerly, it was made of stone,
but today it is available in porcelain and stoneware.
Muller: Moving part of a device for grinding colour. It is flat on the bottom and
rounded on top to fit the hand. Most mullers made today are of glass or
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Glossary
stainless steel.
Palette: Denotes an arrangement of colour or scheme of colours in a particular

work of art and also describes the surface on which a painter lays out
and mixes colours.
PH: An index to the acidity or alkalinity of a system. A pH of 7.0 is considered

neutral; one below 7.0 is acidic, and one above 7.0 is alkaline.
Paraffin wax: A refined petroleum product available commercially as a whitish,

translucent material. Not to be used in artist materials.
Pastels: Drawing materials that consist of pigment, extender, and a weak binder,
usually gum. A fixative that is sprayed on the finished work must hold
the dry pigment particles that are deposited on the surface of a support
there.
Plaster of Paris: Gypsum that has been calcined to drive off chemically combined waters,
and then crushed to a fine powder. When water is added to the powder,
it quickly sets to a hard, white solid that is much like the original gypsum
rock. Its name is derived from the site of manufacture near Paris,
France. Flexibility, elasticity and to decrease its brittleness.
Polymer: Any large molecule formed of smaller simple molecules linked together in
long chains of repeating units. The number of molecules that unite to
form a polymer may vary from a few to thousands.
Polymerisation: Molecular re-alignment impelled by some external force or treatment. An

internal chemical change by which the properties of a substance are
changed and its molecular weight increased without the addition of any
new ingredient.
Saponification: To make (an ester of an acid) react with an alkali to form an alcohol and
an acid salt, especially to make a fat react with an alkali to form glycerol
and soap. It is regarding paint the process in which the binders, under
moist and alkaline conditions, become transparent or discoloured.
Shellac: Made from the resinous secretion of the lac insect. Crude lac, gathered
from trees, is crushed, graded, and the largest particles are selected for
the best grades of shellac varnishes. Lac comes from Southeast Asia, in
particular, India.
Silica: Silicon dioxide (SiO2): in pure form, sand. It is the most abundant oxide
on earth. A hard, glasslike, trans-parent mineral occurring naturally as
quartz.
151
Glossary
Size: Any of various glues or pastes used to coat or glaze a porous surface, in
preparation for receiving paint.
Solvent: A substance in a solution capable of dissolving something. Evaporation

rate, flammability, miscibility, and toxicity are important in consideration
of solvents for use in artist’s materials.
Stretcher: A type of wooden chassis for textile supports that have expandable
corners.
Support: The basic substrate of a painting. The surface to which pigment or paint
is applied; traditional supports have been canvas, paper, and wood,
plastered walls.
Synthetic resin: Resins prepared from unsaturated, organic compounds by chemical

processes of polymerisation or condensation or by the combined effect of
the two; includes acrylic resins, vinyl resins, alkyd resins, styrene resins.
Tempera: A painting medium usually consisting of egg yolk, ground pigment, and
water. The egg serves as an emulsion and binder.
Thixotropic: Referring to a material that is thick and viscous while at rest but will flow
if disturbed mechanically, it then resumes its viscous state when the
agitation stops.
Tinctorial strength Ability of a colour to stand dilution with white pigments without being
seriously weakened.
Tooth: A random, small-grained but even texture. Tooth provides the means of
attachment of successive layers of paint or drawing material.
Turpentine: A volatile liquid obtained by distilling the resinous sap of various
coniferous trees, particularly pines from the south-eastern region of the
United States.
Vehicle: Term used interchangeably with medium and binder. The binding
material in a paint; the liquid carrier of the pigment.
Viscous Sticky; having a thick, gluey consistency; being resistant to flow.
Watercolour: Paint made by mixing pigment with gum Arabic and is water-soluble.
Watercolour is either transparent or opaque.
152
Glossary
Inspiration of the Masters. Herman Jansen van Vuuren

Handmade oil paint on Belgian Linen. 1300mm x 1000mm
Private collection Australia
153
Bibliographies
Bibliographies
The Artist’s Handbook of Materials and Techniques - Ralph Mayer. Oxford. Alden
press.1977.
The Painter’s Handbook - Mark David Gottsegen. New York. Watson-Guptill

Publications. 1993.
Artists’ Materials, Which, Why and How.-Emma Pearce. London. A & C Black
(Publishers). 1992.
Acrylic Painting - John FitzMaurice Mills. London. Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd.
1965.
Art Hardware - Steven L. Saitzyk. New York. Watson-Guptill Publications. 1987
154
Index
Casein
acrylic emulsion paint ................................ 7
binder ... 7, 40, 54, 74, 142, Chalk Glue Gesso ........... 143
143, 147 Chalk Pastel ................... 89
Acrylic Paint ..................... 7 Chalk Pastel Binder .......... 89
acrylic paints ..................... 54 Chassis
adhesive stretcher ....................... 138
size ............................... 136 Chicken egg
alkyd ground ..................... 74 egg tempera ................... 69
Alkyd Paint China Clay
binder ............................. 74 kaolin ............................. 18
alkyd resins Chrome Green
binder ............................. 74 pigment .......................... 18
Artists grade cleaning oil 40, 45, 46, 50, 75,
quality ............................ 49 106
Cobalt Blue
Barium White pigment .......................... 18
filler ............................... 18 Cold pressed Walnut ........ 49
beeswax ....................... 8, 118 Colourant
stabilizer ......................... 82 pigment........................... 9
binder ................................. 92
Black Ink ......................... 78 dammar
Bleached Beeswax ....... 84 resin ............................. 117
Boiled oil Dammar .... 31, 33, 41, 48, 49,
linseed oil ....................... 99 82, 83, 118, 125, 126, 127,
Brighteners ........................ 60 128, 148
DILUENTS ....................... 122
Cadmium Red Distemper ......................... 7
pigment .......................... 18 ink .................................. 76
calcium carbonate .......... 143 DISTEMPER .................... 65
Calcium carbonate distilled water ................... 56
filler ................. 49, 55, 140 Distilled water ................... 71
Carbon Black double boiler
pigment .......................... 18 equipment ... 35, 43, 77, 82,
Carnauba wax . 35, 83, 85, 86 83, 86, 88, 136, 137,
Carnauba Wax .................. 83 144
Double boiler
155
Index
tools ............................... 86 size .................................. 8

driers ..... 7, 30, 31, 32, 41, 94, Genuine Distilled Gum
116 Turpentine .................... 75
drying oil ... 32, 33, 34, 42, 54, Glass muller
70, 72, 74, 92, 96, 99, 102, mixing paint ................... 8
106, 110, 115, 118, 119, Glaze medium
120, 127 ketone .......................... 117
binder ............................. 49 glazing ...7, 27, 41, 47, 52, 55,
DRYING OILS .................. 116 74, 91, 110, 112, 116, 119,
dye 126, 145
pigment ........................... 9 Glazing ............................. 119
glucose .............................. 62
Egg Tempera .................. 68 Glue Chalk Gesso
binder .............................. 6 ground .......................... 144
Egg yolk glue gesso ......................... 87
binder .............................. 6 Gouache .......................... 60
Egg-Oil emulsion .............. 70 GOUACHE .......................... 58
emulsifiable Green Earth
linseed oil ....................... 97 pigment .......................... 19
Encaustic ground ............... 52, 132, 140
binder ........................ 6, 82 Gum Arabic ....................... 61
Ethyl alcohol binder ............................. 58
diluent .......................... 123 Gum Tragacanth ........ 65, 66
fat over lean .................... 140 Health and safety ..... 37, 122
fillers .... 11, 15, 36, 49, 60, 61, honey
63, 92, 150 medium .......................... 79
FIXATIVES ...................... 65 hygroscopic
Flake White size ............................... 136
pigment .......................... 18
Flexible supports............. 133 impasto .............................. 54
Fresco India ink ............................ 76
paint ................................ 7 inorganic
pigment.... 5, 9, 10, 12, 13,
Gallotannate inks .............. 80 14, 44, 76, 80
galls ........................ 78, 79, 80
gelatine ketone
156
Index
resin ............................. 117

Ketone Resin Naples Yellow ..................... 5
varnish.......................... 125 natural
Ketone varnish ................ 117 pigment .......................... 54
resin ............................. 128
key .................................... 132 Oil grounds...................... 143
Oil of Spike
Lightfastness diluent .......................... 123
pigment ........................... 6 Oil Paint ............................. 7
linen .......................... 132, 135 organic
linseed oil pigment .......................... 54
binder .... 6, 7, 8, 30, 32, 35, organic pigments
37, 40, 41, 43, 44, 50, organic ............................ 6
51, 52, 70, 71, 72, 73, oxidation ............................ 92
74, 88, 89, 92, 94, 96,
97, 98, 99, 100, 101, paint sticks
102, 103, 105, 106, 108, Oil .................................. 88
110, 112, 113, 114, 115, Paraffin Wax .................. 85
116, 118, 119, 120, 121, Pastels ............................... 88
123, 135, 140, 141, 142
Phthalocyanine Blue
Linseed Oil pigment .......................... 19
binder ............................. 96
Phthalocyanine Green
pigment .......................... 19
Mars Black pigment
pigment .......................... 19
synthetic ......................... 6
Mars Brown Pigment ............................... 5
pigment .......................... 19
Plasticizers
Mars Red watercolours .................. 62
pigment .......................... 19
polymerisation ..... 44, 96, 98,
medium ................................ 9
106, 112, 152
Methylcellulose Poppy oil
binder ............................. 77
binder ........................... 115
microcrystalline wax ......... 88
precipitated chalk ........... 144
Microcrystalline Wax .. 85
Mineral ................................. 5
Rabbit skin glue
MyPaints.net size ................................. 76
supplier .......................... 74
Rabbit Skin Glue
157
Index
size ............................... 136 substrate ......................... 138

rancidity Sun thickened oil
oil 106 medium ........................ 113
Rancidity .......................... 106 support ............................ 132
Resin Oil Paint ....... 41, 47, 49 supports........................... 132
retarder Synthetic resins .............. 130
acrylic .............................. 7
Retouching Varnish ........ 131 tempera painting ............ 139
Rose Madder thickener
pigment .......................... 19 acrylic ............................ 55
thinners
Safflower oil diluent .................. 117, 122
binder ............................. 93 Titanium Dioxide
Safflower Oil pigment .......................... 19
binder ........................... 114 tools
Sap Green equipment ... 39, 40, 46, 50,
pigment ........................... 6 75, 89
Scarlet Quinacridone transparency
pigment .......................... 19 oil 110
shellac Turpentine
binder, ink ....................... 8 diluent .......................... 122
Shellac
ink .................................. 76 ultramarine
Siccatives pigment........................... 8
drier .............................. 119 Ultramarine Blue
Sienna ... 5, 18, 20, 22, 25, 27, pigment .......................... 20
31, 36 Ultramarine Violet
size .................................. 137 pigment .......................... 20
Stabilisers .................... 34, 35 under-painting ................ 139
Stand oil
medium ........................ 118 varnish ............................. 116
Stand Oil Varnish ............................. 126
medium ........................ 112 Varnishes ......................... 125
Stretcher Varnishing ....................... 130
canvas ....................... 134 vegetable oils
Student’s grade binders ........................... 93
quality ............................ 49 vehicle ............................ 9, 87
158
Index
diluent .......................... 122

walnut wood
binder .. 7, 8, 30, 33, 35, 36, support ......................... 138
37, 40, 41, 49, 92, 94, wooden panel ................. 132
97, 100, 101, 102, 103,
105, 106, 115 Yellow Ochre ................. 5, 36
Walnut Alkyd Medium .... 110 yolk
walnut oil egg tempera ................... 69
binder .............................. 8 Yolk of Egg
Walnut oil tempera .......................... 72
binder ..................... 93, 110
Walnut Oil zinc stearate
binder ........................... 100 matte ............................ 128
Water Colours .................. 7 zinc white
watercolour ....................... 54 pigment........................... 8
Watercolours ..................... 58 Zinc White
white lead pigment .......................... 20
pigment ........................ 138
White spirit
159
About the Author
Herman Jansen van Vuuren is a Surrealist Artist with a traditional approach to

the usage of Art Materials.
He was born in Pretoria South Africa. He has successfully combined his African
perspective with an Avant-Garde "Western" approach to art. Studied Fine Art at
the University of South Africa and has lectured at the same university where his
book "The Found Art of Paint Making" was the handbook used on the course.
He has also lectured at various United Kingdom Universities.
Herman authored this book, which was first published in South Africa in 1997.
Many International Artists, Universities and Art Institutions currently use this
handbook. Over the past 14 years he has discovered materials such as walnut
oil, water emulsifiable linseed oil and gallotannic ink. The walnut oil has almost
entirely been ignored by artists over the past 200 years, and Herman has
realised the amazing properties that this binder possesses and was motivated
to revise his book and include this and other materials in his book.
Herman runs workshops on paint making and all aspects of drawing and
painting from his studio in Royal Leamington Spa and other venues around the
United Kingdom. His teaching methods have shown great results for the
professional artists and students alike. He has been living and working in the in
the UK for 14 years. Besides having Art Exhibitions in most of the major cities in
South Africa, he has had Art Exhibitions in London, Oxford, Birmingham and
Cardiff. His works are in private and corporate collections worldwide.
He is persuaded that the apprenticeship method used by the masters of old is

still the best method to transfer skills for survival and ultimately for success.
Herman can be contacted at:

Jansz Limited
Royal Leamington Spa
Warwickshire, England
Mobile No.: 07789003830
E-mail: ravanart@yahoo.co.uk
Website: hermansart.weebly.com
160

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The Found Art of Paint Making

A Comprehensive Guide to making

Herman Jansen van Vuuren

Printed by H-Art Press

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER

Koos van der Watt

Department of Fine Arts,

University of South Africa

Herman Jansen van Vuuren

Chapter 1 What is Paint?.............................................................................................................................. 5

How to Prepare Resin Oil Paint ........................................................................................................... 49

Recipe for Alkyds ................................................................................................................................... 75

Mineral Spirits ...................................................................................................................................... 122

Chapter 1 What is Paint?

Solid (Insoluble) Pigment + Binder (Liquid)= Paint

Natural inorganic (Earliest used by man)

Derived from Earth

Natural organic pigments

Derived from either vegetable or animal

Synthetic organic pigment

Factors to be considered when choosing a pigment

Binders for Paints

Other Binding Media

General advice regarding Oil Paint Mixing

WHAT ARE PIGMENTS?

Organic - Pigments contains carbon in combination primarily with hydrogen, nitrogen or

The organic pigments are made up of the following:

“concentrated organic colourings with no salt-forming groups” composed mainly of

Requirements for pigments to be used in paint.

1. Should be a smooth, finely divided powder.

PIGMENT AND DYE CLASSIFICATION

Each paint manufacturer develops a proprietary backbone composition — a basic recipe of

Walnut Oil Paint

Pigment particle size Table

meters representative pigments

10-4 Cobalt violet

10-5 Cobalt green

Ultramarine blue (RS)

10-6 Ultramarine blue (GS)

Semi opaque synthetic organics

10-7 Semi-transparent synthetic organics

Transparent synthetic organics

10-8 Carbon black

10-9 Glucose (corn syrup) molecule

10-10 Water molecule

The Pigment list

Common Name Alternate Names General Date

Cadmium Yellow, Cadmium sulphoselenide Strong yellow 1910

Common Name Alternate Names General Date

Mars Red Red Oxide, Varying shades of 1700

Common Name Alternate Names General Date

Common Name Compatibility with Compatible Media Precautions

Common Name Compatibility with Compatible Media Precautions

Common Name Compatibility with Compatible Media Precautions

Scarlet Compatible with all All media None

COMMON NAME SOURCE OF CHEMICAL RELATIVE

COMMON NAME SOURCE OF CHEMICAL RELATIVE

COMMON NAME SOURCE OF CHEMICAL RELATIVE

COMMON NAME PERMANENCE TRANSPARENCY TINTING

COMMON NAME PERMANENCE TRANSPARENCY TINTING

Common Name Recommendations Additional Comments

Common Name Recommendations Additional Comments

Chapter 3 Oil Paint Making