Study

Green
Shipping

„ Full Steam
Ahead for Green:
Shipping on

01 „
Course for
Ecology

2009
 Study Green Shipping

Contents
Page Page
1 Introduction    3 5.2 Drive technologies and systems 10
2 Pollutant emissions in shipping 4 5.2.1 Diesel engine 10
2.1 The pollutants sulphur dioxide 5.2.2 Hybrid drive 10
and nitrogen oxide 4
5.2.3 POD drive 11
2.2 Regulatory requirements 4
5.2.4 Electromotor with battery 11
5.2.5 Electromotor with fuel cell 11
3 Carbon dioxide emissions in shipping 5
5.2.6 Solar Ships 12
3.1 Carbon dioxide, the most powerful
5.3 Auxiliary propulsion technologies
greenhouse gas 5
and systems 12
3.2 Calculation of CO2 emissions in shipping 5
5.3.1 Traction kites and sail propulsion 12
3.3 Extent of current CO2 emissions in
5.3.2 Flettner rotors 13
merchant shipping 5
5.4 Technical ship innovations 13
3.4 Regulatory requirements 6
5.4.1 Optimized hull design 14
5.4.2 Propeller and rudder optimization 15
4 Extent of CO2 emissions based on future
fleet growth 7 5.4.3 Paint coatings 15
5.5 Portside power outlets 15
5 Emission reduction potentials 7
5.1 Alternative fuels and energy carriers 8 6 Estimate of future CO2 emissions 16
5.1.1 Natural gas 8
5.1.2 Biofuels 9 7 Conclusion: the »Green Ship of the Future« 17
5.1.3 Hydrogen 9
Abbreviations index 18
Literature index 18

2 | Study Green Shipping January 2009

1 Introduction
»Record levels of carbon dioxide and methane. Never in the past
800,000 years has the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere been as high as today.« This was the headline heading
German press agency dpa’s May 15, 2008, report on a European
project involving scientists taking drill samples at depths of
over three kilometres in the Arctic ice, in order to analyse the gas
inclusions contained in the drill cores brought to the surface. The
samples thus obtained can be used to reconstruct the detailed
history of the earth’s atmosphere over the past 800,000 years with
a time resolution of 380 years. The findings revealed that far
from reaching their highest concentrations in the warmer periods
separating glacial epochs, greenhouse gases have attained what
are their record levels in our own days.
The carbon dioxide level (i.e. the concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere) is 28 per cent higher now than it has ever been in the
past 800,000 years. These findings raise questions concerning
the causes and consequences of this development. The study in
hand focuses on the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
in shipping. According to a country and sector analysis performed
by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), shipping in 2005 ranked eighth behind Canada and before
Great Britain in terms of annual global CO2 emissions with a share
of 4-5 per cent.
It is on the basis of these data that the study in hand examines CO2
emissions in shipping, as well as existing and planned regulations
promoting their reduction. Current order book data shall be indi-
catively projected to show the development of CO2 emissions until
2013 (the delivery date of the last ordered units), all other things
being equal. Then the study will introduce emission reduction mea-
sures such as alternative fuels, new drive systems and auxiliary
propulsion technologies, as well as technical innovations concer-
ning the ship itself, with the aim of finding out to what extent these
measures can help reduce CO2 emissions and what a »green ship«
of the future might look like. The overall focus is meanwhile on the
sum total of CO2 emissions caused by merchant shipping and the
options available for their reduction.
Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 3
 Study Green Shipping

2 Pollutant Emissions in Shipping
2.1 T he Pollutants Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and
Nitrogen Oxide (NOX)
For their propulsion and on-board power generation, seagoing
merchant ships usually rely on diesel engines fuelled by bunker oils.
Larger vessels are equipped with so-called »slow-speed diesel
engines« whose power can range from 10 to over 100 megawatts.
The fuel used for engines of this type is HFO – heavy fuel oil.
Smaller vessels are meanwhile equipped with »medium-speed
diesel« (MSD) four-cycle engines powered by marine diesel oil
(MDO) or marine gas oil (MGO). All the engine types used have been
designed for greatest efficiency, but besides CO2 also produce
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and particles of soot,
plus various other pollutants in smaller amounts. The fuels used are
mostly residuary products of the petrochemical industry. With a
sulphur content of 4.5 per cent, their toxicity is ca. 3,000 times
higher than that of car fuels. Nitrogen oxides combine with water
(e. g. in the atmosphere) to form acid (acid rain) and hence take an
irritant and toxic effect. Sulphur dioxide is a colourless, toxic gas
with an acrid smell that is oxidized into sulphur trioxide by the
atmosphere’s oxygen and then forms sulphuric acid (acid rain) with
water.
The contents of Annex VI, which came into effect on May 19, 2005,
by the signature of member states, concern the air pollution caused
by ships. It sets limits for the emission of substances which harm
the ozone layer, such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile
organic compounds and exhausts from waste incineration plants.
CO2 emissions, however, are not considered in Annex VI.
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions are directly linked to
the quality of the fuels used.
It is for this reason that the MEPC, in its 57th session held in
April 2008, agreed to amend the contents of Annex VI and thereby
necessitate the reduction of sulphur and nitrogen oxides, for
example by specifying maximum limits for the sulphur contained in
fuels.2) The sulphur content of fuels is defined in dependence on the
waters shipped. Various threshold limits apply to Sulphur Emission
Controlled Areas (SECAs), such as the Baltic and North Sea, for
example, on one hand and the remaining waters on the other.3)
Prescribed fuel sulphur content in %
depending on the waters and deployment year
(Tab. 1)
in % SECA Worldwide

2010 1.0 4.5

2.2 Regulatory Requirements
In 1973 the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization
(IMCO – renamed IMO International Maritime Organization in 1982),
a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) in London, passed
2012 3.5
2015 0.1
2020 0.5
Source: IMO/MEPC 2008

the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from

Ships (MARPOL convention), which was amended in 1978 and
A large number of emission-cutting regulations meanwhile apply on
finally became effective in parts in 1983.1) The contracting parties of
a European level, from a directive passed in July 2000 concerning
this convention are obliged to implement its marine environmental
the sulphur contents (0.2 per cent) of marine gas oil right through to
protection regulations in all ships operating under their sovereignty.
a directive which came into power in August 2006 and specifies
Current regulations concerning the handling of pollutant substances
that marine diesel oil marketed within the territories of EU member
in shipping are meanwhile being elaborated on a working level via
states may not contain more than 1.5 per cent of sulphur. Starting
the IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) and
from 1.1.2010, the sulphur content of fuels used in European ports
then detailed in so-called annexes to the MARPOL convention.
may not exceed 0.1 per cent, or there will be a portside power
IMO: MARPOL 73/78. 2002.
connection.
1)

2) 
Annex VI contains retroactive requirements for diesel engines with an output of 130 kilowatts
(kW) and more installed on ships laid down since 1.1.2000.
3)
Det Norske Veritas, 2008.

4 | Study Green Shipping January 2009

3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Shipping
3.1 C
 arbon Dioxide, the Most Powerful
Greenhouse Gas
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colourless, incombustible, slightly sour
tasting and smelling gas which naturally occurs in the air and
mineral wells in a free aggregation state. As part of their photo-
synthesis, plants split the available CO2 into carbon and oxygen
with the help of sunlight. The carbon remains in the plant, while
the oxygen is released to the environment.
Carbon dioxide changes the earth’s radiation balance by letting
the sun’s short wave radiation through to the surface virtually
3.3 E xtent of Current CO2 Emissions in
Merchant Shipping
The most recent study of bunker consumption in the global
merchant fleet dates from December 2007 and had been initiated
by the IMO. It arrived at an overall figure of 369 million tons of
worldwide bunker consumption for merchant ships exceeding 400
gross tonnes (gt) and oil tankers exceeding 150 gt.7) From this we
have calculated carbon dioxide emissions amounting to 1.169
million tons, a figure that is virtually identical with UN estimates
amounting to 1.200 million tons.8)
7)
IMO, BLG 12/6/1, 2007.
8)
IMO, BLG 12/6/1, 2007.

undiminished while partly absorbing the long wave heat radiation

emitted by the earth. It is this very characteristic which turns carbon Top-CO2-emitting countries/sectors in 2005 (Ill. 1)
dioxide into a greenhouse gas or, considering its quantity proportion,
in million tons CO2
even the most powerful one.
7,000
Most scientists currently agree that the rise of greenhouse gas
5,817
levels in the earth’s atmosphere attributable to man does contribute 6,000
to the greenhouse effect, which in turn leads to continual global 5,101

warming.4) In this scenario particularly the CO2 released by the 5,000

combustion of fossil energy carriers contributes significantly to
global warming.5) The combustion of biomass, in contrast, can only
4,000
ever release any CO2 that has previously been absorbed via
photosynthesis.
3,000

3.2 Calculation of CO2 Emissions in Shipping 2,000

1,544
1,214

1,147

The combustion of fossil fuels besides energy also generates car-

bon and other chemicals, mainly including water. The extent of the 1,000
814

543
549

530

454

available energy and associated carbon dioxide emissions varies

depending on the fossil energy carrier used. The term used to de- 0
scribe this is called »carbon dioxide emission factor« and details the
CO2 emissions in kilogrammes per kilowatt hour.
in
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To show the carbon dioxide emissions in shipping, the energy

)
ng

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ss

Ita
na
a

G hipp
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Ko

Br
Ru

consumption per bunker ton is first calculated in kWh of energy.

re
Ho
cl.

A second step then involves multiplication with the carbon dioxide

(in
a
in
Ch

emission factor to be applied depending on the fuel type.6)

4)
 his warming is accompanied by extreme weather phenomena such as heat episodes, heavy
T Source : International Transport Forum, OECD, Leipzig, 2008
rainfalls and whirlwinds. In: Münchener Rückversicherung, Topics Geo Naturkatastrophen,
2007.
5)
World climate panel IPCC, 2007.
6)
 xample: 1 ton of heavy oil equals ca. 11,999 kWh of energy. 11,999 kWh energy x 0.264
E
(carbon dioxide emission factor for heavy oil) = 3,167 kg CO2 or 3.17 t CO2.

Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 5

 Study Green Shipping

The CO2 emissions calculated for 2007 on the basis of the IMO
report could amount to ca. 1,169 million tons, equalling approxi-
mately 4-5 per cent of global CO2 emissions. Having previously
ranked eighth worldwide in 2005 behind Canada and before Great
Britain, shipping is in 2007 hence bound to have advanced two
places to rank 6 (see illustration 2) in the global league of top CO2
polluters.
Top-CO2-emitting countries/sectors in 2007 (Ill. 2)
in million tons CO2
7,000
6,308
3.4 Regulatory Requirements
There are still no regulations for carbon dioxide emissions which
would apply to merchant shipping on an international or supra-
national European level.
The first meeting of the »MEPC working group« addressing the topic
of »greenhouse gas emissions from ships« took place in Oslo from
June 23 to 27, 2008. The meeting convened to discuss diverse
subject areas such as a possible CO2 design index for new ships,
proposals concerning a fuel tax, and the development of emissions
trading. Far from passing any resolutions concerning the scope of
possible CO2 reductions, the attending parties were unable to agree

on a definition for the fleet possible reductions should be applied to.

5,867

6,000 The question whether these measures should be voluntary or

mandatory is also still unresolved. The meeting finally even failed
5,000 to agree on a methodical measurement procedure for the CO2
emissions from ships.

4,000 The future timetable requires another working group meeting to be

held after this year’s 58th MEPC Conference (6.10.–10.10.2008) in
3,000 the beginning of 2009, with agreements to be then reached at the
coming MEPC meeting in June 2009.

2,000 Article 2.2 of the Kyoto Protocol requires all signatory countries of
1,574

MARPOL Annex I to pursue the limitation or reduction of greenhouse

1,240
1,227

1,169

1,000 gas emissions from marine fuels via the IMO. But as yet, the IMO
747

547

has proven unable to even internally agree on either concrete

511

460

measures or any concrete targets.

0
Given this development, individual states (e. g. the USA) or
supranational organizations such as the EU can be expected to
resort to unilateral CO2 reduction measures. In Brussels, for
G ing
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example, the inclusion of shipping in emissions trading has been

er

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ng

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Ho

put up for discussion again and again for more than a year.
cl.
(in
a
in
Ch

Sources: International Transport Forum OECD, Leipzig, 2008 and projection

of 2005 data

6 | Study Green Shipping January 2009

4 Extent of CO2 Emissions Based on Future
Fleet Growth
In order to calculate the CO2 emissions for 2012, the IMO bunker
consumption data (369 million tons in 2007) were combined with
the fleet data base of the Institute of Shipping Economics and
Logistics (ISL) in Bremen9). With gross tonnages per ship of 300 and
up, this data base largely (i.e. 95 %) represents the tonnages used
by the IMO to calculate bunker consumption. It will hence, by virtue
of its extensive consistency with the IMO fleet basis, be relied upon
in the further calculations.
9)
As of 1.1.2008.
Based on the current fleet, a tonnage of 1,080 million dwt creates a
bunker consumption of 369 million tons, equalling CO2 emissions
amounting to 1,169 million tons.10) All other things being equal,
the current order book amounting to 520 million dwt will hence
generate additional carbon dioxide emissions amounting to 562
million tons of CO2. Compared to the fleet of today this represents
an increase of 40 per cent.
Once all the ordered ships are delivered, which should be the case
sometime in 2012 or 2013, according to the current order book,
the global merchant fleet will, given the current state of the art,
generate more than 1,600 million tons of CO2.

Shipping Fleet and Order Book (Tab. 2)

5 Emission Reduction Potentials
Ships in million dwt1 The latest findings concerning the extent of CO2 emissions from
shipping have recently led to a massive rise in the environmental
Fleet
policy demands being voiced on national and international levels.
Oil tankers 8,693 400
This currently intensified environmental debate and the direct link
Chemical tankers 1,345 9
existing between the extent of bunker consumption and that of
Liquid gas tankers 1,318 30
Bulk carriers 7,070 383
pollutant emissions create a need to make use of every conceivable
Ore/bulk/oil carriers 86 4 option available in shipping operations for minimizing fuel consump-
Container ships 4,259 145 tion and hence CO2 emissions.
Freighters 17,647 103
A simple but effective method would be the so-called slow steaming,
Passenger ships 4,135 6
i.e. simply cutting back on speed. The resistance of a body increases
Total 44,553 1,080
exponentially the faster it travels and conversely also exponentially
diminishes if the speed is lowered. If a ship hence lowers its
Order Book
speed by just a few knots, it will require significantly less power
Oil tankers 2,274 158
Chemical tankers 328 5
and therefore emit a correspondingly deminished amount of CO2.
Liquid gas tankers 333 16
But there are also other options available for the reduction of
Bulk carriers 2,790 238
shipping emissions such as careful fuel selection, various propulsion
Ore/bulk/oil carriers
technologies and technical innovations concerning the ship itself.
Container ships 1,518 83
Freighters 1,421 19 10)
369 bunker tons x 3.17 tons of CO2 per bunker ton.

Passenger ships 223 1

Total 8,887 520

1
dwt = deadweight tons = tonnage of a ship
Source: ISL, Shipping Statistics and Market Review, Vol. 52 No 1/2–2008

Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 7

 Study Green Shipping

5.1 Alternative Fuels and Energy Carriers In a gas-powered container feeder ship with a tonnage of 1,500
TEU (twenty foot equivalent unit), for example, the capacity
A possible phase-out of heavy oil as the most important fuel in
reduction resulting from the loss of freight space would amount to
global sea traffic continues to gain in stature. A start in this direction
a little over 3 per cent. If the main engines are powered by liquid
has already been made with the Sulphur Emission Controlled Areas
methane (CH4) fuel, this methane would need to be stored in two
(SECAs), North and Baltic Sea regions where only higher quality
gas containers with a net overall tank volume of 670 cubic metres,
– and hence more climate neutral – distillates may still be
with the required space amounting to ca. 48 to 50 TEU.
combusted. Several alternative fuels and/or energy carriers which
could be used in shipping are currently being investigated, while
conceivable energy carriers besides natural gas and hydrogen also Cross-section of a gas-powered container
feeder ship (Ill. 3)
include biofuels.

5.1.1 Natural Gas

The main component of natural gas is methane. Natural gas is hold partially used for gas tanks

increasingly gaining a foothold as a vehicle fuel and is required by B/5 B/5

European target definitions to account for 2 per cent of European

fuel consumption by 2010, rising to 10 per cent by 2020. In the
opinion of Germanischer Lloyd (GL), natural gas could in the next
few years turn into a significant substitute fuel in shipping.11)
Although ships powered by natural gas need significantly more
space to accommodate their tanks than would be the case with a
Source: Germanischer Lloyd
conventional heavy oil/diesel engine, the loss of loading space is on
the upside compensated by fuel savings and better pollution values.
11)
Germanischer Lloyd, 2008.

Hold partially used for gas tanks Top view of a gas-powered container feeder ship (Ill. 4)

Source: Germanischer Lloyd

8 | Study Green Shipping January 2009

The IMO has so far prohibited the use of gas as a ship fuel in
international traffic for safety reasons. But the IMO subcommittee
»Bulk Liquids and Gases« (BLG) is currently in the process of
elaborating a transitional guideline in order to adjust to the current
safety requirements for natural gas as a ship fuel. This guideline is
expected to be submitted to the »Marine Safety Committee« (MSC)
for resolution in 2009. A legal basis for using natural gas as a ship
fuel in combination with combustion engines in international sea
traffic could hence be provided from 2010.
5.1.2 Biofuels
The use of regrowable fuels to operate ships is principally techni-
cally possible given a careful refitting and compliance with certain
technical framework conditions.
Biodiesel/Vegetable Oils
The term biodiesel is generally applied to fatty acid methyl ester
(FAME), which can either be used in a pure form or added to
conventional diesel fuel in any proportion.
Biodiesel can be principally produced from oleaginous crops such
as rape, sunflowers, soy beans and Jatropha, as well as coconut
and palm oils. Not all geographical regions offer similarly good
conditions for the cultivation of oleaginous crops. Owing to local
cultivation conditions, rape (rape methyl ester – RME) and sun-
flowers (sunflower methyl ester – SME) have proven most success-
ful in Europe. As the climatic conditions in Germany are relatively
favourable for rape farming, German biodiesel is mainly made from
this plant.
In order to extract the RME, the purified oils are esterified with
methanol produced from natural gas. The end product in its
essential features very closely resembles conventional diesel fuels
so that even unmodified diesel engines can be operated with it.
Pure untreated vegetable oil can also be used as a fuel, but would
require the engines to be retrofitted.12) There is no practical
implementation of rape oil in shipping at this moment in time.13)
Biogas
Biogas, also known as »substitute natural gas« (SNG), can be manu-
factured to similar specifications as natural gas, allowing it to be
used in natural gas engines or fuel cells while relying on the existing
natural gas infrastructure. The most suitable raw materials for
biogas extraction mainly include biological waste materials such as
liquid manure, organic waste and energy crops (cultivated biomass)
such as maize, and mulch (Feuchtgut). The process technology of
biogas extraction is largely perfected, as biogas plants are already
being operated in large numbers in Germany.14) But biogas is at this
moment in time not being used as an on-board energy carrier for
ships. Should natural gas be used in shipping in future, however,
natural gas engines and/or fuel cells could also be operated with
biogas.
5.1.3 Hydrogen
As a secondary energy carrier, hydrogen can be produced from
virtually any primary energy carrier. Production processes that
would generate low CO2 emissions for example include steam
reforming from natural gas with CO2 capture and coal gasification
with CO2 capture. Further production options include direct
generation from biomass via gasification, electrolysis with power
from renewable energies or electrolysis with power from fossil
sources. The greatest potentials for low-CO2 fuels can be provided
if renewable energy carriers are used to produce the hydrogen.
The technologies can be applied in central facilities as well as
filling stations. Hydrogen is already in use in shipping in the form
of fuel cells.
12)
Bundestag, 2007.
13)
GAUSS, 2008.
14)
Bundestag, 2007. 
Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 9
 Study Green Shipping

5.2 Drive Technologies and Systems 5.2.1 Diesel Engine

As part of the »Maritime Trend Barometer«, a regular survey of
German shipowners, Hypovereinsbank in September 2008
discovered that ca. 92 per cent of the shipowners interviewed look
for low fuel consumption when selecting their ship engines. This
can be ensured via novel and/or optimized drive technologies,
amongst other options. About half the shipowners interviewed
hence rely on a diesel-electric POD drive, i.e. a drive that is encased
in a pod, rotatable by 360° around its vertical axis and located
underneath the ship’s hull. The capital letters come from the brand
name POD used by engine manufacturer Wärtsilä.
49 per cent of the respondents were of the opinion that fuel cells
will play a larger part in future (see Ill. 5). 23 per cent of the
shipowners meanwhile also expect alternative propulsion options
using large sails (SkySails) to gain in significance in future, whereas
Flettner rotors will probably not come to play any significant role.
Diesel engines have succeeded in becoming the dominant drive
technology in ship operation. On inland waterways they are fuelled
by diesel and in maritime transport mainly by heavy oil. The diesel
engines have already been optimized for economical consumption
in the past and have in this respect reached a high developmental
level. Their efficiency could most of all be markedly increased by
electronic direct injection (common rail system). According to MAN,
a leading manufacturer of ship diesel engines, other improvement
measures could nonetheless also contribute to the reduction of fuel
consumption and/or the CO2 output.15) These include an optimization
of the pumps and auxiliary systems, which would result in a 1 per
cent CO2 reduction. According to the manufacturer, automatic motor
control would reduce fuel consumption by a further 1 per cent and
optimizing the engine in terms of providing an unvarying maximum
performance, so-called »dual/multi maximum continuous rating«
(MCR), by as much as 3 per cent.

But the highest fuel savings of 12 per cent would be achieved by

Which alternative drive and auxiliary propulsion
systems will come to play a more important part recovering energy from the exhausts, also known as »waste heat
in future? (Ill. 5) recovery« (WHR), which involves driving turbo generators with the
hot exhausts coming from marine diesel engines, which have so far
in %
51.4

been conducted away unused via the funnel. The additional energy
48.6

50
provided by these generators for the on-board power supply can
amount to 6 megawatts.16)
40

30 5.2.2 Hybrid Drive

22.9

Hybrid vehicles combine multiple energy converters and storage

20
systems in their powertrain, typically involving combustion engines
or electrically operated motors, with tank and battery. The entire
10 hybrid drive is to be regarded as a consumption and CO2 emissi-
ons reduction measure. Owing to the battery technology currently
2.9

0 available, however, the use of hybrid drives in shipping would not be

meaningful at this point in time.
15)
MAN Diesel, 2008.
16)
MAN Diesel, 2008.
Fu rive

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Sk ell

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el
D-
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tn
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Source: HypoVereinsbank

10 | Study Green Shipping January 2009

5.2.3 POD Drive is potentially realizable, this assessment would need to be reviewed.
As in particular the electrically operated engines are largely
In contrast to conventional ship propulsion systems, POD drives are
perfected, the main motivation for any further developments in
not installed inside the ship’s hull, but underneath it in a pod. As the
battery technology can be expected to mainly come from ship
pod and ship propeller assembly can be swivelled by 360 degrees,
applications using hybrid or fuel cell drives.
they also serve as a rudder together, whereas conventional propul-
sion systems (shaft drives) require an additional rudder for steering.

POD drives are particularly apposite for ships with a frequent need
to manoeuvre, i.e. cruise ships, yachts and ferries. The principle:
one or often also two propellers are attached to each pod.
In the latter case the first propeller will ensure unvarying flow con-
ditions so that the second one can work more effectively and save
fuel. The pod also houses the drive in the shape of an electrically
operated motor. Compared to conventional shaft systems, the main
benefit provided by propeller pods is their higher efficiency. This
is because the conventional main engine generating the power
for the electric motor can be operated within its optimal speed
range throughout. Depending on the system and type of ship this
can boost its efficiency by 25 to 50 per cent. Given the same
engine and hull dimensions, the operating performance would
hence be greatly enhanced and fuel consumption significantly
reduced (up to – 15 per cent).17)
In addition POD drives also improve the safety and manoeuvrability
of vessels. But although it dispenses with rudder systems, bow
and stern thrusters, installing POD drives is considerably more
expensive than classic shaft drives. But then again the higher
purchase price would pay off over time thanks to lower operating
costs provided by the reduced fuel consumption and the elimination
of tugboat services.
5.2.4 Electromotor with Battery
Purely battery-operated electric ships do offer the advantage of
completely relying on batteries for their operation, but usually so far
merely provide a small reach at high purchasing costs. Given the
low overall propulsion efficiency, their CO2 reduction potential is still
insignificant. In case of a breakthrough in battery technology, which
5.2.5 Electromotor with Fuel Cell
In parallel to batteries, fuel cells directly convert chemical energy,
for example contained in hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), into
electrical energy. H2 and O2 are conducted to electrodes, where they
combine in a reverse electrolysis process or »cold combustion« to
form water. Their direct conversion of chemical into electrical energy
makes hydrogen fuel cells so highly efficient. Most fuel cells simply
rely on the oxygen contained in the surrounding air, so that only the
hydrogen required for the reaction needs to be carried as a fuel.
Electrically operated ships using fuel cells (FC) are predicted a great
future, but not as yet being produced in series. The type of drive
mainly taken into consideration comprises »polymer electrolyte
membrane« (PEM) fuel cells, which are characterized by their high
power density and flexible behaviour in operation.18)
PEM FCs can be divided into three fuel-related concepts: pure
hydrogen (stored in the form of liquid or pressurized hydrogen),
hydrogenous fuel gas generated by »on-board reforming« methanol
or hydrocarbons, and »direct methanol conversion in special FCs«
(DMFC). Operating fuel cells with pure hydrogen generates no
pollutant emissions at all, operating them with methanol or
hydrocarbons hardly any. What is problematic is the on-board
storage of H2 and the lack of an H2 infrastructure. Hydrogen tanks
are significantly heavier and several times more expensive than
methanol or petrol tanks.
FC-operated submarines are already in use, and recently the world’s
first commercially used FC-operated passenger ship has also been
put into service in the shape of the »Alsterwasser«, able to carry up
to a hundred passengers without any pollutant emissions at all.
Deutscher Bundestag, 2007.
18)

17)
TTLine, 2004.

Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 11

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5.2.6 Solar Ships 5.3 A

 uxiliary Propulsion Technologies
and Systems
The term solar ship is used for any vessel that at the very least
generates a part of its propulsion energy via solar cells. To this end Auxiliary propulsion systems continue to gain in importance. As part
the ship’s exterior is equipped with solar panels converting the sun’s of the »2008 Maritime Trend Barometer«, HypoVereinsbank found
energy into electrical power. that the traction kite propulsion system SkySails could well come
to play a more important role in future. Approximately 23 per cent
Low-maintenance direct current or three-phase electromotors in
of the shipowners predict that this innovative propulsion technology
various performance categories are then used as propulsion
will play a more significant part in future. The wind-powered
engines. The energy is stored in batteries (lead-gel or lead-acid,
propulsion system took up commercial operation in 2007. In contrast
optionally also nickel-cadmium or lithium-ion) and can hence
to this, only just under 3 per cent of the respondents believe in
also power the propulsion engines in the absence of sunshine.
Flettner rotors as the drive technology of the future (see Ill. 5).
Solar ships normally reach maximum speeds of roughly 12 to
18 kilometres per hour. If they travel only on solar energy, their
maximum speed amounts to 4 to 7 kilometres per hour.
5.3.1 Traction Kites and Sail Propulsion
The performance of the solar generator and hydrodynamic
The Hamburg company SkySails has developed a wind-powered
characteristics of the hull shape have a decisive impact on the
propulsion system based on large traction kites. The SkySails tech-
speed achievable with solar power. The hulls are designed
nology can be installed on virtually any existing or newly built ship
specifically to comply with the needs of solar ships and are
as an additional wind-powered propulsion system and then used
distinguished by a reduced wash of the waves, besides their
to relieve the main engines. Thanks to the spatial separation of
modest energy requirements. Solar ships offer the advantage of
ship and sail, SkySails’ traction kites can easily generate five times
not generating any emissions such as noise or exhausts. There is
the traction of normal sails per square metre of surface area. The
also no danger of fuel escaping and polluting the water as they
traction kites used by the SkySails system are flown in front of the
stock up on energy. Solar-powered drives are so far only being used
ship dynamically in a figure-of-eight pattern. The high speed of the
in a few small passenger ships as they do not at this moment in
traction kite itself is particularly relevant, as it is the flow speed of
time meet the requirements of modern merchant shipping.
the air at the traction kite’s aerodynamic profile that ensures the
high performance potentials.

12 | Study Green Shipping January 2009

If the flow speed at the traction kite doubles, the traction power 5.4 Technical Ship Innovations
is multiplied by a factor of four. It is one of the technological
The snap poll conducted by HypoVereinsbank as part of the »2008
advantages of the SkySail propulsion system that the traction kites
Maritime Trend Barometer« shows that shipowners increasingly
can be operated at altitudes between 100 and 300 metres, where
rely on technical innovations concerning their ships to save fuel and
the winds are stronger and more continuous. In an altitude of
reduce the pollution emitted.
150 metres, the average wind speed is approximately 25 per cent
higher than at an altitude of 10 metres, owing to the lack of friction Approximately 94 per cent of the shipowners interviewed conside-
with the earth’s or water surface. red hull design optimization a meaningful option for extending the
reach of their vessels per ton of bunker consumption. And roughly
According to their manufacturer, a vessel’s fuel costs can be cut
85 per cent additionally opt for optimizing their propeller designs or
by between 10 and 35 per cent on a yearly average by using
applying innovative paints or coatings (see Ill. 6).
the SkySails system, depending on wind conditions. It is being
claimed that in optimal wind conditions the fuel consumption can
be reduced by as much as 50 per cent at times.19) What would you consider to be your technological
options of choice for boosting the mileage (reach per
ton of bunker consumption) of your vessels? (Ill. 6)

5.3.2 Flettner Rotors in %

100

94.3
94.4
The Flettner rotor is an invention of the 1920s, when Anton Flettner

86.1

85.7
developed a rotating cylinder that works similarly to an aircraft
80
wing. A vacuum built up at the front of the rotating cylinder (Magnus
effect) pulls the ship forward. The large cylinders may help save
60
fuel, but also block a significant part of the loading area and might
hence be better suited for special applications.
40
The hull of such a special ship has been constructed by Kiel 34.4

shipbuilder Lindenau at the behest of Aurich wind rotor manu-

20
facturer Enercon, who plans to fit it out in-house. The freighter is
intended to ship rotor blades worldwide. The plans specify the
installation of four 27 metres high Flettner cylinders with a diameter 0
of 4 metres each on both sides of the bow and stern to propel the
130 metres long ship and achieve fuel savings of 30 to 50 per cent
in the process.
du n
n
er va ffic n

tim gs
Ve sig e c cy

io
sig

ht zati
op atin
de tiv ien

ct
gi ll de

i
o

SkySails GmbH & Co. KG, 2008.

re

19)
u

e
d dh
op In ne

eig
n
e
ea miz

en

w
ell no

el
i
pt
se

ss
O
cr
In

Pr

Source: HypoVereinsbank

Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 13

 Study Green Shipping
5.4.1 Optimized Hull Design
Most ship hulls still continue to be designed for travelling calm seas
and loads corresponding to the designed displacement. But on many
routes the swell is often considerably stronger, so that a vessel
consumes up to a quarter more fuel. In addition the ships are only
rarely travelling in the optimal trim for their designed displacement.
Optimized hull shapes glide through the waves more efficiently.
The Hamburg shipbuilding test institute HSVA has studied to which
extent more efficient hull shapes could reduce fuel consumption.
Both the hull design and know-how of the designers impact the
quality of the hydrodynamic performance of newly built ships.
Various measures can be applied in the design phase in order to
improve the hull design and hence reduce fuel consumption. But
this is only possible if the ship’s basic construction provides
adequate potentials – for example by virtue of the fact that the
engine room and hold can be adapted to the requirements of a
hydrodynamic design.
Optimal hull shape designs are only achievable if the basic design
follows the hydrodynamic design, and not the other way round.
Excessively strict requirements placed in the basic construction can
raise the fuel costs by 10 to 15 per cent, depending on the type of
ship and its speed. The following table shows maximal improve-
ments achievable by changing the hull shape.
Hydrodynamic engineers and experts are currently continuing their
search for improvement potentials and possible hull design
optimization measures. The general consensus being that the hull
designs have already been optimized to a great extent, meaning
that the remaining improvements and attendant consumption
savings achievable by remodelling the hull are rather slight. But in
14 | Study Green Shipping January 2009
Maximal reductions in fuel consumption
achievable by hull shape modification (Tab. 3)
in %
Forebody hull shape
Minor modifications to the bulbous bow 2
Minor modifications to the bilge 2
Shape changes using automatic
optimization strategies
(increase possible depending
on extent of wave resistance) 2–5
Waist hull shape
Changes to the coefficient
of the waist section 1
Afterbody hull shape
Minor modifications to the bilge
and water line angle 2
Minor modifications in the propeller
boss area 1
Minor modifications in the rear
bulb area 1
Stern extension – with and without trim 2–4
Source: HSVA
this area even slight optimizations can result in marked improve-
ments, even if the approach requires time, stamina, experience and
not least of all an adequate budget, in order to be able to provide a
carefully thought out optimization and extensive testing.20)
20)
HSVA, 2008.
5.4.2 P
 ropeller and Rudder Design
Optimization
The rudder and propeller can be shaped into a propulsion unit
which acts like a hull extension. The thus streamlined vessel causes
less swirling and hence reduces the travelling resistance. Optimi-
zing the construction and shape of the rudder and propeller
therefore opens up new savings options.
Maximal reductions in fuel consumption
achievable by rudder and propeller design
optimizations (Tab. 4)
Rudder and in %
propeller design Large seaports around the world have taken up the fight against air
Propeller efficiency enhancement
(in most cases also increases cavitation
risks = formation and abrupt bursting
of vapour bubbles at the propeller) 3
Optimal longitudinal rudder and
propeller positioning at afterbody 2
High-buoyancy profile to reduce
rudder area 1
Source: HSVA
An optimization of the rudder plate can save 2 to 4 per cent fuel.
3 per cent can be saved by improving the propeller inflow (jets,
spoilers).21)
5.4.3 Paint Coatings
Special ship coatings applied underneath the water line, so called
anti-fouling paints, reduce a ship’s water resistance. The colour
prevents barnacles and mussels from settling and growing on the
hull, which would slow down the ship.
21)
HSVA, 2008.
Silicon-based anti-fouling paints are a very recent development.
These special coatings feature a very low surface roughness of up
to 65 micrometers, compared to conventional values ranging from
150 to 200 micrometers. The HSVA has in an exemplary fashion
analyzed the impact of surface roughness on the power consump-
tion and achievable speed of a 4,200 TEU container ship. The dif-
ference between a very fine hull surface (65 micrometers) and an
unfavourable hull surface (200 micrometers) makes up approxi-
mately 6 per cent of the total resistance or approximately 0.3 knots
in terms of speed, respectively.22)
5.5 Portside Power Outlets
pollution. Many of them have meanwhile come under increasing
political pressure to occasion a reduction of pollutant emissions.
According to the HypoVereinsbank survey, 86 per cent of the
shipowners interviewed hence expect port charges to be tied to
emissions classes in future.
The air pollution in the ports is largely caused by auxiliary engines
operating ventilation systems, on-board electronics, cranes and
lighting. One solution to the problem could reside in »alternative
marine power« (AMP) portside energy supplies or »cold ironing«.
The EU insists that ships should in future be supplied with energy
via portside power outlets and hence make do without any engine
power of their own altogether. But to do this, these power connec-
tions would have to be designed, standardized and tested inter-
nationally. The costs incurred per ship as a consequence could
amount up to 1 million euros.
The »2008 Maritime Trend Barometer« showed that half the
shipowners interviewed could imagine investing in connection
facilities for portside power outlets on a voluntary basis. A very
first landside power supply station for freighters has recently been
taken into operation in Lübeck. Hamburg port is currently also
contemplating landside power supply for cruise liners. Besides
electrical power, the outlets could alternatively also provide more
eco-friendly gas for powering auxiliary on-board machines.
22)
HSVA, 2008.
Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 15
 Study Green Shipping

6 Estimate of Future CO2 Emissions

Emission reduction potentials (Tab. 5)
Alternative fuels and energy carriers such as natural gas, hydrogen
and biofuels could significantly lower the CO2 emissions produced.
Possible emission
Propulsion technologies also harbour considerable potentials in reduction in %
terms of reducing CO2 emissions.
Drive system (diesel engine)
Fuel consumption can on the one hand be reduced by optimizing
Waste heat recovery 12
the diesel engines and conventional shaft systems – which are the
Pumps & auxiliary systems 1
currently preponderant drive technologies in shipping. And on the
Dual/Multi maximum continuous rating 3
other hand innovative propulsion concepts, such as hybrid or POD Automatic motor control 1
drives, for example, also offer reduction potentials. A particularly
great future is predicted for electromotors with fuel cells, as their Alternative propulsion systems
operation with pure hydrogen would be free of emissions altogether. SkySails 10–50
Commercially available auxiliary propulsion systems include the Flettner rotors 30–50
SkySails technology and Flettner rotors, both of which are capable
of providing additional fuel savings and corresponding emissions Technical ship innovations

reductions. Hull optimization 1–5

Propeller and rudder design optimization 1–5
But there are even more current attempts at establishing further Paint coatings 1–6
fuel-saving innovations in the market. These include the »air cavity
Source: HypoVereinsbank
system« (ACS), where pressurized air is pumped into channels
underneath the flat ship hull using compressors. The air cushion
reduces the contact area between hull and water and hence According to Dr. Uwe Hollenbach, HSVA Head of Resistance &
reduces the friction which slows down the ship’s progress. This Propulsion, the efficiency increase and/or fuel savings achievable
can result in fuel savings of up to 15 per cent. for ships featuring an average initial shape amount to ca. 5 per cent
in the case of hull design optimization and a further 5 to 7 per cent
Another innovation is the »dynamic trimming assistant« (DTA)
for measures improving the propulsion (propeller and rudder design
measuring the vessel’s dynamic trimming and processing all the
optimization, pre- and post-swirl stators, compensation jets, etc.).
relevant and available engineering and nautical readings in order
Starting with an already favourable initial design, however, hull
to then display the respectively optimal trimming by virtue of its
design optimization will only yield 1 to 2 per cent and propulsion
self-learning facility. Using a DTA can help optimize the ship’s
augmentation measures another 3 to 5 per cent.
resistance and achieve fuel saving of up to 5 per cent.
It is unfortunately impossible to state the extent of the emission
Once all the currently ordered ships have been delivered in
reduction potentials achieved by a changed hull design, rudder or
2012/2013, the global merchant fleet will, at today’s state of the
propeller design or anti-fouling coatings precisely, as the ships
art, emit over 1,600 million tons of CO2. New fuels and propulsion
currently included in the fleet vary in size and age. Dr. Hollenbach
technologies will not play any decisive part in the deliveries up to
is of the opinion that the country where the ships are built will be
2012/2013 owing to their early order date. But the nonetheless
decisive for the new vessels currently on order for delivery in
available options include modifications concerning the ship itself,
2012/2013. The expert estimates that the potential achievable by
diesel engine optimization and retrofitting a SkySails propulsion
hull design optimization in Korea is only 1 to 2 per cent at a
system. The emission reduction potentials are shown in the table
maximum, whereas in China approximately 5 per cent would be
below.
attainable. Also in Germany, hydrodynamic improvements could
only save 1 to 2 per cent, according to the expert.

16 | Study Green Shipping January 2009

7 Conclusion: the »Green Ship of the Future« shipping, be they new hull, propeller or rudder designs, novel paint
coatings, alternative fuels, innovative drive and propulsion systems,
The cited studies have shown that no revolutionary fuel savings will
or portside power supplies. What is obvious even now is the fact
be possible until all the ordered ships are delivered in 2012/2013.
that not only land and air traffic carriers need to reduce their
But there are still technical optimization potentials offered by hull
pollution, but shipping also has to do the same for its own CO2
design changes, rudder and propeller designs and anti-fouling
emissions. This was for example clearly illustrated by environmental
coats. The current emission reduction measures will hence not help

The »green ship« of the future (Ill. 7)

Slow steaming

Loading optimization DTA up to 5 %

SkySails 10–50 %
Flettner rotors 30–50 %
Portside power outlet

Hull design
optimization 1–5 %

ACS 15 % Drive technologies:

– Diesel engine
– Optimization of pumps and auxiliary Propeller and rudder design optimization 1–5 %
Antifouling coatings 1–6 %
systems 1 %
– Automatic motor control 1 %
DTA (dynamic trimming assistent) – MCR 3 % Fuels:
ACS (air cavity system) – WHR 12 % – Natural gas
MCR (multi maximun continious)rating – Diesel-electric POD drive – Hydrogen
WHR (waste heat recovery) – Hybrid drive – Biofuels (biodiesel/biogas)
– Electromotor with fuel cell up to 100 %
Source: HypoVereinsbank, © Eric Martinez – Fotolia.com

reduce CO2 emissions in merchant shipping, as the growth of the protection and fuel savings providing the focus topics of this year’s
fleet will, according to the order book in hand, exceed the emissions largest shipbuilding specialist fair of the world held in Hamburg
reduction potentials. (SMM). The »green ship of the future« has entered the debate and
will also continue to preoccupy the shipping industry in future.
But the increasing number of statutory emission regulations on
national and international levels, as well as rising fuel costs, have
intensified the search for environment-friendly alternatives in

Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 17

 Study Green Shipping
Abbreviations Index
ACS air cavity system
AMP alternative marine power
BLG bulk liquids and gases
FC fuel cell
CH4 methane
CO2 carbon dioxide
DMFC direct methanol conversion in
special fuel cells
DTA dynamic trimming assistant
DWT deadweight ton
FAME fatty acid methyl ester
HFO heavy fuel oil
GAUSS German Society for Applied
Environmental Protection & Safety
in Sea Traffic
GL Germanischer Lloyd
GT gross tonnes
H2 hydrogen
Literature Index
Det Norske Veritas, DNV Maritime: DNV Tanker Update, no. 2,
May 2008
German Bundestag, 16th parliamentary term, Bericht des
Ausschusses für Bildung, Forschung und Technikfolgen-
abschätzung (18. Ausschuss) gemäß § 56a der Geschäfts-
ordnung, Technikfolgenabschätzung (TA), TA-Vorstudie:
Perspektiven eines CO2- und emissionsarmen Verkehrs –
Kraftstoffe und Antriebe im Überblick, Berlin, 2007
GAUSS Gesellschaft für angewandten Umweltschutz und
Sicherheit im Seeverkehr: Einsatz regenerativer Kraftstoffe in
ausgewählten Bereichen der Schifffahrt, Dr. Birte Clason, Bremen,
2007
GL Germanischer Lloyd: Herausforderungen des Klima- und
Umweltschutzes wirtschaftlich nutzen, Dr. Hermann J. Klein,
Hamburg, 2008
Handbuch Schiffsbetriebstechnik: Betrieb – Überwachung –
Instandhaltung, Seehafen Verlag, Hansheinrich Meier-Peter (Hrsg.),
Frank Bernhardt (Hrsg.), Hamburg, 2006
HSVA Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH:
Efficient hull forms – What can be gained, Uwe Hollenbach,
Jürgen Friesch, Hamburg, 2008
18 | Study Green Shipping January 2009
HSVA Hamburg shipbuilding test institute
IMO International Maritime Organization
MARPOL Maritime Pollution – International
Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships
MCR maximum continuous rating
MEPC Marine Environment Protection
Committee
MSC Marine Safety Committee
NOX nitrogen oxides
O2 oxygen
PEM polymer electrolyte membrane
RME rape methyl ester
SECA Sulphur Emission Controlled Area
SME sunflower methyl ester
SNG substitute natural gas
SO2 sulphur dioxide
TEU twenty foot equivalent unit
WHR waste heat recovery
HypoVereinsbank: Maritime Trend Barometer 2008, Hamburg,
2008
International Maritime Organization (IMO): MEPC, 2008
International Transport Forum Leipzig: meeting documents,
OECD, Leipzig, 2008
IMO: MARPOL 73/78 Consolidated Edition, London 2002
IMO: »Report on the outcome of the Informal Cross Government/
Industry Scientific Group of Experts established to evaluate the
effects of the different fuel options proposed under the revision of
MARPOL Annex VI«, Note by the Secretariate, BLG 12/6/1, 2007
ISL: Shipping Statistics and Market Review, Bremen,
vol. 52 no 1/2–2008
MAN Diesel: Green Ship of the Future, Hamburg, 2008
SkySails GmbH & Co. KG: Turn wind into profit, Hamburg, 2008
TTLine: Green Bridge Concept, Lübeck-Travemünde, 2004
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC: fourth
progress report, May 2007
Study Green Shipping January 2009 | 19
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completeness and correctness and can therefore not assume
any responsibility for it. For assessments and estimates
contained in the publication, one must take into consideration
that they are the natural result of subjective assessments on
one hand, and that they may be based on incorrect basic
assumptions or draw incorrect objective conclusions on the
other hand. Therefore, no liability can be assumed for the
Publisher: HypoVereinsbank,
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Please address your enquiries to:
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