Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Review

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.): Nutritional composition, biological T

activity, and uses
⁎
Sunan Wanga,b, Fan Zhub, , Yukio Kakudac
a
Canadian Food and Wine Institute, Niagara College, 135 Taylor Road, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario L0S 1J0, Canada
b
School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
c
Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) is native to the Peruvian Amazon and is recognised in other parts of the world
Underutilised species as a sustainable crop with viable commercial applications. In recent years, there has been growing interest in
Omega-3 developing the sacha inchi plant as a novel source of oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids. This review presents
Edible oil information on the major and minor chemical components, health effects and utilization of different parts (seeds,
Bioactive
seed shells and leaves) of this plant. In particular, the physicochemical properties and oxidative stability of sacha
Phytochemical
inchi seed oil are described. The whole sacha inchi plant has been utilized to generate nutritional, cosmetic and
Human nutrition
Unsaturated fatty acid pharmaceutical products with the goal to maximize its economic value. The sacha inchi plant may become a
valuable resource for high value-added compounds used in many diverse food and non-food products.

1. Introduction seeds typically germinate at an optimal temperature between 25 and

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) of the family Euphorbiaceae is
also known as sacha peanut, mountain peanut, Inca nut or Inca peanut
(Follegatti-Romero, Piantino, Grimaldi, & Cabral, 2009; Guillén, Ruiz,
Cabo, Chirinos, & Pascual, 2003). It is native to the tropical rain forest
of the Amazon region of South America that includes parts of Peru and
northwestern Brazil (Duke & Vasquez, 1994). Representatives of other
reported species of the genus Plukenetia include P. brachybotrya, P.
polyadenia, P. loretensis, and P. huayllabambana. Their morphological
and physicochemical properties differ from P. volubilis (commonly
known as sacha inchi) (Chirinos, Pedreschi, Domínguez, & Campos,
2015; Chirinos, Zorrilla, et al., 2016; Rodríguez et al., 2011a). Sacha
inchi is being developed in other parts of the world (e.g., Southeast
Asia) because of its great potential as an economic crop
(Chandrasekaran & Liu, 2015; Gutiérrez, Segura, Sanchez-Reinoso,
Díaz, & Abril, 2017).
Sacha inchi has a star-shaped fruit capsule (3–5 cm). As the fruit
matures, the color turns from green to blackish brown. The fruit cap-
sules contain edible dark brown oval seeds (1.5–2 cm) (Fig. 1A) (Fu
et al., 2014; Sathe, Hamaker, Sze-Tao, & Venkatachalam, 2002). These
30 °C (Da Silva, Vieira, Boneti, Melo, & Martins, 2016). The sacha inchi
plant has acclimatized to high-light growing conditions at altitudes
ranging from 200 to 1500 m (Cai, 2011). Elevation and season affect
leaf photosynthesis, biomass formation, and seed yield and quality (Cai
et al., 2012). Genetic diversity of sacha inchi plants from Peruvian
Amazon has been recorded (Ocelák et al., 2015). Detailed information
on ecology and cultivation of this plant is essential for the utilization in
a sustainable manner.
The amount of each chemical constituent varies in different parts of
the sacha inchi plant. The seeds contain lipids (35–60%) (including ω-3,
6, and 9 fatty acids), proteins (25–30%) (including essential amino
acids such as cysteine, tyrosine, threonine, and tryptophan), vitamin E,
polyphenols, minerals, and others (Cai, 2011; Cai, Yang, Tang, & Dao,
2011; Chirinos et al., 2013; Fanali, Dugo, Cacciola, Beccaria, & Grasso,
2011; Prado et al., 2011; Sathe et al., 2002). When compared to the
seed kernel, the shell had a higher α-tocopherol level and equal
amounts of ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids (Table 1) (de Souza et al., 2013).
Sacha inchi leaves are a source of terpenoids, saponins, and phenolic
compounds (flavonoids) (Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, Debut, 2014a,
2014b). Because of these nutrients, roasted seeds, cooked leaves and

Abbreviations: ABTS, 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid; ALA, α-linolenic acid; BHT, butylated hydroxytoluene; CE, catechin; CFPP, cold-filter plugging point;
DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; FRAP, ferric ion reducing antioxidant power; GAE, gallic acid equivalent; HDL, high-
density lipoprotein; IDF, insoluble dietary fiber; LD, lethal dose; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; ORAC, oxygen radical absorbance capacity; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; SDF,
soluble dietary fiber; TAG, triacylglycerol; TE, trolox equivalent; TLCK, tosyl-L-lysyl-chloromethane hydrochloride; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; TPC, total phenolic content; TPCK,
tosyl phenylalanyl chloromethyl ketone
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fzhu5@yahoo.com (F. Zhu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.05.055
Received 15 December 2017; Received in revised form 2 April 2018; Accepted 10 May 2018
0308-8146/ Crown Copyright © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Wang et al.
Seed kernels Seed kernels
(raw) (slightly roasted,
75í81 °C, 9 min)
Seed oil Seed oil
(from raw seeds) (from slightly roasted
seeds)
Fig. 1. (A) Sacha inchi whole seed (left picture) and kernel (right picture). The kernel is packed inside a dark brown hard shell with an inner soft white tissue lining
(Sathe et al., 2002). (B) Sacha inchi kernels (top pictures) and sacha inchi oil (bottom pictures) from raw and roasted seeds (Cisneros et al., 2014). Figures are
reprinted with permissions from the publishers.
seed oil are part of the traditional diets in Peru (Guillén et al., 2003).
Sacha inchi oil is a plant based ingredient used for food, medicinal and
cosmetic applications. Commercially available sacha inchi oil is valued
for its beneficial health properties and unique sensory profiles (taste
and flavor) (Garmendia, Pando, & Ronceros, 2011). Sacha inchi shell
biomass (Fig. 2A), leaf (Fig. 2B) and oil (Fig. 2C) are promising natural
ingredients for the synthesis of nanoparticles (Kumar et al., 2014a,
2014b, Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, Debut, 2016, Kumar, Smita, Sánchez,
Stael, & Cumbal, 2016). According to transmission electron microscopic
(TEM) analysis, synthesized nanoparticles fabricated using sacha inchi
were spherical in shape with particle size ranging from 4 to 25 nm
(Fig. 2). Pharmaceutically, sacha inchi oil has been traditionally used
for skin care to soften skin, heal wounds, and treat insect bites and skin
infections (Moser, Freis, Gillon, & Danoux, 2007). Cosmetic and phar-
maceutical preparations containing proteins and oils (native or mod-
ified) from sacha inchi have been continually developed and patented.
Sacha inchi oil related cosmetic products exhibited antibacterial, anti-
inflammatory, skin tightening and anti-aging effects (Gonzalez-Aspajo,
Belkhelfa, Haddioui-Hbabi, Bourdy, & Deharo, 2015). Sacha inchi
leaves have shown antioxidant and antiproliferative activities against
certain cancer cells but were nontoxic to normal cells (Nascimento
et al., 2013; Quino et al., 2016). Overall, the sacha inchi plant is ex-
periencing an upsurge in interest as a promising new source of oil and
other functional ingredients. So far, the information of sacha inchi
317
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
Seed kernels Seed kernels
(medium roasted, (highly roasted,
83í86 °C, 10 min) 99í102 °C, 10 min)
Seed oil Seed oil
(from medium roasted (from highly roasted
seeds) seeds)
properties and uses is rather scattered. A systematic review is needed to
provide a basis to support the current exploitation of this unique oil
crop.
This review overviews the chemical composition and biological
activity of different parts (seed and leaf) of sacha inchi.
Physicochemical characteristics, oxidative stability and sensory aspects
of sacha inchi oil are summarised. The food and non-food uses of the
plant are also reviewed. This review provides a scientific basis for the
development of sacha inchi as a sustainable economic plant for human
nutrition, health and cosmetic use.
2. Chemical composition of sacha inchi seed
2.1. Lipid
Lipid is the major component found in sacha inchi seeds with
amounts ranging from 33 to 54% (Table 1) (Chirinos et al., 2013;
Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez, Rosada, & Jiménez, 2011;
Hamaker, Valles, Gilman, Hardmeier, & Clark, 1992). The oil content of
the seeds is comparable to that of flaxseeds (34–45%), poppy seeds
(50%), perilla seeds (40%), safflower seeds (30–40%), canola
(38–44%), and peanuts (44–56%) (Bozan & Tenelli, 2008; Ciftci,
Przybylski, & Rudzinska, 2012; Morris & Vaisey-Genser, 2003; Smith,
2007; Przybylski, Mag, Eskin, & McDonald, 2007; Pattee, 2007).
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

Table 1
Chemical composition of seed, seed shell, leaf and seed oil of sacha inchi.
Seed1 Seed shell Leaf Seed oil

Laboratory scale Commercially available

Proximate composition (%)

Moisture 3.3–8.32 8.4 N.A 4.3–3.3 N.A
Lipid 33.4–54.3 1.24 N.A 99.3–100.0 99.8
Protein 24.2–27.0 N.A 0.49–4.98 N.A N.A
Carbohydrate 13.4–30.9 N.A N.A N.A N.A
Dietary fiber (% carbohydrate) 72.4 N.A N.A N.A N.A
Ash 2.7–6.46 N.A N.A N.A N.A

Fatty acids (g/100 g sample or % oil)

Total saturated fatty acids 7.9–9.1 1.79 N.A 6.74–7.70 6.19–7.4
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 1.6–2.1 1.19 N.A 4.67–6.30 3.65–4.8
Stearic acid (C18:0) 1.1–1.3 0.58 N.A 2.96–3.81 2.54–3.4
Total monounsaturated fatty acids 8.4–13.2 1.40 N.A 7.50–10.71 8.28–10.1
Oleic acid (C18:1, ω 9) 3.5–4.7 1.40 N.A 8.41–10.45 8.28
Vaccenic acid (C18:1, ω 11) 0.23–0.29 N.A N.A N.A N.A
Gadoleic acid (C20:1) N.A N.A N.A 0.16
Total polyunsaturated fatty acids 77.5–84.4 8.17 N.A 78.15–84.49 80.9–85.41
Linoleic acid (C18:2, ω 6) 12.4–14.1 4.02 N.A 32.66–36.80 36.80–37.7
α-Linolenic acid (C18:3, ω 3) 12.8–16.0 4.08 N.A 45.20–50.41 42.4–48.61
ω-6/ω-3 ratio 0.81–1.12 0.99 N.A 0.72–0.76 N.A

Tocopherols (mg/100 g)
α-Tocopherol 1.13–1.27 1.84 N.A 0.08 N.A
ß-Tocopherol 0.67–0.95 N.A N.A 0.02 N.A
γ-Tocopherol 56.8–81.4 0.57 N.A 127.6–149.0 N.A
δ-Tocopherol 29.2–67.8 N.A N.A 60.0–84.0 N.A
Total tocopherol 78.6–137.0 3.06 N.A 209–211.8 N.A

Phytosterols (mg/100 g)
Campesterol 7.1–8.8 N.A N.A 15.3 N.A
Stigmasterol 21.2–26.9 N.A N.A 34.61–58.7 N.A
β-Sitosterol 45.2–53.2 N.A N.A 43.46–127.4 N.A

References, for seed: Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer et al., 2012; Sathe et al., 2002; Chirinos et al., 2013, Chirinos et al., 2015; de Souza
et al., 2013; Takeyama & Fukushima, 2013; Sterbova et al., 2017. For seed shell: de Souza et al., 2013; For leaf, Nascimento et al., 2013, For seed oil: Hamaker et al.,
1992; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Prado et al., 2011; Maurer et al., 2012; Zuleta et al., 2012; Takeyama & Fukushima, 2013; Cisneros et al.,
2014; Chirinos et al., 2015; Zanqui et al., 2016; Gutiérrez et al., 2017
1
Raw or processed seeds; N/A, not available; commercially available seed oil from a local market in Lima, Peru (Vicente et al., 2015).

Compared to pistachio (50.4–58%) (Arena, Campisi, Fallico, &
Maccarone, 2007) and macadamia kernel nuts (63.0–71.8%) (Wall,
2010), the sacha inchi seed has a lower lipid content (Chirinos et al.,
2013). However, compared to soybeans (16.5–17.5%) (Yoshida,
Hirakawa, Murakam, Mizushina, & Yamade, 2003) and chia (Salvia
hispanica) seeds (26.7–35.0%) (Ciftci et al., 2012), the seeds have a
higher lipid content (Chirinos et al., 2013). Some of the studies men-
tioned here only employed 1 genotype. It should be noted that genetic
variation may result in an overlap of the lipid contents among different
oilseeds.
The sacha inchi seed oil contains neutral lipids (97.2%), free fatty
acids (1.2%), and phospholipids (0.8%) (Gutiérrez et al., 2011). The
lipids are highly unsaturated with only 6.8–9.1% of the fatty acids
being saturated (Chirinos et al., 2013; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009;
Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer, Hatta-Sakoda, Pascual-Chagman, &
Rodriguez-Saona, 2012). The amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in the seeds are
77.5–84.4% and 8.4–13.2%, respectively (Chirinos et al., 2013;
Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer et al.,
2012). The composition of saturated, PUFA and MUFA in chia seeds is
8.6%, 80.4%, and 10.9%, respectively, and in flaxseeds the composition
is 7.8%, 73.6%, and 18.5%, respectively, which is similar to those of
sacha inchi seeds (Chirinos et al., 2013; Ciftci et al., 2012). Sacha inchi
seed has a lower content of total saturated fatty acids than canola seed,
sunflower seed, flaxseed, corn, olive and cottonseed oils (Chirinos et al.,
2013; De Souza et al., 2013; Fanali et al., 2011; Guillén et al., 2003;
Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer et al., 2012; Ruiz, Díaz, Anaya, & Rojas,
2013).
α-Linolenic acid (ALA, ω-3, 46.8–50.8%) is the major fatty acid
found in sacha inchi oil, followed by linoleic acid (ω-6, 33.4–36.2%)
and oleic acid (ω-9, 8.7–9.6%) (Guillén et al., 2003; Follegatti-Romero
et al., 2009; Chirinos et al., 2013). Trace amounts of myristic acid and
eicosanoic acid were detected in sacha inchi seeds during its early
germination stage (3 days) (Chandrasekaran & Liu, 2015). A very low
level of gadoleic acid (C20:1, ω-11, 0.16%) was detected in the seeds
(Follegatti-Romer et al., 2009). The ALA level of sacha inchi seed oil
was comparable to that of chia seed (58.2%) and flaxseed (59.6%)
(Ciftci et al., 2012). Sacha inchi oil had approximately twice the
amount of ω-6 fatty acids than flaxseed oil (Guillén et al., 2003; Maurer
et al., 2012). The ω-6/ω-3 fatty acids ratio of the oil ranged from 0.81
to 1.12 (Chirinos et al., 2013; Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Gutiérrez et al.,
2011; Maurer et al., 2012). Compared to sacha inchi seed oil, the oils
from canola (2.22), olive (7.69), soybeans (6.66) and walnuts (5.0)
have higher ω-6/ω-3 ratios (Belitz & Grosch, 1999). The flaxseed (0.27)
and chia seed (0.26–0.34) oils have lower ω-6/ω-3 ratios (Ixtaina et al.,
2011; Ciftci et al., 2012). In general, a ratio of 1:1 for ω-6/ω-3 is
considered optimal for human health (Simopoulos, 2011). Indeed, that
ratio of sacha inchi seed oil is close to 1:1.
The variation in the lipid composition of the seeds depends on
several factors, including genetics and growing conditions (e.g., atti-
tude and temperature), processing (e.g., roasting prior to extraction)
and extraction conditions (e.g. temperature and pressure of subcritical
extraction with n-propane) (Cai et al., 2012; Chandrasekaran & Liu,
2015; Zanqui, da Silva, de Morais, Santos, & Ribeiro, 2016). Some
studies have shown that different cultivars had minimal influences on
the lipid content of the seeds (Cai et al., 2012; Chirinos et al., 2013),
which suggests that more genotypes should to be assessed to select a
cultivar with a high oil yield. Sacha inchi plants grown at an altitude

318
S. Wang et al.
of > 900 m had a higher lipid content with a higher proportion of un-
saturated fatty acids than those grown at an altitude of < 900 m (Cai
et al., 2012). Lower growing temperatures for the plant decreased the
content of saturated fatty acids (e.g., palmitic and stearic acids), while
increasing the content of unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. oleic and linolenic
acids) (Wang & Liu, 2014). Seed germination (for 30 days) increased
the content of oleic acid, a major mono-saturated fatty acid in seed oil
(Chandrasekarana & Liu, 2015). γ-Irradiation at doses of 0, 1, 5 and
8 kGy or roasting treatments did not affect the fatty acid profile of the
seed oil (Cisneros, Paredes, Arana, & Cisneros-Zevallos, 2014; Gutiérrez
et al., 2017). The lipid composition of sacha inchi oil as affected by the
extraction methods is discussed in the Section 5.1.1 below.
2.2. Protein
The protein content of the raw sacha inchi seeds was 24.2–27.0%
(Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Hamaker et al., 1992). The protein content of
defatted seeds ranged from 27 to 59.1% (dry basis) (Hamaker et al.,
1992; Sathe et al., 2002; Ruiz et al., 2013; Chirinos et al., 2016). The
protein level of sacha inchi seeds (27%) was slightly lower than that of
soybeans (28%), cottonseeds (33%), and higher than that of sunflower
seeds (24%) and peanuts (23%) (Hamaker et al., 1992). The protein
content is dependent on the extraction method and the protein assay
used. In a comparison study, enzyme-assisted extraction [54.2 °C, 5.6%
enzyme (alcalase), 50:1 (v/w) solvent-to-sample ratio, pH 9.0,
40.4 min] gave a protein yield of 44.7% from defatted sacha inchi
seeds. In contrast, the yield of protein from an alkaline extraction
[54.2 °C, 42:1 (v/w) solvent-to-sample ratio, 1.65 M NaCl, pH 9.5,
30 min] from defatted seeds was only 29.7% (Chirinos et al., 2016).
According to Hamaker et al. (1992), leucine (64%) is the pre-
dominant essential amino acid of the seed protein, followed by tyrosine,
isoleucine, lysine, threonine and valine (55, 50, 43, 43, and 40 mg/g,
respectively). Seed proteins contain sulfur amino acids (methio-
nine + cysteine) by 37 mg/100 g and phenylalanine by 9 mg/g
(Hamaker et al., 1992). In the flour made from hexane-defatted seeds,
albumin (43.7%) is the pre-dominant aqueous soluble protein, followed
by glutelin (31.9%), globulin (27.3%), and prolamin (3.0%) (Sathe
et al., 2002). The soluble seed flour proteins are mainly composed of
32–35 kDa and ∼60–62 kDa monomeric polypeptides (Sathe et al.,
2002). These seed proteins have disulfide linked polypeptides (Sathe
et al., 2002). The albumin is a basic protein (pI ∼ 9.4) containing all the
essential amino acids required by adult humans. Heat denatured sacha
inchi seed albumin was shown to be highly digestible by tosyl pheny-
lalanyl chloromethyl ketone (TPCK)-trypsin, tosyl-L-lysyl-chlor-
omethane hydrochloride (TLCK)-chymotrypsin, and pepsin using in
vitro assays (Sathe et al., 2002). Therefore, sacha inchi seed proteins are
of good nutritional quality and can be developed for human nutrition,
especially in the rising gluten free food market.
2.3. Carbohydrate
The carbohydrate contents of sacha inchi seeds ranged from 13.4 to
30.9%. According to, peanuts (18.8%) have a higher carbohydrate
content than sacha inchi seeds (13.4%). The dietary fiber content of the
seeds [water insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), 72.4%; and soluble dietary
fiber (SDF), 9.0%] was higher than that of peanuts (IDF, 37.2%, and
SDF, 2.1%). Information on seed carbohydrates is very limited. The
composition of the fiber and the existence of starch in the seeds remain
to be studied.
2.4. Tocopherol, carotenoid, and phytosterol
The total tocopherol contents of sacha inchi seeds ranged from 78.6
to 137.0 mg/100 g seed (Table 1) (Chirinos et al., 2013; Follegatti-
Romero et al., 2009). The total tocolpherol contents of the seed oils
were 2.39 (by Soxhlet extraction) and 2.79 (by cold pressing) g/kg oil
319
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
(Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009). The total tocopherol and δ-tocopherol
contents in sacha inchi seeds are higher than flaxseeds, Brazil nuts,
cashews, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans and pistachios (Oomah,
Kenaschuk, & Mazza, 1997; Kornsteiner, Wagner, & Elmadfa, 2006;
Bozan & Tenelli, 2008; Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; da Costa et al.,
2010; Chirinos et al., 2013). Sacha inchi seeds have a higher γ-toco-
pherol content than Brazil nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans
and pistachios, and a higher β-tocopherol content than cashews, ha-
zelnuts, peanuts, pecans and pistachios. Supercritical carbon dioxide
extraction (40 °C/400 bar) slightly increased the tocopherol content of
sacha inchi seed oils (3.07 g/kg oil), compared to the Soxhlet extraction
and cold pressing (2.39 and 2.79 g/kg oil, respectively) (Follegatti-
Romero et al., 2009). Therefore, the processing had no effects on this
nutrient of the oil.
The total carotenoid content of seeds from 17 sacha inchi cultivars
has a range of 0.07–0.09 mg of β-carotene equivalent per 100 g of seed
(Chirinos et al., 2013; Hamaker et al., 1992). The carotenoid content in
flaxseeds was approximately 8.4 μg/g fresh weight of seeds (Fujisawa
et al., 2008). Crude sunflower and rapeseed oils contained 24.7 and
63.6 mg β-carotene per kg, respectively (Kreps, Vrbikova, & Schmidt,
2014). The specific type of carotenoids in sacha inchi seeds still needs to
be identified and quantified.
Sitosterol (45.2–53.3 mg/100 g of seed) is the predominant phy-
tosterol in the seeds, followed by stigmasterol (21.2–26.9 mg/100 g of
seed) and campesterol (7.1–8.8 mg/100 g of seed). The sum of these 3
phytosterols ranged from 73.5 to 89 mg/100 g seed (Chirinos et al.,
2013). Sacha inchi seeds appear to have a lower content of phytosterols
when compared to the composite range of common oil rich nuts and
seeds such as whole and ground flaxseeds, almonds, Brazil nuts,
cashews, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, pistachios and black
walnuts (95–270 mg/100 g) (Phillips, Ruggio, & Ashraf-Khorassani,
2005).
2.5. Polyphenol
The total phenolic contents (TPC) of seeds from 16 sacha inchi
cultivars vary over a wide range [64.6–80.0 mg gallic acid equivalent
(GAE)/100 g seed, wet basis] (Chirinos et al., 2013). The contents of
total methanol soluble and acidified methanol soluble phenolics in
defatted flours were 0.117 and 0.112 g/100 g flour, respectively (Sathe
et al., 2002). Phenyl alcohol, flavonoid, secoridoid, and lignan type
phenolics have been identified in sacha inchi seed oil (Fanali et al.,
2011). The quantification of many more specific phenolics in these
seeds is needed. When compared to sacha inchi seeds, almonds, ma-
cadamias and pine nuts showed lower TPC (32–47 mg GAE/100 g).
However, sacha inchi seeds tend to have a lower TPC than some
common nuts (Brazilian nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, peanuts, pecans,
pistachios, walnuts) (112–1625 mg GAE/100 g) and oil seeds (flax seeds
and safflower seeds) and 383–559 mg GAE/100 g) (Bozan & Tenelli,
2008; John & Shahidi, 2010; Kornsteiner et al., 2006).
The TPC varied when the seeds were processed with different
thermal treatments such as open boiling, pressure boiling, vacuum
boiling, low-temperature (125 °C), high-temperature (197 °C), and
honey roasting (175 °C). The highest TPC was achieved with honey
roasting (103 mg GAE/100 g), followed by high-temperature roasting
(55.7 mg GAE/100 g), pressure boiling (40.9 mg GAE/100 g), low-
temperature roasting (22.7 mg GAE/100 g), vacuum boiling (17.4 mg
GAE/100 g), and open boiling (16.0 mg GAE/100 g) (Sterbova,
Cepkova, Viehmannova, & Cachique, 2017). The mechanism re-
sponsible for the altered levels of total phenolics after thermal treat-
ment has not been studied.
2.6. Mineral
In the sacha inchi seeds from Colombia, potassium (5563.5 mg/kg)
was the most dominant mineral, followed by magnesium (3210 mg/kg),
S. Wang et al.
calcium (2406 mg/kg), iron (103.5 mg/kg), zinc (49.0 mg/kg), sodium
(15.4 mg/kg), and copper (12.9 mg/kg) (Gutiérrez et al., 2011). Saf-
flower seed has a similar level of calcium (2140 mg/kg) to sacha inchi
seed.
3. Chemical composition of sacha inchi seed shell and leaf
There is much less information on the composition of sacha inchi
seed shell and leaf as compared to the seed, though they can be better
utilized as by-products. The amount of total lipids in the seed shell
(1.24%) was reported (de Souza et al., 2013). The involvement of seed
shell polysaccharides (i.e. cellulose, pectin) in the synthesis of silver
nanoparticles has been reported (Kumar, Smita, et al., 2016, Kumar,
Smita, Cumbal, & Debut, 2017). The silver nanoparticles have unique
size and shape with special optical, antimicrobial, and electrical prop-
erties. They potentially have a variety of applications such as for foods,
pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics (Firdhouse & Lalitha, 2015). A more
thorough chemical examination of these polysaccharides is needed to
determine their identity and quantity in the seed shell. The seed shell
contains 74.56 mg GAE/g total phenolics. Condensed tannins (69.42 mg
cyanidin equivalents/g) were the predominant phenolic compounds,
followed by hydrolysable tannins (3.28 mg GAE/g), lignans (0.84 mg
secoisolaricirecinol diglucoside/g), bound phenolic acids (0.40 mg
GAE/g), flavonoids (0.36 mg quercetin equivalents/g), flavanoids [mg
0.15 CE (catechin)/g], and free phenolic acids (0.11 mg GAE/g)
(Chirinos, Zorrilla, et al., 2016; Chirinos, Necochea, Pedreschi, &
Campos, 2016). Cinnamic protocatechuic, hydroxycinnamic, p-cou-
maric types are the most predominant phenolic acids in the seed shells
(Chirinos, Necochea, et al., 2016).
Total carbohydrate content in leaf extracts of sacha inchi was de-
termined by the phenol-sulfuric acid method. Ethanol extracts dis-
played the highest total carbohydrate content (94%), followed by me-
thanol, aqueous, hexane, and chloroform (84%) extracts (Nascimento
et al., 2013). The type of carbohydrates in the leaf is unknown. Based
on the Bradford dye-binding method, total protein content in the ex-
tracts from the fresh leaves of sacha inchi followed the order: chloro-
form extract (4.98%) > hexane extract (3.60%) > ethanol extract
(1.23%) > methanol extract (1.04%) > aqueous extract (0.49%)
(Nascimento et al., 2013). There is no clue on what types of proteins in
the leaf extracts. Chloroform and hexane extract lipids and membrane
proteins. No information about the lipid contents in these extracts is
available. The TPC varied in the extracts with different extraction sol-
vents. The chloroform extract (10.8%) had the highest TPC, followed by
hexane (9.46%), aqueous (8.02%), methanol (6.09%), and ethanol
(5.34%) extracts (Nascimento et al., 2013). Again, the identity of the
phenolics is unknown.
4. Biological activity of sacha inchi
Different parts of sacha inchi plant (seed, seed shell and leaf) have
different antioxidant, antibacterial, antidyslipidemic, and anticancer
properties (Table 2).
4.1. Antioxidant properties
The antioxidant capacity of sacha inchi is affected by many factors,
including quantification and processing methods, and antioxidant
composition and chemical properties of constituents in the material
(Apak et al., 2013). Processing methods should be optimized to max-
imize the antioxidant potential of the resulting sacha inchi products.
4.1.1. Seed
The in vitro antioxidant activities of (raw or processed) sacha inchi
seed extracts and seed oil were determined by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging and ORAC (oxygen radical absor-
bance capacity) assays (Chirinos et al., 2013; Sterbova et al., 2017). The
320
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
ORAC values of the extracts from the raw seeds of 16 sacha inchi cul-
tivars varied from 6.5 to 9.8 µmol trolox equivalent (TE)/g of seed, of
which the hydrophilic and lipophilic ORAC values were 4.3–7.3 and
1.0–2.8 µmol TE/g of seed, respectively (Chirinos et al., 2013). The
DPPH value for the methanol extract of sacha inchi seeds (without
processing) was 241 mmol TE/100 g of seeds (Sterbova et al., 2017).
Sacha inchi seeds (raw or processed) and seed oil contain different le-
vels of antioxidant components, including phenolics, α, β, γ, & δ-toco-
pherols and carotenoids. The antioxidant activity ranking (highest to
lowest) for the seed tocopherols are γ > δ > α > β (Schmidt &
Pokorný, 2005).
The antioxidant activities of the seeds or seed oil were much de-
pendent on the type of thermal treatments of sacha inchi seeds
(Cisneros et al., 2014; Sterbova et al., 2017). Unlike roasting, pressure
boiling had minimal influence on the DPPH values. Vacuum boiling
(100 °C) increased the DPPH value by 6%. Low-temperature roasting
resulted in the highest DPPH loss (23% loss), followed by honey
roasting (12% loss), high-temperature roasting (10% loss), and open
boiling at atmospheric pressure (10% loss) (Sterbova et al., 2017). The
loss in antioxidant capacity was found to be higher for seeds that un-
derwent the thermal treatments with low water activity (e.g., high-
temperature and honey roasting) than those of seeds after open and
vacuum boiling (Sterbova et al., 2017). The changes in the antioxidant
capacities (DPPH or ORAC values) of sacha inchi seeds were strongly
connected with the changes in the content/composition of tocopherols
and phenolics brought on by thermal processing (Sterbova et al., 2017).
DPPH based radical scavenging capacity of sacha inchi oil was posi-
tively correlated with the intensity of seed roasting (Cisneros et al.,
2014). Oil extracted from highly roasted seeds had the highest DPPH
value (95.0 μg TE/g oil), followed by the oil extracted from medium
roasted seeds (47.6 μg TE/g oil), oil extracted from slight roasted seeds
(23.8 μg TE/g oil), and oil extracted form unroasted seeds (18.2 TE/g
oil) (Cisneros et al., 2014). Commercial flaxseed oil had a DPPH value
of 17.5 μg TE/g oil (Cisneros et al., 2014). The varying degrees of
roasting of sacha inchi seeds changed the seed and oil color (Fig. 1B).
Maillard reaction products formed during seed roasting possibly possess
a degree of antioxidant capacity. Sacha inchi oil from roasted seeds
exhibited an increased resistance to oxidation, due to the formation of
phenolic compounds induced by the roasting process and a slight in-
crease in the tocopherol content (Cisneros et al., 2014). Therefore,
suitable sample conditions and processing methods should be selected
to maximise the antioxidant activity of the seed products.
4.1.2. Seed shell
ABTS (2, 2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid))
radical scavenging, FRAP (Ferric ion reducing antioxidant power), and
ORAC antioxidant assays were used for estimating antioxidative po-
tential of seed shell extracts. The antioxidant capacities of the extracts
from seed shells measured by ABTS (34.1–93.9 µmol/TE g), FRAP
(45.0–114.0 µmol/TE g), and ORAC (92.5–192.6 µmol/TE g) assays
varied when six different extraction solvents were used (Chirinos,
Zorrilla, et al., 2016; Chirinos, Necochea, et al., 2016). The highest
ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC values were obtained with acetone/water/
acetic acid (80/19/1, v/v/v), acetone/water/acetic acid (80/19/1, v/
v/v), and ethanol/acetone/water/acetic acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v),
respectively. This reflects that different assays probe different aspects of
the antioxidant activity of the samples.
4.1.3. Leaf
The leaf of sacha inchi contains terpenoids, saponins, phenolic
compounds (flavonoids) and other components responsible for its an-
tioxidant activity. The total antioxidant capacities and DPPH values for
leaf extracts were 59.31–97.76 ascorbic acid equivalent/g and
62.8–88.3%, respectively (Nascimento et al., 2013).
 Table 2
Biological activity of seed, seed shell, seed oil and leaf of sacha inchi.
Bioactivity Plant part Co. Sample type Evaluation assay Major findings References
S. Wang et al.

(No.)

Antioxidative Seed Peru Methanol (hydrophilic) and dichloromethane (lipophilic) ORAC assay Seeds of 16 cultivars varied in hydrophilic, lipophilic and total Chirinos et al., 2013
(16) extracts antioxidant capacity, which ranged from 4.3–7.3, 1.0–2.8 and
6.5–9.8 µmol trolox equivalents/g seed, respectively. Hydrophilic
and lipophilic antioxidant capacities were correlated with total
phenolic and total carotenoid contents, respectively. The α-, β-, γ-,
δ-, and total tocopherol contents minimally influenced the lipophilic
antioxidant capacity
Seed Peru Raw or thermal-treated seeds DPPH assay Raw and processed seeds varied in DPPH values. Specifically, DPPH Sterbova et al., 2017
(1) value of raw, open boiled, pressure boiled, vacuum boiled, low
temperature roasted, high temperature roasted, and honey roasted
seeds were 2.4, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 1.9, 2.2, and 2.1 mmol TE/100 g,
respectively. Process temperature and water activity of seeds
influenced the DPPH values
Seedshell Peru Methanol/water/acetic acid (80/19/1, v/v/v) , acetone/ ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC assays Antioxidant capacity by ABTS, FRAP and ORAC assays (34.1–93.9, Chirinos et al., 2016
(1) water/acetic acid (80/19/1, v/v/v), ethanol/water/acetic 45.0–114.0, and 92.5–192.6 µmol TE/g, respectively) varied in the
acid (80/19/1, v/v/v), methanol/acetone/water/acetic shell extracts using different the extraction solvents. Acetone/
acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v), ethanol/acetone/water/acetic water/acetic acid, acetone/water/acetic acid, and ethanol/acetone/
acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v), ethanol/methanol/water/ water/acid acetic yielded the highest ABTS, FRAP and ORAC values,
acetic acid (40/40/10/1, v/v/v/v) extracts respectively. Condensed tannins, free and bound phenolic acids,
hydrolyzable tannins, flavonoids and flavonoids were the
antioxidative bioactives in seed shells
Seed Ecuador Gold nanoparticles made from seed oil based system DPPH assay Antioxidant activity (DPPH) varied (21–16%) among the gold Kumar, Smita,
(1) nanoparticles made at the different sunlight exposure time (30, 45, Sánchez, Stael, &
60 and 75 min) Cumbal, 2016

321
Leaf Ecuador Leave extract and silver nanoparticles made from the DPPH assay Antioxidant activity DPPH varied (11–22.5%) among the silver Kumar et al., 2014b
(1) extract based system nanoparticles. DPPH values of leaf extracts ranged from 6 to 19%
Leaf Brazil Aqueous, methanol, ethanol, chloroform, hexane extracts TAC* and DPPH assays TAC) and DPPH of leaf extracts ranged from 59.31 to 97.76 ascorbic Nascimento et al., 2013
(1) acid equivalents/g and 62.8–88.3%, respectively. Terpenoids,
saponins, and phenolic compounds (flavonoids) represent
antioxidative bioactives in the leaves
Antibacterial Seed Peru Commercially available extra virgin oil Antibacterial activity was tested on Oil was non-toxic to keratinocytes nor human explants, and was not Gonzalez-Aspajo et al.,
(1) human keratinocyte cells and human bactericide for Staphylococcus aureus. Oil impaired adherence of S. 2015
skin explant discs aureus to keratinocytes (preventive effect) and removed S. aureus
from keratinocytes and human skin explants (curative effect)
Anticancer Seed Peru Seed oil Anticancer activity was tested on Sacha inchi oil diet (1 g/kg body weight, daily, for 4 weeks) reduced
(1) Walker 256 tumor-bearing rats tumor mass and proliferation of Walker 256 tumor Cells ex vivo, and
COX-2 expression in Walker 256 tumor tissue. The oil diet increased
lipoperoxidation in the tumor tissue. Oil diet reduced
hypertriacylglycerolemia, hypoglycemia, body weight loss, plasma
levels of inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)]
and interleukin IL-6 of Walker 256 tumor-bearing rats
Leaf Brazil Aqueous, methanol, ethanol, chloroform, hexane extracts Anticancer activity was tested on 2 Leaf extracts inhibited cancer cells HeLa (cervical cancer cells) and Nascimento et al., 2013
(1) normal cells (3T3, CHO) and 2 tumor A549 (tumor cells from lung tissue). Terpenoids, saponins, and
cells (HeLa, A549) by MTT assay flavonoids represent leaf bioactives with anti-proliferative activity
against certain cancer cells. Methanol extract has the highest
antipoliferative effect. Leaf extract induced apoptosis (early and late
stages) of cancer cells
Antidyslipidemic Seed Peru Seed oil Antidyslipidemic activity were tested 24 patients with dyslipidemia orally received 5 or 10 mL oil for Garmendia et al., 2011
(1) on humans 4 months. The oil intake decreased total cholesterol and non-
esterified fatty acids, while increasing and HDL. The oil (10 mL)
intake increased the insulin levels
(continued on next page)
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

Co., country origin; No., number of cultivars analysed in the study; HDL, High-density lipoproteins; MTT, (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide); ORAC, oxygen radical absorbance capacity;
4.2. Antibacterial properties

4.2.1. Seed

TAC, total antioxidant capacity is determined from the reduction of Mo+6 to Mo+5 by the plant extracts and subsequent formation of green phosphate/Mo+5 complexes at acidic pH. TE, trolox equivalent.
In vitro studies have shown that commercially available virgin sacha
References

inchi oils were not bactericide for Staphylococcus aureus. However,

these oils were capable of preventing the attachment of S. aureus to
keratinocytes and efficiently detaching S. aureus from human skin ex-
plants (Gonzalez-Aspajo et al., 2015). S. aureus is one of the most im-
Male Holtzman rats received the oil at 0.5 mL/kg of rat body weight
for 60 days. Oil diet improved liver function by reducing the levels

portant pathogens that can cause various superficial and systemic in-
fections. The molecular mechanisms behind these functions remain
of cholesterol, triglycerides and increasing the HDL of rats

unclear.

4.3. Antidyslipidemic properties

4.3.1. Seed
The consumption of sacha inchi seed oil at 0.5 mL/kg body weight
by male Holtzman rats for 60 days improved their liver function by
reducing the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides along with an in-
crease in the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels (Gorriti et al., 2010).
In 24 human subjects with dyslipidemia, the consumption of sacha
inchi oil appeared to have a beneficial effects on their lipid profiles, but
the efficacy and safety have to be evaluated in randomized clinical
Major findings

trials (Gonzales & Gonzales, 2014).

4.4. Anticancer properties

4.4.1. Seed
Antidyslipidemic activity was tested

In animal trials, the seed oil was shown to have potential anticancer
activity. Specifically, a sacha inchi oil based diet (1 g/kg body weight,
daily, for 4 weeks) reduced tumor mass and proliferation of Walker 256
tumor cells ex vivo, and lowered the expression of COX-2 in the tissue.
The diet increased lipoperoxidation in Walker 256 tumor tissues and
Evaluation assay

reduced hypertriacylglycerolemia, hypoglycemia, plasma levels of in-

flammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)] and inter-
leukin IL-6 in Walker 256 tumor-bearing rats.
on rats

4.4.2. Leaf
It was shown in cell culture test that the extracts from sacha inchi
leaves were able to induce the apoptosis (early and late stages) of
cancer cells (Nascimento et al., 2013). The leaf extracts inhibited the
HeLa (cervical cancer cells) and A549 (tumor cells from lung tissue)
cancer cells. Methanol extract produced the highest antiproliferative
effect. Terpenoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds (flavonoids) are
the main bioactive compounds found in the leaf with antiproliferative
activity against certain cancer cells (Nascimento et al., 2013).

4.5. Toxicity and side effects

4.5.1. Seed
In vitro studies showed that the commercially available sacha inchi
Sample type

oil was non-toxic to keratinocyte cell lines and human skin explants
(Gonzalez-Aspajo et al., 2015). Additional in vivo studies indicated that
Seed oil

the oil was in general safe for rodents (Gorriti et al., 2010) and humans
(Gonzales & Gonzales, 2014). The lethal dose (LD50) of raw sacha inchi
oil in male mice of the Balb C57 strain was approximately 37 g/kg mice
(No.)

body weight, which is similar to that of flaxseed oil (Gorriti et al.,

Peru
Co.

(1)

2010). In a human study, 13 men and 17 women were given a daily

Plant part

dose of sacha inchi oil in 10 or 15 mL aliquots for 4 months. Self-re-

ported side-effects occurred within the first four-weeks of the oil con-
sumption but after that the side-effects subsided. During the 1st week,
Table 2 (continued)

nausea was the most reported adverse effect followed by eructation, hot
flash, headache, cramping, and constipation. At the 17th week, one
reported nausea, a second person reported headache and nausea
Bioactivity

(Gonzales & Gonzales, 2014).

According to evidence-based evaluation of 372 different causes of
allergic work-related asthma (Baur & Bakehe, 2014), the level required
*

322
S. Wang et al.
to cause an allergic occupational asthma attack by sacha inchi seed was
very low. However, there have been cases of allergic reactions including
anaphylaxis reported for sacha inchi seeds (Bueso et al., 2010). Also, in
vivo allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and bronchial asthma have been linked
to sacha inchi seed protein (10 kDa). The molecular weight of this
protein was similar to that of the 2S albumin storage protein Ric c1, a
major allergen from Ricinus communis (castor-oil-plant). The reduced
level of Ric c1 gave a reduced allergenic potential. However, both na-
tive and reduced content of the sacha inchi seed protein (10 kDa) gave
the same allergenicity (Bueso et al., 2010). The allergenic agents in
sacha inchi seeds have not been conclusively identified.
Sacha inchi seeds are susceptible to damage by pest infestation and
mold contamination during postharvest storage. In the production re-
gions, the climatic conditions and the agricultural practices are very
favourable for fungal proliferation with the resulting loss in quality and
possible production of aflatoxins, a carcinogenic contaminant in seed
related products, such as crude or lightly processed oils (Stefano,
Pitonzo, Cicero, & D’Oca, 2014). Therefore, correct postharvest practice
should be enforced to ensure the food safety.
4.5.2. Leaf
Leaf extracts were found to be non-cytotoxic to normal cells, 3T3
(fibroblast cells from the Swiss mouse) and CHO (ovary cells from the
Chinese hamster) (Nascimento et al., 2013).
5. Food uses of sacha inchi
5.1. Edible oil
Sacha inchi oil is a vegetable oil like olive, avocado, wheat germ,
rice bran, and argan oils, and is valued for its useful physicochemical
properties and good sensory attributes (taste and flavor). The oil can be
used as a functional food ingredient due to its high content of un-
saturated fatty acids and a favourable ω-6/ω-3 ratio as described in the
Section 2.1. The ALA in the oil can be converted into eicosapentaenoic
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids and could serve as an alter-
native to fish oil (Rodrigo et al., 2014; Calder & Yaqoob, 2009). One
advantage sacha inchi seed oil has over fish oil is the absence of a fishy
taste.
5.1.1. Extraction of sacha inchi seed oil
Efficient extraction technology is essential for improving the yield
and quality of sacha inchi oil. Sacha inchi oil is extracted from seeds
using cold pressing (commercial oil press), Soxhlet extraction, and su-
percritical CO2 methods (laboratory and pilot scales) (Follegatti-
Romero et al., 2009; Prado et al., 2011; Triana-Maldonado, Torijano-
Gutiérrez, & Giraldo-Estrada, 2017). Industrial production of sacha
inchi oil based on pressing and extraction still faces challenges in se-
curing sufficient supplies and industrial engineering or technological
processes (CBI, 2016). Cold pressing is mostly used for the production
of commercially-available sacha inchi oils (typically virgin sacha inchi
oil). Virgin sacha inchi oil is derived from the seeds by a mechanical
pressing process (without any chemical refinement). Extracting oil
through cold-pressing involves crushing the dried seeds, followed by
processes consisted of letting impurities settle out for several days and
possibly a filtering, in order to remove press cake particles (Nusselder &
Cloesen, 2014). Drying seeds prior to pressing minimizes the moisture
content and reduces the risk of microbial contamination. Maintaining
appropriate time in pressing is critical, as the highly unsaturated sacha
inchi oil oxidizes easily. Any additional refining treatment, which may
cause deterioration in the quality of the oil, would be avoided for high
quality products (Nusselder & Cloesen, 2014). A patented method for
preparation of cold pressing vegetable oil aims at protecting major
bioactive substances from being damaged and at preventing the gen-
eration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (Shin, 2011). Suitable
temperatures of 20–40 °C and 20–25 °C are the appropriate for oil seed
323
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
drying and cold pressing, respectively.
The cold-pressed oil from sacha inchi seeds has a unique refreshing
flavor, a light texture, and a substantial amount of ω-3 fatty acids. The
yield (35.4%) of cold-pressed oil from the seeds was similar to that of
safflower (35.8%) and was higher than that of soybeans (19%) and
cottonseeds (16%), while being lower than that of peanuts (45%) and
canola (48%) (Bodwell & Hopkins, 1985; Carvalho, Miranda, & Pereira,
2006). Compared to cold pressing, Soxhlet extraction gives higher oil
yields, a greater risk for thermal degradation and the possibility of
contaminating the oil with toxic residues from hexane or petroleum
ether used as the extraction solvents. Supercritical fluid (CO2) extrac-
tion minimizes the thermal degradation of most of the labile com-
pounds, and nullifies any chance of toxic solvent residues remaining in
the oil. Supercritical extractions were performed on sacha inchi ground
seeds using optimal conditions (60 °C, 450 bars pressure, CO2 flow at
1270 g/min). The results showed that the total yield reached 60%,
which was higher than Soxhlet (54.3%) and cold pressing extraction
(38.4%) (Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Triana-Maldonado et al.,
2017). The composition of the oils may vary with the extraction con-
ditions implemented (Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Triana-Maldonado
et al., 2017; Zanqui et al., 2016). Zanqui et al. (2016) reported different
fatty acid profiles of the oils from lipid subcritical extraction with
pressurized n-propane and Soxhlet method. Another study showed that
no significant difference was observed in the fatty acid profiles of seed
oils obtained by supercritical CO2 extraction and by Soxhlet method
using hexane (Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009). At the present time, su-
percritical CO2 extraction is only a technique in the laboratory and pilot
plant settings, while the industrial scale supercritical extraction process
is in the developmental stage.
5.1.2. Physicochemical properties of sacha inchi oil
Physicochemical properties of sacha inchi oils that were extracted in
research laboratories or in commercial facilities are summarised
(Table 3). The physicochemical properties listed can be used to char-
acterize the quality and to expose possible adulterations of sacha inchi
oil (Vicente, de Carvalho, & Garcia-Rojas, 2015). Solid fat content de-
termines sensory and physical properties of the oil, such as spread-
ability, firmness, mouthfeel, processing applications and stability. The
effect of heating on the physicochemical properties of oil can be re-
flected by smoke, flash and fire points, which determine the feasibility
of the oil to withstand thermal processes, such as baking or frying.
However, there is very little information on the solid fat content,
melting, smoking, flash, and fire points and rheology of sacha inchi oil
and oil blends (Gutiérrez et al., 2011). Some of the thermal properties
of the oil such as specific heat capacity have been studied. For hexane
extracted sacha inchi oil, the specific heat capacity of the crude oil
(1.1–3.3 J/g °C) varied in the temperature range of −50 to 40 °C.
Salmon, soybean, linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, safflower and peanut
oils had similar specific heat capacities. Sacha inchi oil has a low-
temperature endothermic transition at about −45 °C, followed by an-
other endothermic transition at −18.5 °C and a melting enthalpy
change of 23.2 J/g (Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Sathivel, 2005; Tochitani &
Fujimoto, 2001).
Sacha inchi oil had slightly higher densities (0.920–0.930 g/cm3 at
25 °C) than corn oil, cottonseed oil and soybean oil (O’Brien et al.,
2007). This is because the density increases as the unsaturation degree
increases. Sacha inchi oil had higher refractive indexes (approximate
1.480 at 25 °C) than corn oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil. The re-
fractive index increases as the number of double bonds increases. The
refractive index of sacha inchi oil (1.475) appeared to be rather similar
to that of olive oil (1.467), soybean oil (1.473), sunflower oil (1.473),
corn oil (1.473) and cottonseed oil (1.468) (Gutiérrez et al., 2011). The
color of sacha inchi oil ranges from clear pale to dark pale yellow
(Paucar-Menacho, Salvador-Reyes, Guillén-Sánchez, Capa-Robles, &
Moreno-Rojo, 2015). According to CIELAB, sacha inchi oil (L* = 78)
was darker than olive oil (L* = 84.47) and lighter than fish oil
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

Table 3
Physicochemical properties of sacha inchi seed oil.
Property Type No. Country of origin Value References

Yield (%, w/w) R 1 Peru 35.4 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, & Campos,
2015
R 1 Colombia 18.8 (Soxhlet extraction), 30.0 (subcritical extraction with n-propane) Zanqui et al., 2016
Color (CIELAB) R 1 Peru L* (77.73), a* (−0.43), b* (42.1), C (4.47), H° (96.34) Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
Density R 14 Peru 0.920–0.930 g/cm3, 25 °C Chasquibol et al., 2014
R 1 Peru 0.928 (relative density) Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 0.9207 g/cm3, 20 °C Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 0.9187 g/cm3, 25 °C Gutiérrez et al., 2011
Viscosity R 14 Peru 38.9–44.0 mm2/s, 20 °C Chasquibol et al., 2014
R 1 Colombia 34.5 mPa·s, 20 °C Gutiérrez et al., 2011
Refractive index R 14 Peru 1.480–1.481, 1.481–1.482 Chasquibol et al., 2014
R 1 Peru 1.475, 20 °C Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 1.475, 20 °C Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 1.479, 25 °C Gutiérrez et al., 2011
Average molecular weight C 1 Peru 863.5 g/mol Vicente et al., 2015
Oxidative stability index R 1 Peru 20.512, 4.645, 1.590, 0.493 h at 80, 90, 100, 110 °C, respectively (air Rodríguez et al., 2011b
flow, 15 L/h)
R 14 Peru 2.0–3.4 h Chasquibol et al., 2014
Shelf life R 1 Peru 3.29, 1.79, and 0.79 years at 20, 25 and 30 °C, respectively Rodríguez et al., 2011b
Activation energy R 1 Peru 137.9 kJ/mol Rodríguez et al., 2011b
Acid value R 1 Peru 0.37 mg/g Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
C 14 Peru 0.5–4.7; 0.5–4.7 Chasquibol et al., 2014
C 1 Peru 2.4 mg KOH/g Vicente et al., 2015
Acid (%) R 1 Peru 1.08% (oleic acid) Paucar-Menacho et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 1.19% (linolenic acid) Vicente et al., 2015
Peroxide value R 1 Peru 2.90 meq O2/kg Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 3.4 meq O2/kg Maurer et al., 2012
R 1 Peru 4.3 meq O2/kg Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
R 14 Peru 1.5–19.1, 2.1–5.6 meq O2/kg Chasquibol et al., 2014
C 1 Peru 7.36 (meq/kg) Vicente et al., 2015
p-Anisidine value R 1 Peru 1.41 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
R Peru 0.29 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
K270 R 14 Peru 0.10–0.28, 0.14–0.23 Chasquibol et al., 2014
Free fatty acids R 1 Peru 0.19% oleic acid Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
C 1 Peru 0.36% oleic acid Maurer et al., 2012
Conjugated dienes R 1 Peru 10.3 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
R 1 Peru 1.22 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
Conjugated trienes R 1 Peru 0.28 Chirinos, Pedreschi, Cedano, et al., 2015
Iodine value C 1 Peru 192.5 g I2/100 g Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 193.1 g I2/100 g Gutierrez et al., 2011
R 1 Peru 198 g I2/100 g Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009
Saponification value C 1 Peru 190.5 mg KOH/g Vicente et al., 2015
R 1 Colombia 185.2 mg KOH/g Gutiérrez et al., 2011
R 1 Peru 193 mg KOH/g Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009

Type, sample type, C, commercially available oil, R, oil produced in a research laboratory scale; No., number of cultivars analysed in the study.

(L* = 65.32). Sacha inchi oil (a* = −0.43) was less green than olive oil
(a* = −1.75) and fish oil (a* = −2.66). The oil (b* = 42.1) was also
less yellow than olive oil (b* = 63.2) and fish oil (b* = 77.01) (Paucar-
Menacho et al., 2015). The microencapsulation of sacha inchi oil was
made using a spray drying process with modified starch (Hi-Cap 100)
and maltodextrin in a mass ratio of 75:25 (Sanchez-Reinoso &
Gutiérrez, 2017). The color of encapsulated sacha inchi oil depends
primarily on the color of the wall materials (Sanchez-Reinoso &
Gutiérrez, 2017).
Chemical attributes of the sacha inchi oil include fatty acid profile
and oxidative stability (Tables 1 and 3). Oxidative indicators are acid
value, free fatty acids, iodine value, peroxide value (measures primary
oxidation products), p-anisidine value (measures secondary oxidation
products) and saponification number. The saponification number
(185–193 mg KOH/g) and iodine value (193–198 g I2/100 g) have been
reported for sacha inchi oil (Follegatti-Romero et al., 2009; Gutiérrez
et al., 2011). The iodine value measures the degree of unsaturation of
sacha inchi oil. The iodine value of sacha inchi oil was higher than that
of soybean (131.5 g I2/100 g), corn (115.5 g I2/100 g), sunflower
(126.5 g I2/100 g), cottonseed (109 g I2/100 g) and flaxseed (177 g I2/
100 g), and similar to that of canola oil (191.5 g I2/100 g) (Knothe,
2002; Vicente et al., 2015). This is in accordance with the chemical
composition of the sacha inchi oil as described in the Section 2.1.
5.1.3. Shelf life of sacha inchi oil
Lipids can be readily and rapidly degraded by a combination of
oxidative, enzymatic and hydrolytic processes. Microbial lipase possibly
involves the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol (TAG) molecules into free
fatty acids; microbes thus degrade fats and plant oils during storage
(Dudd, Regert, & Evershed, 1998). The moisture content (3.9–7.5%) for
sacha inchi seed was in a range (0–13%) that lessened the likelihood of
microbial degradation of TAG during storage. Sacha inchi oil contains
high levels of PUFA, specifically linolenic (ω-3) and linoleic (ω-6) fatty
acids. These PUFA are susceptible to peroxidation even under mild
environmental conditions (Gutiérrez et al., 2011; Maurer et al., 2012).
Various approaches to improve the oxidative stability of sacha inchi oil
have included roasting seeds before oil extraction, adding antioxidants,
such as plant extracts, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), encapsulating
the oil, and oil blending (Zuleta, Rios, & Benjumea, 2012; Sanchez-
Reinoso & Gutiérrez, 2017). Roasting modified the levels of phenolic
compounds and developed Maillard reaction products, which may
contribute to a more stable oil (Cisneros et al., 2014). Sacha inchi oil,
when microencapsulated by spray drying with Hi-Cap 100 (modified
starch) and maltodextrins in a mass ratio of 75:25, exhibited less oxi-
dation. The water activity of the microencapsulated oil ranged from
0.206 to 0.352, a range of water activity being associated with
minimum lipid oxidation rates (Sanchez-Reinoso & Gutiérrez, 2017).

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The spray-drying microencapsulation procedure using a mixture of the
two biopolymers (ovalbumin and xanthan gum, or ovalbumin and
pectin) increased the thermal resistance of encapsulated sacha inchi oil
and the stability of ω-3 fatty acids of the oil to simulated human gastric
conditions (Vicente et al., 2017). The biopolymers increased the crys-
tallinity of the oil and decreased the surface area of the oil droplets
exposed to gastric conditions, thus reducing hydrolysis and the release
of fatty acids (Vicente et al., 2017). Lipophilic antioxidants or anti-
oxidant rich plant material are effective in slowing down lipid oxida-
tion. The desired functional and nutritional properties of vegetable oils
and their oxidative stability can be achieved by blending different type
of oils, or by physical, chemical and enzymatic modifications
(Hashempour-Baltork, Torbati, Azadmard-Damirchi, & Savage, 2016).
Further studies on oil blends using sacha inchi oil are required to better
understand the role blending has on oxidative stability. Improving the
oxidative stability and the shelf life of sacha inchi oil remains an on-
going challenge for all parties involved in expanding and promoting the
use of this new oil.
5.2. Sacha inchi in food formulations
The quality of food products incorporating sacha inchi derived in-
gredients must meet the consumer’s expectations in terms of sensory
attributes, physicochemical properties, level of microbiological and
toxicological contamination, and shelf life. Lard was blended with 10%
sacha inchi oil to form a paste. The paste was mixed with lean beef to
form ground hamburger meat with a new fat phase. The resulting
hamburger patties had improved nutritional quality, compared to the
traditional hamburger (Clavijo, Rodríguez, & Estupiñán, 2015). Apart
from the attractive nutritional value, sacha inchi oil can also deliver
other functional benefits. For example, highly unsaturated sacha inchi
oil from fractionation process completely melts at −5°C (Gutiérrez
et al., 2011). This temperature influences the melting properties, sta-
bility and mouth feel of food products containing the sacha inchi oil.
Sensory attributes are important in determining the acceptance or re-
jection of a product by consumers. In depth rheology and sensory
evaluation of sacha inchi oil and food products remain to be carried out
to support the product development. Optimized roasted seeds from
other Plukenetia species, such as P. huayllabambana, were processed into
snacks. The snacks contained high levels of bioactives and were less
susceptible to oxidative degradation (Chirinos, Zorrilla, et al., 2016).
Sacha inchi seeds may be roasted at optimized conditions, which may
be considered as alternative choices for a healthy snack.
6. Non-food uses of sacha inchi
6.1. Nanoparticle
Nanoparticle production using sacha inchi oil, shell biomass, and
leaves have been achieved on a laboratory scale (Fig. 2) (Kumar et al.,
2014a, 2014b, 2017, Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, 2016; Kumar, Smita,
Sánchez, et al., 2016b). The oil was used for photosynthesis of distorted
cube/square silver nanoparticles with an average size of 60 nm (Kumar
et al., 2014a), and synthesis of gold nanocatalyst (5–15 nm) (Kumar,
Smita, Cumbal, et al., 2016). The former nanoparticles photo-catalyti-
cally decomposed methylene blue (acute toxic to human). Methylene
blue is a thiazine dye used in the textile industry and as an anti-malarial
or chemotherapeutic agent in the microbiological and medical fields
(Kumar et al., 2014b). The latter nanoparticle (gold nanocatalyst) has
radical scavenging activity against DPPH and could be an effective
biosorbent for removing Pb2+ and Cu2+ from aqueous solutions
(Kumar, Smita, Cumbal, et al., 2016).
Sacha inchi shell biomass was used to synthesize silver nanos-
tructured particles with an average particle size of 7.2 nm, which was
used as a photocatalyst for the remediation of methyl orange (Kumar
et al., 2017) (Fig. 2). Methyl orange is an acidic/anionic dye used in the
325
Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328
textile industry and is known to be a human carcinogen (Mittal,
Malviya, Kaur, Mittal, & Kurup, 2007). Sacha inchi shell biomass can
also be used as a biosorbent for selective removal of Pb2+ and Cu2+
from aqueous solutions. This could be due to the electrostatic attraction
between the negatively charged surface of sacha inchi shell biomass and
the positively charged Pb2+ and Cu2+ (Kumar, Smita, Sánchez, et al.,
2016).
Sacha inchi leaf extracts were also used to construct silver nano-
particles (4–25 nm), to use as non-toxic reducing agents with DPPH
radical scavenging activity (Kumar et al., 2014b). The leaf phyto-
chemicals might get adsorbed onto the active surface of the nano-
particles, possibly contributing to the DPPH radical scavenging activity
(Kumar et al., 2014b). Terpenoids, saponins, and flavonoids represent
the antioxidants in the leaves (Nascimento et al., 2013). Industrial
application of sacha inchi related nanoparticles requires more research.
Furthermore, comparative studies are needed to reveal if sacha inchi
based products are more suitable for such applications than the other
plant based systems.
6.2. Cosmetic and pharmaceutic products
Cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations containing sacha inchi
proteins and oils have been patented [Patent number, US2007264221
(A1)]. Those products are applied on the skin for anti-inflammatory,
skin tightening and anti-aging effects. Hanssen and Schmitz-Huebsch
(2011) proposed the use of sacha inchi oil for medical treatments of
coronary heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, attention deficit hyper-
activity disorder, and inflammatory skin diseases. Clinical studies de-
finitely are required to assess the effectiveness of these health claims.
6.3. Biodiesel
Zuleta et al. (2012) studied the blends of biodiesel from palm and
sacha inchi oils and determined their induction time (oxidative stability
indicator) and cold-filter plugging point (CFPP) (cold flow property
indicator). An induction time greater than 6 h and a CFPP below 0 °C
were set as quality criteria. Oxidative stability depended mainly on
polyunsaturated methyl esters content (Zuleta et al., 2012). Sacha inchi
based biodiesel contained a significant amount of methyl esters of li-
noleic and linolenic acids and is more prone to oxidation, because of the
presence of double-allylic moieties in their chains (Zuleta et al., 2012).
Binary blends of biodiesel from palm and sacha inchi were made at
25:75, 50:50 and 75:25 ratios, namely P25/S75, P50/S50 and P75/S25.
Decreasing palm oil dose decreased the induction time of the resulting
blends. Induction time decrease indicated a loss of stability (con-
sumption of antioxidant). Oxidation stability varies in the order of P25/
S75 (1.68 h induction time) < P50/S50 (2.52 h induction time) <
P75/S25 (4.54 h induction time). None of the palm and sacha inchi oil
blends satisfied the quality standard of oxidative stability. As for the
cold flow properties, only P25/S75 had a CFPP lower than 0 °C, which
satisfied the quality criteria for CFPP (Zuleta et al., 2012). CFPP was
uncorrelated with the structural indices (allylic position equivalent, bis-
allylic position equivalent, saturated methyl esters content, mono-
unsaturated methyl ester content and polyunsaturated methyl ester
content) (Zuleta et al., 2012). Blends of biodiesel containing sacha inchi
and other oils or the use of additives to achieve the desired physico-
chemical properties required by the oil related biodiesel remain to be
determined.
7. Conclusions
There are many valuable chemical compounds distributed
throughout the various parts of the sacha inchi plant. Sacha inchi seeds
are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, phytosterols, and tocopherols.
The major compounds found in these three chemical categories are α-
linolenic acid, β-sitosterol, and γ and δ-tocopherols, respectively.
S. Wang et al. Food Chemistry 265 (2018) 316–328

Visual appearance TEM micrograph

(A) AgNPs from sacha inchi shell biomass

a) 1 mM AgNO3 solution
b) AgNPs

(B) AgNPs synthesized by sacha inchi leaf

a) 1 mM AgNO3 solution,
b) leaf extract of sacha inchi
c) AgNPs after 2 h storage
d) AgNPs after 22 h storage
e) AgNPs after 96 h storage
f) AgNPs after 168 h storage

(C) AgNPs synthesized by sacha inchi oil

U.V.-vis graph of AgNps synthesized

(D) Emulsion-induced reduction/stabilization of AgNPs synthesized by sacha inchi oil

Fig. 2. (A) Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesized from sacha inchi shell biomass (Kumar et al., 2017); (B) AgNPs synthesized from sacha inchi leaves (Kumar et al.,
2014b); (C) AgNPs synthesized from sacha inchi oil (Kumar et al., 2014a); (D) emulsion-induced reduction/stabilization of AgNPs based on sacha inchi oil (Kumar
et al., 2014a). Figures are reprinted with permissions from the publishers.

Condensed and hydrolysable tannins, lignans, flavonoids, and phenolic
acids are the bioactives in sacha inchi seed and the shell. Terpenoids,
saponins, phenolic compounds (flavonoids) are the bioactive compo-
nents in the leaves. The factors influencing the concentrations of these
constituents in the sacha inchi plant and its products are the cultivar,
agricultural practice, postharvest processing, extraction methods, and
the quantification assays. Because of these diverse nutrients present in
sacha inchi, different parts of the sacha inchi plant showed a range of
bioactivities. Varying levels of antioxidant activity were measured
using in vitro antioxidant assays on the seed oil, leaf, and seed shell
biomass. The oil and leaf showed antibacterial, antihyperlipidemic, and
antiproliferative capacities.
The unique fatty acid profile of sacha inchi seed oil is particularly
attractive to the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Sacha
inchi oil plays an important role in the structure, aroma and stability, as
well as the nutritional quality of related food products. Each product
formulation requires the right sacha inchi ingredient with the right
physicochemical properties in order to ensure that the end product
acquires the optimal structure, stability and/or sensory attributes.
Sacha inchi shell biomass, oil and leaf were used to produce functional
nanoparticles in research laboratories. Biodiesel based on sacha inchi
oil appeared to have potential for further development.
The following are suggestions for future studies to better develop
sacha inchi as a sustainable crop. (1) To develop technology to create
high-quality oils with desired functional (e.g., shelf life) and/or nutri-
tional properties by oil modification or blending of sacha inchi oil with
other oils; (2) to investigate health effects of protein and oil of sacha
inchi seeds and leaves; (3) to investigate the molecular mechanisms
responsible for the health benefits of the bioactive compounds found in
the sacha inchi plant; (4) to develop innovative products for food,
medicine and cosmetic uses from all parts of the sacha inchi plant with
a particular focus on the underutilized parts such as leaf, stem, and seed

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shell. Consumer acceptance of the new products should be studied for
commercial applications.
Declaration
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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