How To Structure An Essay

How to write a paragraph
Published on January 25, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on

January 26, 2021.
Every piece of academic writing is structured by paragraphs and headings.

The number, length and order of your paragraphs will depend on what you’re
writing – but each paragraph must be:
 Unified: all the sentences relate to one central point or idea.

 Coherent: the sentences are logically organized and clearly connected.
 Relevant: the paragraph supports the overall theme and purpose of the
paper.
To walk you through the process of writing strong paragraphs, we’ll use an
example from our interactive essay about the history of the Braille reading
system. With each step, we will gradually build up the structure of a
paragraph.
Step 1: Identify the paragraph’s purpose

First, you need to know the central idea that will organize this paragraph. If
you have already made a plan or outline of your paper’s overall structure, you
should already have a good idea of what each paragraph will aim to do.
You can start by drafting a sentence that sums up your main point and
introduces the paragraph’s focus. This is often called a topic sentence. It
should be specific enough to cover in a single paragraph, but general enough
that you can develop it over several more sentences.
Although the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind
students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted
before its adoption throughout France.
This topic sentence:
 Transitions from the previous paragraph (which discussed the invention

of Braille).
 Clearly identifies this paragraph’s focus (the acceptance of Braille by
sighted people).
 Relates to the paper’s overall thesis.
 Leaves space for evidence and analysis.
Step 2: Show why the paragraph is relevant

The topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is about – but why does
this point matter for your overall argument? If this isn’t already clear from
your first sentence, you can explain and expand on its meaning.
This support was necessary because sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate
control over the propagation of Braille resources.
 This sentence expands on the topic and shows how it fits into the
broader argument about the social acceptance of Braille.
Step 3: Give evidence

Now you can support your point with evidence and examples. “Evidence”
here doesn’t just mean empirical facts – the form it takes will depend on your
discipline, topic and approach. Common types of evidence used in academic
writing include:
 Quotations from literary texts, interviews, and other primary sources.

 Summaries, paraphrases, or quotations of secondary sources that
provide information or interpretation in support of your point.
 Qualitative or quantitative data that you have gathered or found in
existing research.
 Descriptive examples of artistic or musical works, events, or first-hand
experiences.
Make sure to properly cite your sources.

Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted Braille’s
system because they found the tactile method of reading difficult to learn
(Bullock & Galst, 2009).
 This sentence cites specific evidence from a secondary source,

demonstrating sighted people’s reluctance to accept Braille.
Step 4: Explain or interpret the evidence

Now you have to show the reader how this evidence adds to your point. How
you do so will depend on what type of evidence you have used.
 If you quoted a passage, give your interpretation of the quotation.

 If you cited a statistic, tell the reader what it implies for your argument.
 If you referred to information from a secondary source, show how it
develops the idea of the paragraph.
This resistance was symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind
population had to adapt to the sighted world rather than develop their own
tools and methods.
 This sentence adds detail and interpretation to the evidence, arguing that
this specific fact reveals something more general about social attitudes
at the time.
Steps 3 and 4 can be repeated several times until your point is fully developed.
Use transition words and phrases to show the connections between different
sentences in the paragraph.
Over time, however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution
possible for all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system
(Bullock & Galst, 2009). Access to reading could help improve the
productivity and integration of people with vision loss.
 The evidence tells us about the changing attitude to Braille among the
sighted.
 The interpretation argues for why this change occurred as part of
broader social shifts.
Step 5: Conclude the paragraph

Finally, wrap up the paragraph by returning to your main point and showing
the overall consequences of the evidence you have explored.
This particular paragraph takes the form of a historical story – giving evidence
and analysis of each step towards Braille’s widespread acceptance.
It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually

approved the Braille system, and it was established throughout the country
(Bullock & Galst, 2009).
 The final sentence ends the story with the consequences of these
events.
Step 6: Read through the whole paragraph

When you think you’ve fully developed your point, read through the final
result to make sure each sentence follows smoothly and logically from the last
and adds up to a coherent whole.
Although the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind
students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted
before its adoption throughout France. This support was necessary because
sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of
Braille resources. Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth
resisted learning Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of
reading difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009). This resistance was
symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to
the sighted world rather than develop their own tools and methods. Over time,
however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for
all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock &
Galst, 2009). Access to reading could help improve the productivity and
integration of people with vision loss. It took approximately 30 years, but the
French government eventually approved the Braille system, and it was
established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).
Not all paragraphs will look exactly like this. Depending on what your paper
aims to do, you might:
 Bring together examples that seem very different from each other, but
have one key point in common.
 Include just one key piece of evidence (such as a quotation or statistic)
and analyze it in depth over several sentences.
 Break down a concept or category into various parts to help the reader
understand it.
The introduction and conclusion paragraphs will also look different. The only

universal rule is that your paragraphs must be unified, coherent and relevant.
When to start a new paragraph

As soon as you address a new idea, argument or issue, you should start a new
paragraph. To determine if your paragraph is complete, ask yourself:
 Do all your sentences relate to the topic sentence?

 Does each sentence make logical sense in relation to the one before it?
 Have you included enough evidence or examples to demonstrate your
point?
 Is it clear what each piece of evidence means and why you have
included it?
 Does all the evidence fit together and tell a coherent story?
Don’t think of paragraphs as isolated units – they are part of a larger argument
that should flow organically from one point to the next. Before you start a new
paragraph, consider how you will transition between ideas.
Transition words and phrases in academic writing

Published on May 29, 2020 by Jack Caulfield. Revised on January
18, 2021.
Transition words and phrases, also called linking or connecting words, are
used to link together different ideas in your text. They help the reader to
follow your arguments by expressing the relationships between different
sentences or parts of a sentence.
Transition words example

The proposed solution to the problem did not work. Therefore, we attempted
a second solution. However, this solution was also unsuccessful.
For clear writing, it’s essential to understand the meaning of transition words
and use them correctly.
When and how to use transition words

Transition words commonly appear at the start of a new sentence or
clause (followed by a comma), serving to express how this clause relates to
the previous one.
There is a lack of reliable data to establish a clear correlation between these

variables. Nevertheless, it has been argued that a relationship does exist.
Transition words can also appear in the middle of a clause. It’s important to
place them correctly to convey the meaning you intend.
It has nevertheless been argued that a relationship does exist.
Example text with and without transition words

The text below describes all the events it needs to, but it does not use any
transition words to connect them. Because of this, it’s not clear exactly how
these different events are related or what point the author is making by telling
us about them.
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. France and the United

Kingdom declared war on Germany. The Soviet Union worked with Germany.
They partitioned Poland. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union.
If we add some transition words at appropriate moments, the text reads more
smoothly and the relationship among the events described becomes clearer.
Example text with transition words added

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Consequently, France
and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany. The Soviet
Union initially worked with Germany in order to partition
Poland. However, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.
Don’t overuse transition words

While transition words are essential to clear writing, it’s possible to use too
many of them. Consider the following example, in which the overuse of
linking words slows down the text and makes it feel repetitive.
The first experiment yielded a positive result. However, the second

experiment yielded a negative result. Nonetheless, the third experiment
yielded a positive result, whereas the fourth experiment yielded another
negative result.
In this case the best way to fix the problem is to simplify the text so that fewer
linking words are needed.
The first and third experiments yielded positive results, while the outcomes of

the second and fourth experiments were negative.
The key to using transition words effectively is striking the right balance. It is
difficult to follow the logic of a text with no transition words, but a text where
every sentence begins with a transition word can feel over-explained.
Types and examples of transition words

There are four main types of transition word: additive, adversative, causal,
and sequential.
Within each category, words are divided into several more specific functions.
Remember that transition words with similar meanings are not necessarily
interchangeable. It’s important to understand the meaning of all the transition
words you use. If unsure, consult a dictionary to find the precise definition.
Additive transition words

Additive transition words introduce new information or examples. They can
be used to expand upon, compare with, or clarify the preceding text.
Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases
Addition We found that the mixture was indeed, furthermore, moreov

effective. Moreover, it appeared to have additionally, and, also, both x and
additional effects we had not predicted. not only x but also y, besides x,
fact
Introduction Several researchers have previously explored such as, like, particularly, includi
this topic. For instance, Smith (2014) as an illustration, for example,
examined the effects of … instance, in particular, to illustra
especially, notably
Reference The solution showed a high degree of considering x, regarding x, in reg

absorption. Considering this result, it is to x, as for x, concerning x, the f
reasonable to conclude that … that x, on the subject of x
Similarity It was not possible to establish a correlation similarly, in the same way, by
between these variables. Similarly, the same token, in like manner, equa
connection between x and y remains unclear likewise
…
Clarification The patient suffered several side that is (to say), namely, specifica
effects, namely increased appetite, decreased more precisely, in other words
libido, and disordered sleep.
Adversative transition words

Adversative transition words always signal a contrast of some kind. They can
be used to introduce information that disagrees or contrasts with the preceding text.
Conflict The novel does deal with the theme of but, however, although, though, equally,
family. However, its central theme is way of contrast, while, on the other ha
more broadly political … (and) yet, whereas, in contrast, (when)
fact, conversely, whereas
Concession Jones (2011) argues that the novel even so, nonetheless, nevertheless, ev
reflects Russian politics of the though, on the other hand, admitted
time. Although this is correct, other despite x, notwithstanding x, (and) s
aspects of the text must also be although, in spite of x, regardless (of
considered. (and) yet, though, granted x
Dismissal It remains unclear which of these regardless, either way, whatever the case
hypotheses is correct. In any case, it any/either event, in any/either case, at a
can be inferred that … rate, all the same
Emphasis The chemical is generally thought to above all, indeed, more/most importantly
have corrosive properties. Indeed,
several studies have supported this
hypothesis.
Replacement The character of Godfrey is often (or) at least, (or) rather, instead,
viewed as selfish, or at least self-
absorbed.
(perhaps) even, if not
Causal transition words

Causal transition words are used to describe cause and effect. They can be used to express
purpose, consequence, and condition.
Consequence Because Hitler failed to respond to therefore, because (of x), as a result (of x),

the British ultimatum, France and this reason, in view of x, as, owing to x, due
the UK declared war on Germany. (the fact that), since, consequently,
consequence, as a consequence, hence, thus,
(that), accordingly, so much (so) that, un
the/such circumstances, if so
Condition We qualified survey responses as (even/only) if/when, on (the) condition that,

positive only if the participant the case that, granted (that), provided/provid
selected “agree” or “strongly that, in case, in the event that, as/so long
agree.” Otherwise, results were unless, given that, being that, inasmuch/inso
recorded as negative. as, in that case, in (all) other cases, if so/n
otherwise
Purpose We used accurate recording to, in order to/that, for the purpose of, in
equipment so that our results hope that, so that, to the end that, lest, with t
would be as precise as possible. in mind, so as to, so that, to ensure (that)
Sequential transition words

Sequential transition words indicate a sequence, whether it’s the order in which events occurred
chronologically or the order you’re presenting them in your text. They can be used for signposting
in academic texts.
Enumeration This has historically had several first, second, third…

consequences: First, the conflict is not
given the weight of other conflicts in
historical narratives. Second, its causes
are inadequately understood. Third, …
Initiation To begin with, I want to consider the in the first place, initially, first of all,
role played by women in this period. begin with, at first
Continuation Subsequently, I discuss the way in subsequently, previously, eventua

which the country’s various ethnic next, before x, afterwards, after x, then
minorities were affected by the conflict.
Conclusion Finally, I consider these two themes in to conclude (with), as a final po

combination. eventually, at last, last but not lea
finally, lastly
Resumption To return to my main argument, it is to return/returning to x, to resume, at a

clear that … rate
Summation Patel (2015) comes to a similar as previously stated/mentioned,

conclusion. In summary, the four summary, as I have argued, overall,
studies considered here suggest a has been mentioned, to summari
consensus that the solution is effective. briefly, given these points, in view o
as has been noted, in conclusion, in su
altogether, in short
Common mistakes with transition words

Transition words are often used incorrectly. Make sure you understand the
proper usage of transition words and phrases, and remember that words with
similar meanings don’t necessarily work the same way grammatically.
Misused transition words can make your writing unclear or illogical. Your
audience will be easily lost if you misrepresent the connections between your
sentences and ideas.
Confused use of therefore

“Therefore” and similar cause-and-effect words are used to state that
something is the result of, or follows logically from, the previous. Make sure
not to use these words in a way that implies illogical connections.
 We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to

10. Therefore, the average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.
The use of “therefore” in this example is illogical: it suggests that the result of
7.5 follows logically from the question being asked, when in fact many other
results were possible. To fix this, we simply remove the word “therefore.”
 We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to

10. The average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.
Starting a sentence with also, and, or so

While the words “also,” “and,” and “so” are used in academic writing, they
are considered too informal when used at the start of a sentence.
 Also, a second round of testing was carried out.
To fix this issue, we can either move the transition word to a different point in
the sentence or use a more formal alternative.
 A second round of testing was also carried out.

 Additionally, a second round of testing was carried out.
Transition words creating sentence fragments

Words like “although” and “because” are called subordinating conjunctions.
This means that they introduce clauses which cannot stand on their own. A
clause introduced by one of these words should always follow or be followed
by another clause in the same sentence.
The second sentence in this example is a fragment, because it consists only of

the “although” clause.
 Smith (2015) argues that the period should be

reassessed. Although other researchers disagree.
We can fix this in two different ways. One option is to combine the two
sentences into one using a comma. The other option is to use a different
transition word that does not create this problem, like “however.”
 Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed, although

other researchers disagree.
 Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed. However,
other researchers disagree.
And vs. as well as
Students often use the phrase “as well as” in place of “and,” but its usage is
slightly different. Using “and” suggests that the things you’re listing are of
equal importance, while “as well as” introduces additional information that is
less important.
 Chapter 1 discusses some background information on Woolf, as well

as presenting my analysis of To the Lighthouse.
In this example, the analysis is more important than the background

information. To fix this mistake, we can use “and,” or we can change the order
of the sentence so that the most important information comes first.
 Chapter 1 discusses some background information on

Woolf and presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse.
 Chapter 1 presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse, as well
as discussing some background information on Woolf.
Note that in fixed phrases like “both x and y,” you must use “and,” not “as
well as.”
 Both my results as well as my interpretations are presented below.

 Both my results and my interpretations are presented below.
Use of and/or
The combination of transition words “and/or” should generally be avoided in
academic writing. It makes your text look messy and is usually unnecessary to
your meaning.
First consider whether you really do mean “and/or” and not just “and” or “or.”
If you are certain that you need both, it’s best to separate them to make your
meaning as clear as possible.
 Participants were asked whether they used the bus and/or the train.

 Participants were asked whether they used the bus, the train, or both.
Archaic transition words

Words like “hereby,” “therewith,” and most others formed by the combination
of “here,” “there,” or “where” with a preposition are typically avoided in
modern academic writing. Using them makes your writing feel old-fashioned
and strained and can sometimes obscure your meaning.
 Poverty is best understood as a disease. Hereby, we not only see that it
is hereditary, but acknowledge its devastating effects on a person’s
health.
These words should usually be replaced with a more explicit phrasing

expressing how the current statement relates to the preceding one.
 Poverty is best understood as a disease. Understanding it as such, we

not only see that it is hereditary, but also acknowledge its devastating
effects on a person’s health.
How to write topic sentences

October 15, 2020.
Every paragraph in your paper needs a topic sentence. The topic sentence

expresses what the paragraph is about. It should include two key things:
 The topic of the paragraph

 The central point of the paragraph.
After the topic sentence, you expand on the point with evidence and examples.
To build a well-structured argument, you can also use your topic sentences to
transition smoothly between paragraphs and show the connections between
your points.
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Writing strong topic sentences

Topic sentences aren’t the first or the last thing you write—you’ll develop
them throughout the writing process. To make sure every topic sentence and
paragraph serves your argument, follow these steps.
Step 1: Write a thesis statement

The first step to developing your topic sentences is to make sure you have a
strong thesis statement. The thesis statement sums up the purpose and
argument of the whole paper.
Thesis statement example
Food is an increasingly urgent environmental issue, and to reduce humans’

impact on the planet, it is necessary to change global patterns of food
production and consumption.
Step 2: Make an essay outline and draft topic sentences

Next, you should make an outline of your essay’s structure, planning what you
want to say in each paragraph and what evidence you’ll use.
At this stage, you can draft a topic sentence that sums up the main point you
want to make in each paragraph. The topic sentences should be more specific
than the thesis statement, but always clearly related to it.
Topic sentence example
Research has consistently shown that the meat industry has a significant

environmental impact.
Step 3: Expand with evidence

The rest of the paragraph should flow logically from the topic sentence,
expanding on the point with evidence, examples, or argumentation. This helps
keep your paragraphs focused: everything you write should relate to the
central idea expressed in the topic sentence.
In our example, you might mention specific research studies and statistics that
support your point about the overall impact of the meat industry.
Step 4: Refine your topic sentences

Topic sentences usually start out as simple statements. But it’s important to
revise them as you write, making sure they match the content of each
paragraph.
A good topic sentence is specific enough to give a clear sense of what to

expect from the paragraph, but general enough that it doesn’t give everything
away. You can think of it like a signpost: it should tell the reader which
direction your argument is going in.
To make your writing stronger and ensure the connections between your
paragraphs are clear and logical, you can also use topic sentences to create
smooth transitions.
Topic sentences as transitions between paragraphs

As you write each topic sentence, ask yourself: how does this point relate to
what you wrote in the preceding paragraph? It’s often helpful to use transition
words in your topic sentences to show the connections between your ideas.
Emphasize and expand

If the paragraph goes into more detail or gives another example to make the
same point, the topic sentence can use words that imply emphasis or similarity
(for example, furthermore, indeed, in fact, also).
Indeed, cattle farming alone is responsible for a large proportion of

greenhouse gas emissions.
Summarize and anticipate

If the paragraph turns to a different aspect of the same subject, the topic
sentence can briefly sum up the previous paragraph and anticipate the new
information that will appear in this one.
While beef clearly has the most dramatic footprint, other animal

products also have serious impacts in terms of emissions, water and land use.
Compare and contrast

If the paragraph makes a comparison or introduces contrasting information,
the topic sentence can use words that highlight difference or conflict (for
example, in contrast, however, yet, on the other hand).
However, the environmental costs of dietary choices are not always clear-cut;
in some cases, small-scale livestock farming is more sustainable than plant-
based food production.
You can also imply contrast or complicate your argument by formulating the
topic sentence as a question.
Is veganism the only solution, or are there more sustainable ways of producing
meat and dairy?
Receive feedback on language, structure and layout

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See an example
Topic sentences that introduce more than one paragraph
Sometimes you can use a topic sentence to introduce several paragraphs at
once.
All of the examples above address the environmental impact of meat-eating

versus veganism. Together, they make up one coherent part of a larger
argument, so the first paragraph could use a topic sentence to introduce the
whole section.
Topic sentence introducing several paragraphs
In countries with high levels of meat consumption, a move towards plant-
based diets is the most obvious route to making food more
sustainable. Research has consistently shown that the meat industry has
significant environmental impacts.
Where does the topic sentence go?

The topic sentence usually goes at the very start of a paragraph, but sometimes
it can come later to indicate a change of direction in the paragraph’s argument.
Given this evidence of the meat industry’s impact on the planet, veganism
seems like the only environmentally responsible option for
consumers. However, the environmental costs of dietary choices are not
always clear-cut; in some cases, small-scale livestock farming is more
sustainable than plant-based food production.
In this example, the first sentence summarizes the main point that has been
made so far. Then the topic sentence indicates that this paragraph will address
evidence that complicates or contradicts that point.
In more advanced or creative forms of academic writing, you can play with
the placement of topic sentences to build suspense and give your arguments
more force. But if in doubt, to keep your paper clear and focused, the easiest
method is to place the topic sentence at the start of the paragraph.
How to write a thesis statement

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on October
15, 2020.
A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of

your paper or essay. It usually comes near the end of your introduction.
Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of

essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly
state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your
essay should relate back to this idea.
Table of contents
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5.
Coming up with a thesis

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working
thesis, early in the writing process. As soon as you’ve decided on
your essay topic, you need to work out what you want to say about it—
a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.
Step 1: Start with a question

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to
come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about
your topic?
Here’s an example of an argumentative essay question that asks you

to take a side in a debate:
Has the the internet had a positive or negative impact on education?

If you have to write an expository essay about an important invention,
you might ask:
How did the invention of the printing press change European society?
In a literary analysis essay about the novel Frankenstein, your question
could be:
How does Mary Shelley portray the character of Victor Frankenstein?
Step 2: Write your initial answer

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this
question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the process
of researching and writing.
If you’re writing an argumentative essay, the answer should pick a side

and take a position on the issue.
The internet has had more of a positive than a negative effect on
education.The invention of the printing press meant more people had access to
information.Shelley portrays Victor Frankenstein in a negative light.
Step 3: Develop your answer

Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will
convince your reader to agree with you.
As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer
should get more detailed. The final thesis statement doesn’t just state
your position, but summarizes your overall argument.
In our essay about the internet and education, the thesis states our
position and sketches out the key arguments we’ll use to support it.
Argumentative thesis statement

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for
education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to
different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students
and teachers.
In our essay about the printing press, the thesis summarizes the key
historical development that we’ll explain.
Key point
Summarize the most important thing you want the reader to know
about the topic.
Expository thesis statement
The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less
restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the
Reformation.
In our essay about Frankenstein, the thesis maps out our analysis of
the novel’s techniques and effects.
Literary analysis thesis statement

Mary Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Victor
Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on; he starts
out as a naive but sympathetic idealist, but by the end we see him as a
thoughtlessly cruel figure.
Improving your thesis statement

Take a look at these examples of thesis statements and learn how to
improve them.
Example 1: Argumentative thesis

In an argumentative essay, your thesis should take a strong position.
Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based
on evidence and logical reasoning.
Take a look at these two versions of a thesis statement in an essay

about U.S. environmental policy.
Weak thesis statementThe U.S. Government should invest in a Green New

Deal.
The example above takes a position, but it doesn’t tell the reader
anything about why you hold this position.
Improved thesis statementThe U.S. Government should invest in a Green New

Deal that prioritizes green jobs; as the world’s most powerful economy, it can
take the lead in combating climate change at the same time as improving its
citizens’ wellbeing.
In this improved thesis statement, you also state your reasoning and
summarize the main points that you will use to convince your reader of
your position. The rest of your essay will expand and argue for these
points.
Example 2: Expository thesis

In an expository essay, you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or
process. Your thesis doesn’t have to give a strong opinion, but it
should clearly state the central point you want to make about your
topic, and mention the key aspects that you’ll explain.
Let’s take two versions of a thesis statement from an essay about the
invention of Braille (the raised-dot reading system used by blind and
visually impaired people).
Weak thesis statementBraille was an important nineteenth-century invention.

The example above makes a factual statement, but it doesn’t tell the
reader anything about what they’ll learn from your essay.
Improved thesis statementThe invention of Braille transformed the lives of
blind people in the nineteenth century, but its success depended on
mainstream acceptance by sighted teachers, and this process was shaped by
debates about disabled people’s place in society.
The second example is much more specific: it shows that you won’t
just describe facts about Braille, but also explain the social context and
consequences of its invention.
Example 3: Analytical thesis

In an essay that involves analyzing a text, your thesis needs to mention
the specific aspect that you’ll focus on and state what insight it gives us
into the text’s meaning or purpose.
Here are two versions of a thesis about the novel Jekyll & Hyde by
Robert Louis Stevenson.
Weak thesis statementMr. Hyde represents Dr. Jekyll’s dark side.

This example tells us which aspect the essay will focus on, but it’s an
obvious statement that only describes the novel’s surface-level
meaning.
Improved thesis statementThe figure of Mr. Hyde represents the potential for
evil that lurks beneath the surface of outwardly civilized men; through this
dark double, Stevenson sought to highlight the moral hypocrisy of his society.
The second example tells us not only what the character represents in
the novel, but also makes a claim about the author’s broader meaning
and purpose in creating such a character.
How to write an essay introduction

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on
January 20, 2021.
A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay. It

sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.
The main goals of an introduction are to:
 Catch your reader’s attention.

 Give background on your topic.
 Present your thesis—the central point of your essay.
This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the

history of Braille.
Essay introduction example

The invention of Braille marked a major turning point in the history of
disability. The writing system of raised dots used by blind and visually
impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France.
In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was
particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a
significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not
entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to
learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs,
Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided
practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This
essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century
Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its
acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging
effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.
Table of contents
1. Hook your reader

2. Give background information
3. Present your thesis statement
4. Map your essay’s structure
5. Check and revise
6. More examples of essay introductions
7. Frequently asked questions about the essay introduction
Step 1: Hook your reader

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on
writing an effective hook.
Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy
that will spark your reader’s curiosity.
The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic
you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or
plain statements of fact.
Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.
 Braille was an extremely important invention.

 The invention of Braille marked a major turning point in the history of
disability.
The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting,
making a bold claim about exactly why the topic is important.
 The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a

variety of information and communication facilities.”
 The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on
the world of education.
Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious

term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it
gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.
 Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth

century.
 Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale
about the dangers of scientific advancement.
Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook
here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that
this essay will offer a different interpretation.
Step 2: Give background information

Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and
argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:
 Historical, geographical, or social context

 An outline of the debate you’re addressing
 A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
 Definitions of key terms
The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your
argument.
Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to
later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.
How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the
scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to
introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:
Example: Background informationThe writing system of raised dots used by

blind and visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in
nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in
general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading
and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile
reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems
were difficult to learn and use.
Step 3: Present your thesis statement
Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say
about the topic. This is your thesis statement—a sentence or two that sums up
your overall argument.
This is the most important part of your introduction. A good thesis isn’t just a
statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.
The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central
point about a topic.
Example: Thesis statementAs the first writing system designed for blind
people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not
only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of
blindness.
Step 4: Map your essay’s structure

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by
signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your
reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.
Example: SignpostingThis essay begins by discussing the situation of blind

people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille
and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education.
Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind
people’s social and cultural lives.
Step 5: Check and revise

As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as
you learn more.
For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing
process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very
last thing you write.
When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion, you should

return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.
It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately

represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different
direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you
actually say.
You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does
everything it’s supposed to.
Checklist: Essay introduction

0 / 5
 My first sentence is engaging and relevant.
 I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.
 I have defined any important terms.
 My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.
 Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.
More examples of essay introductions
 Argumentative

 Expository

 Literary analysis
This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the

internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue
for.
Argumentative essay introduction

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the
world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise,
and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow
up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially
harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of
internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators
—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of
exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible
learning environment.
Frequently asked questions about the essay introduction

What goes in an essay introduction?
What is a hook?
What is a thesis statement?
Why do I need a thesis statement?
What is the structure of an essay?
How to write a conclusion paragraph
December 29, 2020.
The conclusion is the final paragraph of your essay. A strong conclusion

doesn’t just summarize what you’ve already written. It aims to:
 Tie together the essay’s main points.

 Show that you did what you set out to do.
 Give the reader a clear sense of why your argument matters.
Table of contents
1. Example of a good conclusion

2. How to conclude an essay
3. What shouldn’t go in the conclusion?
Example of a good conclusion

This conclusion is taken from our interactive essay example, which discusses
the history of the Braille system. Read the conclusion first, and then hover
over each part to see why it’s effective.
Essay conclusion example

Braille radically enhanced blind people’s autonomy and changed cultural
understandings of blindness. But the emergence of Braille did not depend
solely on the technical evolution of tactile reading; it also required the societal
acceptance of blind people as valuable enough to merit a separate reading
system. New tools of accessibility are always shaped by their social contexts,
but they also shape social conditions in turn. The Braille system’s success was
both a consequence and a cause of changing attitudes to disability, and its
story shows that accessibility and acceptance are always intertwined.
How to conclude an essay

There’s no universal formula for a great conclusion, but there are some key
aims that you can keep in mind to make an impact.
Synthesize the essay’s main points

The conclusion must have a clear connection to the content of your essay, but
avoid simply summarizing each paragraph or repeating the main points in
order.
Instead, try to bring your points together in a way that makes connections and
draws out their implications. The conclusion is your final chance to show how
all the paragraphs of your essay add up to a coherent whole.
Emphasize the significance of the thesis statement

The conclusion shouldn’t just restate your thesis, but it should remind the
reader why it matters. For example:
 Does your argument have important implications for policy?

 Does it tell us something new about a literary genre or period?
 Does it challenge a dominant idea in your field?
 Does it have consequences for understanding current events or
predicting future developments?
Whatever your essay is about, the conclusion should aim to emphasize the
significance of your argument, either within your academic discipline or in the
wider world.
Close the essay’s argument and open broader questions

Your conclusion should give a sense of closure and completion to your
argument, but also show what new questions, implications or possibilities it
has opened up.
One way to achieve this is by setting your argument in a broader context.

The introduction of an essay tends to move from the general to the specific,
while the conclusion can move from the specific back to the general. For
example:
 If you have discussed a particular instance of social change (such as the

development of Braille), you might also suggest something more
general about social processes (such as the relation between disability,
accessibility and acceptance).
 If you have made a historical investigation, you could make a
connection with contemporary events.
 If you have focused on one particular location, you could indicate how
it might relate to global patterns.
In each case, the conclusion is an opportunity to draw out ideas that go beyond
the scope of your thesis statement. Try to leave the reader with a lingering
sense of interest in your topic.
What can proofreading do for your paper?

Scribbr editors not only correct grammar and spelling mistakes, but also
strengthen your writing by making sure your paper is free of vague language,
redundant words and awkward phrasing.
See editing example
What shouldn’t go in the conclusion?

The easiest way to improve your conclusion is to eliminate these common
mistakes.
Don’t include new arguments

Any evidence or argument that is essential to supporting your thesis statement
should appear in the main body of the essay.
The conclusion might include minor pieces of new information—for example,

a sentence or two discussing broader implications, or a quotation that nicely
summarizes your central point. But it shouldn’t introduce any major new
sources or ideas that need further elaboration to understand.
Don’t use “conclusion phrases”

Avoid using obvious stock phrases to tell the reader what you’re doing:
 “In conclusion…”
 “To sum up…”
Like every other paragraph, your conclusion should start with a transition
sentence that follows on smoothly from the preceding point. If you follow the
advice above, it will quickly become clear that you are concluding the essay—
you shouldn’t have to spell it out.
Don’t undermine your argument

It can be tempting to preempt possible critiques in your conclusion. Avoid
using apologetic phrases that sound uncertain or confused:
 “This is just one approach among many.”

 “There are good arguments on both sides of this issue.”
 “There is no clear answer to this problem.”
Even if your essay has explored competing arguments, your own position
should be clear. There may be many possible approaches to the topic, but you
want to leave the reader convinced that yours is the best one!
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Shona McCombes
Shona has a bachelor's and two master's degrees, so she's an expert
at writing a great thesis. She has also worked as an editor and teacher,
working with students at all different levels to improve their academic
writing.
An annotated essay example

Published on February 9, 2015 by Shane Bryson. Revised on
December 29, 2020 by Shona McCombes.
This example guides you through the structure of an essay. It shows how to
build an effective introduction, focused paragraphs, clear transitions between
ideas, and a strong conclusion.
Each paragraph addresses a single central point, introduced by a topic

sentence, and each point is directly related to the thesis statement.
As you read, hover over the highlighted parts to learn what they do and why
they work. This is a relatively short essay, but its principles can be applied to
any length of essay.
Example of a well-structured essay
An Appeal to the Senses: The Development of the Braille System

in Nineteenth-Century France
The invention of Braille marked a major turning point in the history of
disability. The writing system of raised dots used by blind and visually
impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France.
In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was
particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a
significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not
entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to
learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs,
Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided
practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This
essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century
Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its
acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging
effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.
Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious
disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary
methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with
others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system
that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from cultural and
professional participation. Indeed, vision loss was widely regarded as the
worst disability (Weygand, 2009). It was commonly believed that blind people
were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through
culture, rendering them essentially useless to society (Weygand,
2009). Occasionally, a prosperous family or benefactor would support a
person with vision loss (Mellor, 2006), but even then that person would
struggle to fully integrate into society.
In France, debates about how to deal with disability led to the adoption of
different strategies over time. While people with temporary difficulties were
able to access public welfare, the most common response to people with long-
term disabilities, such as hearing or vision loss, was to group them together in
institutions (Tombs, 1996). At first, a joint institute for the blind and deaf was
created, and although the partnership was motivated more by financial
considerations than by the well-being of the residents, the institute aimed to
help people develop skills valuable to society (Weygand, 2009). Eventually
blind institutions were separated from deaf institutions, and the focus shifted
towards education of the blind, as was the case for the Royal Institute for
Blind Youth, which Louis Braille attended (Jimenez et al, 2009). The growing
acknowledgement of the uniqueness of different disabilities led to more
targeted education strategies, fostering an environment in which the benefits
of a specifically blind education could be more widely recognized.
Several different systems of tactile reading can be seen as forerunners to the

method Louis Braille developed, but these systems were all developed based
on the sighted system. The Royal Institute for Blind Youth in Paris taught the
students to read embossed roman letters, a method created by the school’s
founder, Valentin Hauy (Jimenez et al., 2009). Reading this way proved to be
a rather arduous task, as the letters were difficult to distinguish by touch. The
embossed letter method was based on the reading system of sighted people,
with minimal adaptation for those with vision loss. As a result, this method
did not gain significant success among blind students.
Louis Braille was bound to be influenced by his school’s founder, but the most
influential pre-Braille tactile reading system was Charles Barbier’s night
writing. A soldier in Napoleon’s army, Barbier developed a system in 1819
that used 12 dots with a five line musical staff (Kersten, 1997). His intention
was to develop a system that would allow the military to communicate at night
without the need for light (Herron, 2009). The code developed by Barbier was
phonetic (Jimenez et al., 2009); in other words, the code was designed for
sighted people and was based on the sounds of words, not on an actual
alphabet. Barbier discovered that variants of raised dots within a square were
the easiest method of reading by touch (Jimenez et al., 2009). This system
proved effective for the transmission of short messages between military
personnel, but the symbols were too large for the fingertip, greatly reducing
the speed at which a message could be read (Herron, 2009). For this reason, it
was unsuitable for daily use and was not widely adopted in the blind
community.
Nevertheless, Barbier’s military dot system was more efficient than Hauy’s
embossed letters, and it provided the framework within which Louis Braille
developed his method. Barbier’s system, with its dashes and dots, could form
over 4000 combinations (Jimenez et al., 2009). Compared to the 26 letters of
the Latin alphabet, this was an absurdly high number. Braille kept the raised
dot form, but developed a more manageable system that would reflect the
sighted alphabet. He replaced Barbier’s dashes and dots with just six dots in a
rectangular configuration (Jimenez et al., 2009). The result was that the blind
population in France had a tactile reading system using dots (like Barbier’s)
that was based on the structure of the sighted alphabet (like Hauy’s); crucially,
this system was the first developed specifically for the purposes of the blind.
While the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind students
at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted before its
adoption throughout France. This support was necessary because sighted
teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of Braille
resources. Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted
learning Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of reading
difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009). This resistance was symptomatic of
the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to the sighted
world rather than develop their own tools and methods. Over time, however,
with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for all,
teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock &
Galst, 2009), realizing that access to reading could help improve the
productivity and integration of people with vision loss. It took approximately
30 years, but the French government eventually approved the Braille system,
and it was established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).
Although Blind people remained marginalized throughout the nineteenth

century, the Braille system granted them growing opportunities for social
participation. Most obviously, Braille allowed people with vision loss to read
the same alphabet used by sighted people (Bullock & Galst, 2009), allowing
them to participate in certain cultural experiences previously unavailable to
them. Written works, such as books and poetry, had previously been
inaccessible to the blind population without the aid of a reader, limiting their
autonomy. As books began to be distributed in Braille, this barrier was
reduced, enabling people with vision loss to access information autonomously.
The closing of the gap between the abilities of blind and the sighted
contributed to a gradual shift in blind people’s status, lessening the cultural
perception of the blind as essentially different and facilitating greater social
integration.
The Braille system also had important cultural effects beyond the sphere of
written culture. Its invention later led to the development of a music notation
system for the blind, although Louis Braille did not develop this system
himself (Jimenez, et al., 2009). This development helped remove a cultural
obstacle that had been introduced by the popularization of written musical
notation in the early 1500s. While music had previously been an arena in
which the blind could participate on equal footing, the transition from
memory-based performance to notation-based performance meant that blind
musicians were no longer able to compete with sighted musicians (Kersten,
1997). As a result, a tactile musical notation system became necessary for
professional equality between blind and sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997).
Braille radically enhanced blind people’s autonomy and changed cultural

understandings of blindness. But the emergence of Braille did not depend
solely on the technical evolution of tactile reading; it also required the societal
acceptance of blind people as valuable enough to merit a separate reading
system. New tools of accessibility are always shaped by their social contexts,
but they also shape social conditions in turn. The Braille system’s success was
both a consequence and a cause of changing attitudes to disability, and its
story shows that accessibility and acceptance are always intertwined.
References
Bullock, J. D., & Galst, J. M. (2009). The Story of Louis Braille. Archives of
Ophthalmology, 127(11), 1532. https://doi.org/10.1001/
archophthalmol.2009.286.
Herron, M. (2009, May 6). Blind visionary. Retrieved from https://

eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2009/05/blind-visionary/.
Jiménez, J., Olea, J., Torres, J., Alonso, I., Harder, D., & Fischer, K. (2009).
Biography of Louis Braille and Invention of the Braille Alphabet. Survey of
Ophthalmology, 54(1), 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.survophthal.2008.10.006.
Kersten, F.G. (1997). The history and development of Braille music

methodology. The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education, 18(2).
Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40214926.
Mellor, C.M. (2006). Louis Braille: A touch of genius. Boston: National

Braille Press.
Tombs, R. (1996). France: 1814-1914. London: Pearson Education Ltd.
Weygand, Z. (2009). The blind in French society from the Middle Ages to the
century of Louis Braille. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Transition sentences in essays

Published on June 9, 2020 by Jack Caulfield. Revised on October
15, 2020.
Clear transitions are crucial to clear writing: They show the reader how
different parts of your essay, paper, or thesis are connected. Transition
sentences can be used to structure your text and link together paragraphs or
sections.
Example of a transition sentence for a new paragraph

… In this case, the researchers concluded that the method was unreliable.
However, evidence from a more recent study points to a different

conclusion. …
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
Transitioning between paragraphs

When you start a new paragraph, the first sentence should clearly express:
 What this paragraph will discuss

 How it relates to the previous paragraph
The examples below show some examples of transition sentences between paragraphs and what
they express.
Transition sentence This paragraph…
Further evidence in support of this hypothesis is …complements the previous o

provided by Smith (2019). providing more support for the same ide
However, Patel’s arguments are not the final …contradicts the previous one

word on the matter. presenting new evidence related to
previous discussion.
Having established the relationship between these …treats the preceding point as a base
factors, we are in a position to draw conclusions which to build up more general argumen
about the broader process.
Placement of transition sentences

The beginning of a new paragraph is generally the right place for a transition
sentence. Each paragraph should focus on one topic, so avoid spending time at
the end of a paragraph explaining the theme of the next one.
Incorrect: Transition at the end of a paragraph… The consensus view is clear

from these quotations. The following paragraph discusses some scholars who
dissent from this consensus.
The first dissenter to consider is …
Correct: Transition at the start of a paragraph… The consensus view is clear
from these quotations.
However, several scholars dissent from this consensus. The first one to
consider is …
Transitioning to a new section

While transitions between paragraphs are generally a single sentence, when
you start a new section in a longer text, you may need an entire transition
paragraph. Transitioning to a new section involves summarizing the content of
the previous section and expressing how the new one will build upon or depart
from it.
For example, the following sentences might be an effective transition for a

new section in a literary analysis essay.
Example of a transition paragraph

Having established that the subjective experience of time is one of Mann’s key
concerns in The Magic Mountain, it is now possible to explore how this theme
facilitates the novel’s connection with World War I. The war itself is not
narrated in the book, but rather hinted at as something awaiting Castorp
beyond the final pages. In this way, Mann links his protagonist’s subjective
experience of time to more than just his illness; it is also used to explore the
period leading up to the outbreak of war.
As in academic writing generally, aim to be as concise as you can while
maintaining clarity: If you can transition to a new section clearly with a single
sentence, do so, but use more when necessary.
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Transitions within a paragraph
It’s also important to use effective transitions within each paragraph you write,
leading the reader through your arguments efficiently and avoiding ambiguity.
The known-new contract

The order of information within each of your sentences is important to the
cohesion of your text. The known-new contract, a useful writing concept,
states that a new sentence should generally begin with some reference to
information from the previous sentence, and then go on to connect it to new
information.
In the following example, the second sentence doesn’t follow very clearly
from the first. The connection only becomes clear when we reach the end.
The industrial revolution had various effects on the population. Urbanization,

involving the concentration of formerly rural populations in the new industrial
towns, was one major effect of industrialization.
By reordering the information in the second sentence so that it begins with a
reference to the first, we can help the reader follow our argument more
smoothly.
The industrial revolution had various effects on the population. One major

effect was urbanization, which involved the concentration of formerly rural
populations in the new industrial towns.
Note that the known-new contract is just a general guideline. Not every
sentence needs to be structured this way, but it’s a useful technique if you’re
struggling to make your sentences cohere.
Transition words and phrases

Using appropriate transition words helps show your reader connections within
and between sentences. Transition words and phrases come in four main
types:
 Additive transitions, which introduce new information or examples

 Adversative transitions, which signal a contrast or departure from the
previous text
 Causal transitions, which are used to describe cause and effect
 Sequential transitions, which indicate a sequence
The table below gives a few examples for each type:
Type Example sentence Transition words and phrase
Additive We found that the mixture was furthermore, moreover,

effective. Moreover, it appeared to have example, in regard to x, similar
additional effects we had not predicted. in other words
Adversative The novel does deal with the theme of however, although, neverthele
family. However, its central theme is more regardless, above all, (or) at lea
broadly political …
Causal Because Hitler failed to respond to the British because, therefore, consequen

ultimatum, France and the UK declared war on if, provided that, so that, to
Germany.
Sequential This has historically had several first, second, third, initia
consequences: First, the conflict is not given the subsequently, finally, lastly,
weight of other conflicts in historical return/returning to x,
narratives. Second, its causes are inadequately previously mentioned,
understood. Third, … conclusion
Grouping similar information
While transition words and phrases are essential, and every essay will contain
at least some of them, it’s also important to avoid overusing them. One way to
do this is by grouping similar information together so that fewer transitions are
needed.
For example, the following text uses three transition words and jumps back
and forth between ideas. This makes it repetitive and difficult to follow.
Example of overused transition wordsSmith (2019) argues for the former

hypothesis. However, Jones (2017) argues for the latter, while Davies (2015)
agrees with Smith. Moreover, Baldwin (2018) also argues for the former
hypothesis.
Rewriting it to group similar information allows us to use just one transition,
making the text more concise and readable.
Grouping similar informationSmith (2019), Davies (2015), and Baldwin

(2018) all argue for the former hypothesis, whereas Jones (2017) argues for
the latter.
Jack Caulfield
Jack is a Brit based in Amsterdam, with an MA in comparative
literature. He writes and edits for Scribbr, and reads a lot of books in
his spare time.
Using conjunctions
Published on May 23, 2019 by Amy Luo. Revised on June 7, 2019.
A conjunction is a word that is used to connect words, phrases, and clauses.
There are many conjunctions in the English language, but some common ones
include and, or, but, because, for, if, and when.
There are three basic types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating,

and correlative.
Because the popstar caught a terrible cold, her upcoming performances in

Boston and Chicago were indefinitely postponed. The tour organizers
provided neither rescheduled dates nor refunds for the tickets, causing much
discontent among the fans.
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Coordinating conjunctions
This type of conjunction is used to connect items that are grammatically equal:
two words, two phrases, or two independent clauses. There are seven
coordinating conjunctions in English, and you can remember them using the
mnemonic device FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
A conjunction of this type is placed between the items that it links together.
Words
Coordinating conjunctions can join two nouns, verbs, adjectives, or other
types of word.
 The data was gathered through questionnaires and interviews.

 I don’t like to run or swim.
 He was clever but lazy.
Phrases
They can also join different types of phrases.
 The dog wagged his tail and panted excitedly.

 The results were undeniably intriguing yet ultimately inconclusive.
 She usually studies in the library or at a cafe.
Independent clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains at least a subject and a verb. An
independent clause can stand on its own as a full sentence, expressing a
complete thought.
 Today Jane Austen is one of the most widely read English

novelists, but she achieved little fame during her lifetime.
In the sentence above, the coordinating conjunction but creates a relationship

between two independent clauses. Notice that the two clauses also work as
sentences on their own.
 Today Jane Austen is one of the most widely read English novelists.
She achieved little fame during her lifetime.
Punctuating coordinating conjunctions

When joining two words or phrases with a coordinating conjunction, do not
use a comma.
 Comma error  Correction

Data was gathered through Data was gathe
questionnaires, and interviews. through questionnaires and interviews.
She usually studies in the library, or at a She usually studies in the library or at a cafe.
cafe.
In these examples, the conjunction joins two words or phrases that are
connected to a single verb (gathered and studies), so no comma should
separate them.
When joining two independent clauses, however, use a comma before the conjunction.

Data was gathered through questionnaires Data was gathered throu
and selected respondents participated in questionnaires, and selected responde
interviews. participated in interviews.
She usually studies in the library but when it She usually studies in the library, but when it is
is too busy she goes to a cafe. busy she goes to a cafe.
In these examples, the clauses before and after the conjunction could both
stand as full sentences on their own, so a comma is required.
Subordinating conjunctions
This type of conjunction includes words like because, if, although, since, until,
and while. A subordinating conjunction is used to introduce a dependent
clause.
In contrast to an independent clause, a dependent clause (also known as a

subordinate clause) is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb but
cannot stand as a complete sentence on its own. A dependent clause does not
express a complete idea, so it must always be attached to an independent
clause.
 Because I woke up late this morning. I went to school without eating

breakfast.
 Because I woke up late this morning, I went to school without eating
breakfast.
 I went to school without eating breakfast because I woke up late this
morning.
I woke up late this morning is an independent clause, but the subordinating

conjunction because turns it into a dependent clause: Because I woke up late
this morning does not finish a complete thought. It must be joined to an
independent clause to form a grammatically correct sentence.
The subordinating conjunction defines the relationship between the clauses. The table below
shows some common subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they express, but note that
this is not a complete list.
Relationship Common subordinating conjunctions
Cause and effect because, since, as
Time when, before, after, once, until, whenever, since, while
Place where, wherever

Relationship Common subordinating conjunctions
Condition if, unless, in case
Contrast although, though, whereas
Punctuating subordinating conjunctions

When a subordinating conjunction follows an independent clause, a comma is often not necessary.
In general, when the dependent clause contains essential information about the independent
clause, don’t use a comma.

She will receive a major bonus, if she succeeds She will receive a major bonus if she succeeds
in closing the corporate partnership deal. closing the corporate partnership deal.
John’s friends snuck into his apartment to set John’s friends snuck into his apartment to set
up a surprise party, while he was at work. a surprise party while he was at work.
However, when the subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the sentence, use a
comma at the end of the dependent clause.

If she succeeds in closing the corporate If she succeeds in closing the corpor
partnership deal she will receive a major partnership deal, she will receive a major bonu
bonus.
While John was at work his friends snuck into While John was at work, his friends snuck i
his apartment to set up a surprise party. his apartment to set up a surprise party.
See editing example
Correlative conjunctions
This type of conjunction always comes in a pair and is used to join
grammatically equal elements in a sentence. Common pairs include either …
or, neither … nor, not only … but also, and both … and. In most cases, no
comma should be used between the two elements.
 Her book on the Vietnam War drew not only from interviews with

other survivors but also from her own experiences in the conflict.
Correlative conjunctions must use parallel structure, which means the two

elements should take the same grammatical form.
 She planned to collect data by either using an online survey or phone
interviews.
 She planned to collect data by either using an online
survey or conducting phone interviews.
Starting a sentence with a conjunction

Beginner writers are often taught that sentences should not begin with a
coordinating conjunction. However, it is not strictly incorrect to begin a
sentence with a conjunction, and you may find it used effectively by skilled
writers to create emphasis.
Governments often seek to gain favor from voters by prioritising economic

development over environmental sustainability. But at what cost to the planet
and future generations?
While such usage has become acceptable in popular and literary language, it is
generally best avoided in academic writing where possible.
A subordinating conjunction can come at the start of a sentence, but only if the
dependent clause is followed by an independent clause.
Until the company reaches a satisfactory agreement with the union, the

workers will remain on strike.
A dependent clause on its own is known as a sentence fragment.
How long will the strike go on for? Until the company reaches a satisfactory

agreement with the union.
Although fragments are often used in speech and informal writing, they should
generally be avoided in academic writing.
Amy Luo
Amy has a master’s degree in History of Art and has been working as a
freelance writer and editor since 2014. She is passionate about helping
people communicate clearly and effectively.
Commas (,)
Published on May 23, 2019 by Fiona Middleton. Revised on May
29, 2020.
Commas are used to split up different parts of a sentence, and when used
correctly they bring clarity and flow to your writing. They’re probably the
most common piece of punctuation in English, which means that they’re often
the most misused.
This article takes you through the most important comma rules and the most common mistakes.
When to use a comma
 Incorrect  Correct
Introducing a sentence Additionally the project was Additionally, the project w

delayed. delayed.
Separating a nonrestrictive Matilda who was unloved by her Matilda, who was unloved by
clause family escaped from reality by family, escaped from reality
reading. reading.
Joining independent Oysters are considered a luxury Oysters are considered a lux
clauses with a coordinating product so they are expensive. product, so they are expensive.
conjunction
When not to use a comma
 Incorrect  Correct
Between a verb and This desk, is too small. This desk is too small.

its subject
Between compound A stack of pancakes, and a lot of A stack of pancakes and a lot
subjects or objects coffee make for a delicious breakfast. coffee make for a delicio
breakfast.
Between compound We distributed questionnaires, and We distributed questionnaires a
predicates conducted interviews. conducted interviews.
Between independent Profits fell, the company collapsed. Profits fell; the company collapsed
clauses
Table of contents
1. Commas to introduce a sentence

2. Dependent vs independent clauses
3. Commas in compound sentences
4. Avoid the comma splice
5. Restrictive vs nonrestrictive clauses
6. Avoid splitting subjects from verbs
7. Avoid splitting compound subjects or objects
8. Avoid splitting compound predicates
9. Serial commas
Commas to introduce a sentence

If you introduce a sentence with a transition
word (e.g. however, hence, indeed, furthermore), follow it with a comma.
 However the model is not always accurate.

 However, the model is not always accurate.
With longer introductory phrases that set the stage for the main part of the
sentence, it’s generally best to use a comma, especially if the phrase is more
than 3-4 words long.
 According to a recent study of college students many young people

would rather end their romantic relationship than go without their phone
for a month.
 According to a recent study of college students, many young people
would rather end their romantic relationship than go without their phone
for a month.
Dependent vs independent clauses

A clause is a group of words that contains at least a subject and a verb.
Sentences are often made up of several clauses. Whether you should put a
comma (or some other form of punctuation) between them depends on the
types of clauses and the relationship between them.
An independent clause is a clause that could stand on its own as a full
sentence. A dependent clause, in contrast, does not express a complete
thought. It depends on another clause to form a full sentence.
When a dependent clause comes at the start of a sentence, it should be

followed by a comma.
 Since Edison invented the light bulb, mass production of candles has

decreased.
When a dependent clause comes after an independent clause, a comma is often

not necessary, especially if it adds information that is essential to the meaning
of the independent clause.
 Mass production of candles has decreased since Edison invented the

light bulb.

See editing example
Commas in compound sentences

A compound sentence contains more than one independent clause. The clauses
can be joined by a semicolon, a colon, or a coordinating conjunction (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
When two independent clauses are connected by a coordinating conjunction,

always use a comma before the conjunction.
 Many scientists have tried to solve the problem, but none have

succeeded.
 There was a power cut, so we ate by candlelight.
In these examples, the parts before and after the conjunction could both stand
as full sentences on their own, so a comma is required.
Avoid the comma splice

Two independent clauses should never be joined by a comma alone. This error
is called a comma splice.
 Model 1 was selected, it returns more accurate results.

 The project ran over the deadline, data processing was extensive.
 He made me a sandwich in the middle of the night, I fell in love with
him.
In each of the examples above, the two parts of the sentence separated by the
comma could stand as full sentences by themselves. This means they are
independent clauses.
To avoid the comma splice, you can split the two clauses into separate
sentences, connect them with another form of punctuation (i.e.
a colon, semicolon or dash), or connect them with a conjunction. The table below
shows how each approach produces slightly different results.
Fixing a comma splice
 Comma splice Split

 into  Connected with  Connected with
two alternative conjunction
sentences punctuation
Model 1 was selected, Model 1 was Model 1 was selected: it Model 1 was selected a
it returns more selected. It returns returns more accurate returns more accur
accurate results. more accurate results. results.
results.
The project ran over The project ran over The project ran over the The project ran over
the deadline, data the deadline. Data deadline – data deadline because d
processing was processing was processing was extensive. processing was extensiv
extensive. extensive.
He made me a He made me a He made me a sandwich He made me a sandw
sandwich in the middle sandwich in the in the middle of the night; in the middle of the nig
of the night, I fell in middle of the night. I fell in love with him. and I fell in love w
love with him. I fell in love with him.
him.
Restrictive vs nonrestrictive clauses

Sometimes the extra information added by a dependent clause is essential to
the meaning of the main clause. This is called a restrictive clause because
it restricts the meaning of the sentence. Commas should not be used around a
restrictive clause.
 Bears that have young cubs can be dangerous.
The information in the sentences is about a specific type of bear – those that
have young cubs. If the restrictive clause was removed, the core meaning of
the sentence would change: it would say instead that all bears can be
dangerous.
In contrast, a nonrestrictive clause adds extra information that isn’t required to
understand the main point of the sentence. Instead of restricting the meaning,
it expands on the meaning. A nonrestrictive clause should be set off from the
main clause with commas.
 Bears, which are usually solitary creatures, can be dangerous.
The information in this sentence is about bears in general, and the

nonrestrictive clause adds extra information. If it was removed, the core
meaning of the sentence would stay the same: that bears can be dangerous.
Clauses that begin with that are always restrictive. In American

English, which always begins a nonrestrictive clause (so should always be set
off with commas). In British English, which can be used for both restrictive
and nonrestrictive clauses.
The table below shows how the same clause can be restrictive or
nonrestrictive, subtly changing the meaning of the sentence.
Restrictive clause (no commas) Nonrestrictive clause (with commas)
Sentence The five students who had studied for The five students, who had studied
weeks passed the test. weeks, passed the test.
Meaning There were more students, but only five had There were five students who all stud
studied for weeks and passed the test. for weeks and passed the test.
Sentence Only the cake that she ate was poisoned. Only the cake, which she ate, w
poisoned.
Meaning There were other cakes, but only the specific There was just one cake, among ot
cake she ate was poisoned. things, and only the cake was poisoned
Sentence I made friends with the neighbour who has a I made friends with the neighbour, w
dog. has a dog.
Meaning I have several neighbours, but I specifically The neighbour I made friends w
Restrictive clause (no commas) Nonrestrictive clause (with commas)
made friends with the one who has a dog. happens to have a dog.
Avoid splitting subjects from verbs

To avoid comma mistakes, pay attention to the function of different words in
your sentences and their relation to each other. A comma should generally not
come between a verb (the action word) and its subject (the person or thing
doing the action).
 This thesis, explores the use of concrete underwater.

 This thesis explores the use of concrete underwater.
Watch out for this error in particular when the sentence contains modifiers that
might distract you from the connection between subject and verb.
 Several of the organizations participating in the festival, voiced

concerns about the schedule.
 Several of the organizations participating in the festival voiced concerns
about the schedule.
Sometimes subjects are separated from verbs by nonrestrictive clauses, words

like however, or other interruptions. These should always be enclosed within
two commas.
 This thesis, which is divided into five chapters, explores the use of

concrete underwater.
 Several of the organizations participating in the festival,
however, voiced concerns about the schedule.
Avoid splitting compound subjects or objects

When two subjects or objects are connected to one verb, make sure not to
separate them with a comma.
Compound subject
 Ten plants, and 15 insect species are unique to this valley.
 Ten plants and 15 insect species are unique to this valley.
The plants and the insects are both subjects of the verb to be, so no comma
should come between them.
Compound object
 The facilitator gave the medicine, and a tracking journal to each
participant.
 The facilitator gave the medicine and a tracking journal to each
participant.
The medicine and the tracking journal are both objects of the verb to give, so

no comma should come between them.
Avoid splitting compound predicates

The predicate is the part of a sentence that contains the verb. A compound
predicate occurs when two verbs in a sentence are connected to the
same subject. In general, a comma should not be used between the verbs.
 Many scientists have tried, and failed to solve the problem.

 Many scientists have tried and failed to solve the problem.
Pay attention to this rule especially when the predicate contains other words
and phrases (e.g. modifiers that give more information about the verb).
 The small cat scampered across the floor, and leaped onto the table.
 The small cat scampered across the floor and leaped onto the table
In this example, the cat does two things: scamper and leap. Because both are
connected to the same subject (the small cat), no comma should separate
them.
There are occasional exceptions to this rule: for example, when a comma is
necessary for clarity, or when you want to emphasize a contrast between two
verbs.
 The participants provided their names, and signed their registration

cards.
 The participants provided their names and signed their registration
cards.
 The participants provided their names, but refused to sign their
registration cards.
In the third version of the sentence, the conjunction but is intended to
emphasize the contrast between the verbs provided and refused, so a comma is
acceptable (though not necessary).
Serial commas
In lists, commas are used to separate each item, and the last item is separated
by a conjunction (and, or). A comma before the conjunction, known as the serial comma or
Oxford comma, is optional. Whether or not you choose to use it, make sure to be consistent.
 With serial comma  Without serial comma

The fruit basket contained a pineapple, a The fruit basket contained a pineapple, a papa
papaya, and three mangoes. and three mangoes.
Dogs, cats, and tortoises have been known to Dogs, cats and tortoises have been known to
act strangely before major seismic events. strangely before major seismic events.
Sometimes a serial comma is necessary for clarity. One example is when the
final list item itself contains a conjunction.
 The three categories of traveler are business, leisure and business and
leisure.
 The three categories of traveler are business, leisure, and business and
leisure.
Using the serial comma here clarifies that the final item, business and
leisure, is a single category. Without the serial comma, the list is confusing.
Another example is when items at the end of the list could be read as
describing an earlier item.
 He had to take care of two dogs, Jane and Louis.

 He had to take care of two dogs, Jane, and Louis.
Here the serial comma clarifies that two dogs, Jane, and Louis are separate

items. Without the serial comma, the sentence seems to say that he had to take
care of two dogs named Jane and Louis.
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Fiona Middleton
Fiona has been editing for Scribbr since August 2016. She has a
bachelor's degree in geology and is currently working towards a
master's degree in marine sciences. She loves working with students
based around the world to refine their writing.
How to structure an essay
(Last updated: 3 April 2020)

This guide is for anyone looking to vastly improve their essay writing skills
through better knowledge what is meant by good 'essay structure'.
Essay writing is a key component to academic success at every level. It is,

essentially, the way in which people within the academic community
communicate with each other. Thus, there are fundamental ways in which
academics structure their work and formal ways of communicating what they
have to say. Writing essays is not simply a hoop for students to jump through.
The vast majority of instructors and professors also write essays at a
professional level, and they do not ask of their students anything less than the
standard that is asked of them.
Where too many students go wrong in writing their essays is in either failing
to plan ahead (not giving sufficient, care, thought, or time to the process) or in
not understanding the expectations of essay writing. Of these expectations,
appropriate and effective essay structure is critical. Students often lose
valuable marks by failing to structure their essays clearly and concisely to
make the best of their ideas.
So how do you structure academic writing? What is the best essay structure
format?
First, consider what an essay is. What is it supposed to do? At its core an essay
is simply an argument. Now, by argument we don’t mean a slanging match
between two angry people. Rather, we are talking about a formal argument.
An idea or a claim, which is supported by logic and/or evidence.
Imagine the following scenario: you feel the time has come to approach your
boss about getting a raise at work. Imagine yourself walking into your
supervisor’s office and requesting that raise. Almost automatically, your mind
formulates a rhetorical structure. There are effective and ineffective ways of
asking of making such a request. The effective strategy will have a logic and
an order. You will firstly claim that you deserve a raise. And you will give
evidence to support why you deserve that raise. For example: you are a hard
worker, you are never late, you have the admiration and respect of your
colleagues, you have been offered another position elsewhere and you want
the pay matched. And so on. And you would probably wrap up your
discussion with an overview of of why giving you more money is important.
And that is fundamentally an essay. Every good essay has three basic parts: an
introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
This simple guide will show you how to perfect your essay structure by
clearly introducing and concluding your argument, and laying out your
paragraphs coherently in between. Your essay writing can be dramatically
improved overnight simply by using the correct essay structure, as explained
below.
Where the essay starts
When you are writing an essay, every sentence and every paragraph is

important. But there is something extra important about introductions. Just
like going out on a date for the first time, you want the introduction to be just
right, almost perfect. You want to put your best self forward and create a great
first impression.
You should already know this, but most professors and instructors will start
grading your work in their head as soon as they begin reading it. They will be
sorting your essay, maybe not in terms of a grade, but most definitely in terms
of strong/weak, interesting/dull, or effective/ineffective. And most will have
some notion of where your essay falls on that scale before they even finish the
introduction. It will be the rarest of markers who withholds judgement until
the end. The introduction is something you absolutely must start strong.
Always develop an introduction that clearly sets out the aims of what you are
about to write and, if applicable, refers to the subject under investigation. State
what the essay will try to achieve and briefly mention some of the main points
you will consider. The idea is to give the marker an overview of your
argument, to show that your thought process is logical and coherent and that
you have carefully thought the question through. Don’t try to go into any of
your key points in depth in your introduction – they will each be covered by a
full paragraph later on. If the question is an ‘either or’ or a ‘how far do you
agree’ question, it is useful to set out both sides of the argument briefly in the
introduction in preparation for exploring the two sides later in the essay.
Think of your introduction as a thumbnail picture of the whole essay. Anyone,
but especially the marker, should know the essay subject and how you intend
to prove or disprove it, just from having read just the introduction.
Take the following example:
You have been given this assignment: The main purpose of Gothic fiction is to
break normal moral and social codes. Discuss.
A strong introduction should read something like this:
It is certainly true that many works of Gothic fiction manifest the

transgression of normal moral and social codes as their major theme. Their
emphasis on female sexuality, their breaking of the boundaries between life
and death and their shocking displays of immoral religious characters would
all suggest that this is indeed the case. However, it is also important to
consider other major aspects of the genre that might be considered equally
important in purpose, such as its fascination with the supernatural, its
portrayal of artificial humanity and its satirical social attacks. This essay will
explore these conflicting purposes with reference to several different Gothic
texts to discover what might be best described as the ‘main’ purpose of the
genre.
Reread that paragraph. Does it tell you what the topic of the essay is? What
the point is? What the essay plans to do? Now, without reading think about
just the size of that paragraph. If a marker were to see an introduction that
were any less than that they would automatically know, without even reading
a word, that the topic was not going to be well introduced. That is not to
suggest you simply fill up the paragraph, but that a certain amount of
information in the introduction is expected.
It is worth pointing out that in a much longer essay an introduction does not
need to be limited to a single paragraph. Generally, however, it will be.

The body of your essay
The second part of the essay is the body. This is the longest part of the essay.
In general, a short essay will have at least three full paragraphs; a long essay
considerably more.
Each paragraph is a point that you want to make that relates to the topic. So,
going back to the ‘give me more money’ example from earlier, each reason
you have for deserving a raise should be a separate paragraph, and that
paragraph is an elaboration on that claim.
Paragraphs, like the essay overall, also have an expected structure. You should
start a new paragraph for each major new idea within your essay, to clearly
show the examiner the structure of your argument. Each paragraph should
begin with a signpost sentence that sets out the main point you are going to
explore in that section. It is sometimes helpful to refer back to the title of the
essay in the signpost sentence, to remind the examiner of the relevance of your
point. Essay writing becomes much easier for you too this way, as you remind
yourself exactly what you are focusing on each step of the way.
Here's a signpost sentence example: One important way in which Gothic

fiction transgresses normal moral and social codes is in its portrayal of the
female heroine.
Further sentences in this paragraph would then go on to expand and back up

your point in greater detail and with relevant examples. The paragraph should
not contain any sentences that are not directly related to the issue set out in the
signpost sentence. So you are writing an essay that clearly separates its ideas
into structured sections. Going back to the wage-raise example: in the middle
of talking about how punctual you are, would you start talking about how you
are a good colleague, then about that client you impressed, and then talk about
your punctuality again? Of course not. The same rules apply: each paragraph
deals with one idea, one subject.
The end of your essay

The last section of your essay is the conclusion. In general, this will also be a
single paragraph in shorter essays, but can go on to two or three for slightly
longer discussions.
Every well-structured essay ends with a conclusion. Its purpose is to

summarise the main points of your argument and, if appropriate, to draw a
final decision or judgement about the issues you have been discussing.
Sometimes, conclusions attempt to connect the essay to broader issues or areas
of further study.
It is important not to introduce any new ideas in the conclusion – it is simply a

reminder of what your essay has already covered. It may be useful again to
refer back to the title in the conclusion to make it very clear to the examiner
that you have thoroughly answered the question at hand. Make sure you
remind them of your argument by very concisely touching on each key point.
Here an example of an essay conclusion:
Overall, whilst it is certainly true that the characters, plots and settings of
Gothic fiction seem firmly intended to break normal moral and social codes,
the great incidence within the genre of the depiction of the supernatural, and
in particular its insistent reference to social injustice and hypocrisy might
suggest that in fact its main purpose was the criticism and reform of society.
But where do I start???
Now you should have a solid grasp of a typical essay structure, but might not
know how to actually begin structuring your essay. Everyone works
differently. Some people have no trouble thinking everything out in their head,
or putting together an outline, and starting with the introduction and finishing
with the conclusion.
If you are not confident, however, we suggest writing from the inside out and
doing the body paragraphs first. Since each body paragraph is a main idea,
then once you know what your main ideas are, these should come fairly easily.
Then the introduction and conclusion after that.
If you're really struggling - or just curious - you can also look into the Essay
Writing Service from ourselves here at Oxbridge Essays. We can put together
a comprehensive essay plan for you, which maps out your essay and outlines
the key points in advance, and in turn makes the writing process much easier.
One final thought to remember: good essays are not written, they
are rewritten. Always go over your first draft and look for ways to improve it
before handing it in.
How to structure an essay: Templates and tips

Published on September 18, 2020 by Jack Caulfield. Revised on
October 15, 2020.
The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction, a body, and

a conclusion. But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an
essay is deciding how to organize information within the body.
This article provides useful templates and tips to help you outline your essay,
make decisions about your structure, and organize your text logically.
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The basics of essay structure

There are two main things to keep in mind when working on your essay
structure: making sure to include the right information in each part, and
deciding how you’ll organize the information within the body.
Parts of an essay
The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below.
Part Content
Introduction  Presents your topic

 Provides background
 Gives your thesis statement

Body  Core arguments and analysis
 Presents evidence (e.g. quotes)
 One main point per paragraph
 Each paragraph starts with a topic sentence
 All paragraphs relate to your thesis

Conclusion  Ties together your main points
 Shows why your argument matters
Order of information
You’ll also have to consider how to present information within the body.
There are a few general principles that can guide you here.
The first is that your argument should move from the simplest claim to the
most complex. The body of a good argumentative essay often begins with
simple and widely accepted claims, and then moves towards more complex
and contentious ones.
For example, you might begin by describing a generally accepted

philosophical concept, and then apply it to a new topic. The grounding in the
general concept will allow the reader to understand your unique application of
it.
The second principle is that background information should appear

towards the beginning of your essay. General background is presented in the
introduction. If you have additional background to present, this information
will usually come at the start of the body.
The third principle is that everything in your essay should be relevant to the

thesis. Ask yourself whether each piece of information advances your
argument or provides necessary background. And make sure that the text
clearly expresses each piece of information’s relevance.
The sections below present several organizational templates for essays: the
chronological approach, the compare-and-contrast approach, and the
problems-methods-solutions approach.
Chronological structure
The chronological approach (sometimes called the cause-and-effect approach)
is probably the simplest way to structure an essay. It just means discussing
events in the order in which they occurred, discussing how they are related
(i.e. the cause and effect involved) as you go.
A chronological approach can be useful when your essay is about a series of

events. Don’t rule out other approaches, though—even when the
chronological approach is the obvious one, you might be able to bring out
more with a different structure.
Explore the tabs below to see a general template and a specific example
outline from an essay on the invention of the printing press.
 Template

 Example
Chronological essay outline template
I. Introduction
A. Hook
B. Background
C. Thesis statement
II. Event/period one
A. Discussion of event/period
B. Consequences
II. Event/period two
B. Consequences
II. Event/period three
B. Consequences
II. Conclusion
A. Summary
B. Importance of topic
C. Strong closing statement

See editing example
Compare-and-contrast structure
Essays with two or more main subjects are often structured around comparing
and contrasting. For example, a literary analysis essay might compare two
different texts, and an argumentative essay might compare the strengths of
different arguments.
There are two main ways of structuring a compare-and-contrast essay: the

alternating method, and the block method.
Alternating
In the alternating method, each paragraph compares your subjects in terms of
a specific point of comparison. These points of comparison are therefore what
defines each paragraph.
The tabs below show a general template for this structure, and a specific
example for an essay comparing and contrasting distance learning with
traditional classroom learning.
 Template

 Example
Alternating essay outline template
I. Introduction
A. Hook
B. Background
C. Thesis statement
II. First point of comparison
A. Subject 1
B. Subject 2
II. Second point of comparison
A. Subject 1
B. Subject 2
II. Third point of comparison
A. Subject 1
B. Subject 2
II. Conclusion
A. Synthesis of arguments
Block
In the block method, each subject is covered all in one go, potentially across
multiple paragraphs. For example, you might write two paragraphs about your
first subject and then two about your second subject, making comparisons
back to the first.
The tabs again show a general template, followed by another essay on distance
learning, this time with the body structured in blocks.
 Template

 Example
Block essay outline template
I. Introduction
A. Hook
B. Background
C. Thesis statement
II. First subject
A. Point 1
B. Point 2
II. First subject, continued
A. Point 3
B. Point 4
II. Second subject
A. Point 1 (compare)
B. Point 2 (compare)
II. Second subject, continued
A. Point 3 (compare)
B. Point 4 (compare)
II. Conclusion
A. Synthesis of arguments
Problems-methods-solutions structure
An essay that concerns a specific problem (practical or theoretical) may be
structured according to the problems-methods-solutions approach.
This is just what it sounds like: You define the problem, characterize a method
or theory that may solve it, and finally analyze the problem, using this method
or theory to arrive at a solution. If the problem is theoretical, the solution
might be the analysis you present in the essay itself; otherwise, you might just
present a proposed solution.
The tabs below show a template for this structure and an example outline for
an essay about the problem of fake news.
 Template

 Example
Problems-methods-solutions essay outline template
I. Introduction
A. Introduce the problem

B. Provide background
C. Describe your approach to solving it
II. Problem
A. Define the problem precisely

B. Describe why it’s important
II. Method
A. Indicate previous approaches to the problem

B. Present your new approach, and why it’s better
II. Solution
A. Apply the new method or theory to the problem
B. Indicate the solution you arrive at by doing so
II. Conclusion
A. Assess (potential or actual) effectiveness of solution

B. Describe the implications
Signposting to clarify your structure

Signposting means guiding the reader through your essay with language that
describes or hints at the structure of what follows. It can help you clarify your
structure for yourself as well as helping your reader follow your ideas.
The essay overview

In longer essays whose body is split into multiple named sections, the
introduction often ends with an overview of the rest of the essay. This gives a
brief description of the main idea or argument of each section.
The overview allows the reader to immediately understand what will be

covered in the essay and in what order. Though it describes what comes later
in the text, it is generally written in the present tense. The following example
is from a literary analysis essay on Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein.
Essay overview exampleThis essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal

of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception
of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing
Frankenstein as the creature views him.
Transitions
Transition words and phrases are used throughout all good essays to link
together different ideas. They help guide the reader through your text, and an
essay that uses them effectively will be much easier to follow.
Various different relationships can be expressed by transition words, as shown

in this example.
Purpose
“In order to” expresses a purpose: The Allies declared war so that they
could oppose the Third Reich’s expansion.
Transition words example
Because Hitler failed to respond to the British ultimatum, France and the UK
declared war on Germany. Although it was an outcome the Allies had hoped
to avoid, they were prepared to back up their ultimatum in order to combat the
existential threat posed by the Third Reich.
Transition sentences may be included to transition between different
paragraphs or sections of an essay. A good transition sentence moves the
reader on to the next topic while indicating how it relates to the previous one.
Transition sentence example

… Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while
representing a step backwards in others.
However, considering the issue of personal interaction among

students presents a different picture.
Frequently asked questions about essay structure

What is the structure of an essay?
Why is structure important in an essay?
How do I compare and contrast in a structured way?
Do I have to stick to my essay outline as I write?
How to compare and contrast in an essay

Published on August 6, 2020 by Jack Caulfield. Revised on
October 15, 2020.
Comparing and contrasting is an important skill in academic writing. It

involves taking two or more subjects and analyzing the differences and
similarities between them.
You might find yourself comparing all kinds of things in an academic essay:
historical figures, literary works, policies, research methods, etc. Doing so is
an important part of constructing arguments.
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
When should I compare and contrast?

Many assignments will invite you to make comparisons quite explicitly, as in
these prompts.
Compare-and-contrast prompts
 Compare the treatment of the theme of beauty in the poetry of William
Wordsworth and John Keats.
 Compare and contrast in-class and distance learning. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each approach?
Some other prompts may not directly ask you to compare and contrast, but
present you with a topic where comparing and contrasting could be a good
approach.
General promptDiscuss the effects of the Great Depression in the United

States.
One way to approach this essay might be to contrast the situation before the
Great Depression with the situation during it, to highlight how large a
difference it made.
Comparing and contrasting is also used in all kinds of academic contexts

where it’s not explicitly prompted. For example, a literature review involves
comparing and contrasting different studies on your topic, and
an argumentative essay may involve weighing up the pros and cons of
different arguments.
Making effective comparisons

As the name suggests, comparing and contrasting is about identifying both
similarities and differences. You might focus on contrasting quite different
subjects or comparing subjects with a lot in common—but there must be some
grounds for comparison in the first place.
For example, you might contrast French society before and after the French
Revolution; you’d likely find many differences, but there would be a valid
basis for comparison. However, if you contrasted pre-revolutionary France
with Han-dynasty China, your reader might wonder why you chose to
compare these two societies.
This is why it’s important to clarify the point of your comparisons by writing a
focused thesis statement. Every element of an essay should serve your central
argument in some way. Consider what you’re trying to accomplish with any
comparisons you make, and be sure to make this clear to the reader.
Receive feedback on language, structure and layout

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
 Academic style
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See an example
Comparing and contrasting as a brainstorming tool
Comparing and contrasting can be a useful tool to help organize your
thoughts before you begin writing any type of academic text. You might use it
to compare different theories and approaches you’ve encountered in your
preliminary research, for example.
Let’s say your research involves the competing psychological approaches of behaviorism and
cognitive psychology. You might make a table to summarize the key differences between them.
Behaviorism Cognitive psychology
Dominant from the 1920s to the 1950s Rose to prominence in the 1960s
Mental processes cannot be empirically studied Mental processes as focus of study
Focuses on how thinking is affected by conditioning and Focuses on the cognitive proces
environment themselves
Or say you’re writing about the major global conflicts of the twentieth
century. You might visualize the key similarities and differences in a Venn
diagram.
These visualizations wouldn’t make it into your actual writing, so they don’t
have to be very formal in terms of phrasing or presentation. The point of
comparing and contrasting at this stage is to help you organize and shape your
ideas to aid you in structuring your arguments.
Structuring your comparisons

When comparing and contrasting in an essay, there are two main ways
to structure your comparisons: the alternating method and the block method.
The alternating method

In the alternating method, you structure your text according to what aspect
you’re comparing. You cover both your subjects side by side in terms of a
specific point of comparison. Your text is structured like this:
 Point of comparison A
o Subject 1
o Subject 2
 Point of comparison B
o Subject 1
o Subject 2
Mouse over the example paragraph below to see how this approach works.
Alternating method example

One challenge teachers face is identifying and assisting students who are
struggling without disrupting the rest of the class. In a traditional classroom
environment, the teacher can easily identify when a student is struggling based
on their demeanor in class or simply by regularly checking on students during
exercises. They can then offer assistance quietly during the exercise or discuss
it further after class. Meanwhile, in a Zoom-based class, the lack of physical
presence makes it more difficult to pay attention to individual students’
responses and notice frustrations, and there is less flexibility to speak with
students privately to offer assistance. In this case, therefore, the traditional
classroom environment holds the advantage, although it appears likely that
aiding students in a virtual classroom environment will become easier as the
technology, and teachers’ familiarity with it, improves.
The block method

In the block method, you cover each of the overall subjects you’re comparing
in a block. You say everything you have to say about your first subject, then
discuss your second subject, making comparisons and contrasts back to the
things you’ve already said about the first. Your text is structured like this:
 Subject 1
o Point of comparison A
o Point of comparison B
 Subject 2
o Point of comparison A
o Point of comparison B
Mouse over the example paragraph below to see how this approach works.
Block method example

The most commonly cited advantage of distance learning is the flexibility and
accessibility it offers. Rather than being required to travel to a specific
location every week (and to live near enough to feasibly do so), students can
participate from anywhere with an internet connection. This allows not only
for a wider geographical spread of students but for the possibility of studying
while travelling. However, distance learning presents its own accessibility
challenges; not all students have a stable internet connection and a computer
or other device with which to participate in online classes, and less
technologically literate students and teachers may struggle with the technical
aspects of class participation. Furthermore, discomfort and distractions can
hinder an individual student’s ability to engage with the class from home,
creating divergent learning experiences for different students. Distance
learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while
representing a step backwards in others.
Note that these two methods can be combined; these two example paragraphs
could both be part of the same essay, but it’s wise to use an essay outline to
plan out which approach you’re taking in each paragraph.
0
How to write an expository essay
Published on July 14, 2020 by Jack Caulfield. Revised on October
15, 2020.
“Expository” means “intended to explain or describe something.”
An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a particular
topic, process, or set of ideas. It doesn’t set out to prove a point, just to give a
balanced view of its subject matter.
Expository essays are usually short assignments intended to test your

composition skills or your understanding of a subject. They tend to involve
less research and original arguments than argumentative essays.
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
When should you write an expository essay?

In school and university, you might have to write expository essays as in-class
exercises, exam questions, or coursework assignments.
Sometimes it won’t be directly stated that the assignment is an expository

essay, but there are certain keywords that imply expository writing is required.
Consider the prompts below.
Explain how the invention of the printing press changed European society in

the 15th century.
The word “explain” here is the clue: An essay responding to this prompt
should provide an explanation of this historical process—not necessarily an
original argument about it.
Define the term “free speech” and explore how it is used today.

Sometimes you’ll be asked to define a particular term or concept. This means
more than just copying down the dictionary definition; you’ll be expected to
explore different ideas surrounding the term, as this prompt emphasizes.
How to approach an expository essay

An expository essay should take an objective approach: It isn’t about your
personal opinions or experiences. Instead, your goal is to provide an
informative and balanced explanation of your topic. Avoid using the first or
second person (“I” or “you”).
The structure of your expository essay will vary according to the scope of

your assignment and the demands of your topic. It’s worthwhile to plan out
your structure before you start, using an essay outline.
A common structure for a short expository essay consists of five paragraphs:

An introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

publications.

Introducing your essay

Like all essays, an expository essay begins with an introduction. This serves to
hook the reader’s interest, briefly introduce your topic, and provide a thesis
statement summarizing what you’re going to say about it.
Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical
introduction works.
Expository essay example: Introduction

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the
Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of
intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average
person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The
invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less
Reformation.
Writing the body paragraphs

The body of your essay is where you cover your topic in depth. It often
consists of three paragraphs, but may be more for a longer essay. This is
where you present the details of the process, idea or topic you’re explaining.
It’s important to make sure each paragraph covers its own clearly defined

topic, introduced with a topic sentence. Different topics (all related to the
overall subject matter of the essay) should be presented in a logical order, with
clear transitions between paragraphs.
Hover over different parts of the example paragraph below to see how a body
paragraph is constructed.
Expository essay example: Body paragraph

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation
dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his
knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an
alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable
production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be
reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously
possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of
printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following
decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in
Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.
Concluding your essay

The conclusion of an expository essay serves to summarize the topic under
discussion. It should not present any new information or evidence, but should
instead focus on reinforcing the points made so far. Essentially, your
conclusion is there to round off the essay in an engaging way.
Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a conclusion
works.
Broad summary
This sentence introduces the conclusion by speaking about the topic in

broad terms rather than in specifics.
Expository essay example: Conclusion
The invention of the printing press was important not only in terms of its
immediate cultural and economic effects, but also in terms of its major impact
on politics and religion across Europe. In the century following the invention
of the printing press, the relatively stationary intellectual atmosphere of the
Middle Ages gave way to the social upheavals of the Reformation and the
Renaissance. A single technological innovation had contributed to the total
reshaping of the continent.
How to write an argumentative essay

15, 2020.
An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis

statement. The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds
up an evidence-based case for it.
Argumentative essays are by far the most common type of essay to write at

university.
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
When do you write an argumentative essay?

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high
school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for
one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It
will frequently take the form of a question.
Example: Two-sided argumentative essay promptHas the rise of the internet

had a net positive or negative impact on education? Support your argument
with evidence.
The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments
you could make.
Example: Open argumentative essay promptWhat is the greatest challenge

facing young people today?
Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve
some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical
analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.
In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay

—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most
academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told
otherwise.
Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as
the appropriate response.
Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The
essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by
presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.
Discuss the effects of globalization on the economy of Nigeria.
 Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
 Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it
matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
Assess the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures in the last

decade.
 Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
 Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have
been most or least effective, and why.
Analyze the role of the doppelgänger in 19th-century Gothic fiction.

 Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
 Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and
contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through
doppelgänger characters.
Approaches to argumentative essays

An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments
should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.
There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are
two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The
Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.
Toulmin arguments
The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many
times as necessary for the argument:
1. Make a claim
2. Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
3. Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
4. Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the
argument and showing that you have considered alternative
perspectives
The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t

have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing
a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is
crucial in an argumentative essay.
Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-

discrimination measures. You might:
1. Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results,
and resources would be better spent on other approaches
2. Cite data to support your claim
3. Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
4. Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating
whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.
Rogerian arguments
The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout
your essay:
1. Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might

hold this position
2. Highlight the problems with this position
3. Present your own position, showing how it addresses these problems
4. Suggest a possible compromise—what elements of your position
would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?
This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a
compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on
the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good
faith.
Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education.
You might:
1. Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia

2. Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
3. Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students
about referencing
4. Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment
for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.
You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use
elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering
them if you struggle to structure your arguments.
Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always

be structured using an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

publications.

Introducing your argument

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with
an introduction. The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest,
provide background information, present your thesis statement, and (in longer
essays) to summarize the structure of the body.
introduction works.
Introduction
The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the
world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise,
and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow
up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially
harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of
internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators
—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of
exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible
learning environment.
The body: Developing your argument

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in
detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the
reader that your thesis statement is true.
In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three
of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and
might be divided into sections with headings.
Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence. Each of

these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant
information.
This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the

merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that
position.
Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is
constructed.
Body
A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in
their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found
that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head &
Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to
its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with
genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken
in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim
that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further
investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but
Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its
articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning
notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make
clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should
always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the
article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for
many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation
and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits
deeper consideration than it often receives.
Concluding your argument

An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects
on the arguments made in the body.
No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may
discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for
future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and
importance of your argument.
Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.
Significance
This sentence highlights the importance of the topic by linking it with a

contemporary trend in education. The conclusion is a good place to
emphasize the relevance of the argument you have made.
Conclusion
The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education;
occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The
future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for
communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance
learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by
digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The
internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by
skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its
potential for good.
How to write an expository essay
15, 2020.
“Expository” means “intended to explain or describe something.”

An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a particular
topic, process, or set of ideas. It doesn’t set out to prove a point, just to give a
balanced view of its subject matter.
Expository essays are usually short assignments intended to test your

composition skills or your understanding of a subject. They tend to involve
less research and original arguments than argumentative essays.
Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
When should you write an expository essay?

In school and university, you might have to write expository essays as in-class
exercises, exam questions, or coursework assignments.
Sometimes it won’t be directly stated that the assignment is an expository

essay, but there are certain keywords that imply expository writing is required.
Consider the prompts below.
Explain how the invention of the printing press changed European society in

the 15th century.
The word “explain” here is the clue: An essay responding to this prompt
should provide an explanation of this historical process—not necessarily an
original argument about it.
Define the term “free speech” and explore how it is used today.
Sometimes you’ll be asked to define a particular term or concept. This means
more than just copying down the dictionary definition; you’ll be expected to
explore different ideas surrounding the term, as this prompt emphasizes.
How to approach an expository essay

An expository essay should take an objective approach: It isn’t about your
personal opinions or experiences. Instead, your goal is to provide an
informative and balanced explanation of your topic. Avoid using the first or
second person (“I” or “you”).
The structure of your expository essay will vary according to the scope of

your assignment and the demands of your topic. It’s worthwhile to plan out
your structure before you start, using an essay outline.
A common structure for a short expository essay consists of five paragraphs:

An introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

publications.


Introducing your essay
Like all essays, an expository essay begins with an introduction. This serves to
hook the reader’s interest, briefly introduce your topic, and provide a thesis
statement summarizing what you’re going to say about it.
introduction works.
Expository essay example: Introduction

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the
Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of
intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average
person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The
invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less
Reformation.
Writing the body paragraphs

The body of your essay is where you cover your topic in depth. It often
consists of three paragraphs, but may be more for a longer essay. This is
where you present the details of the process, idea or topic you’re explaining.
It’s important to make sure each paragraph covers its own clearly defined
topic, introduced with a topic sentence. Different topics (all related to the
overall subject matter of the essay) should be presented in a logical order, with
clear transitions between paragraphs.
Hover over different parts of the example paragraph below to see how a body
paragraph is constructed.
Expository essay example: Body paragraph

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation
dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his
knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an
alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable
production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be
reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously
possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of
printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following
decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in
Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.
Concluding your essay

The conclusion of an expository essay serves to summarize the topic under
discussion. It should not present any new information or evidence, but should
instead focus on reinforcing the points made so far. Essentially, your
conclusion is there to round off the essay in an engaging way.
Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a conclusion
works.
Broad summary
This sentence introduces the conclusion by speaking about the topic in

broad terms rather than in specifics.
Expository essay example: Conclusion
The invention of the printing press was important not only in terms of its
immediate cultural and economic effects, but also in terms of its major impact
on politics and religion across Europe. In the century following the invention
of the printing press, the relatively stationary intellectual atmosphere of the
Middle Ages gave way to the social upheavals of the Reformation and the
Renaissance. A single technological innovation had contributed to the total
reshaping of the continent.

How To Structure An Essay

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How to write a paragraph

Published on January 25, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on

Every piece of academic writing is structured by paragraphs and headings.

 Unified: all the sentences relate to one central point or idea.

Step 1: Identify the paragraph’s purpose

This topic sentence:

 Transitions from the previous paragraph (which discussed the invention

Step 2: Show why the paragraph is relevant

Step 3: Give evidence

 Quotations from literary texts, interviews, and other primary sources.

Make sure to properly cite your sources.

 This sentence cites specific evidence from a secondary source,

Step 4: Explain or interpret the evidence

 If you quoted a passage, give your interpretation of the quotation.

Step 5: Conclude the paragraph

It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually

Step 6: Read through the whole paragraph

The introduction and conclusion paragraphs will also look different. The only

When to start a new paragraph

 Do all your sentences relate to the topic sentence?

Transition words and phrases in academic writing

Transition words example

When and how to use transition words

There is a lack of reliable data to establish a clear correlation between these

It has nevertheless been argued that a relationship does exist.

Example text with and without transition words

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. France and the United

Example text with transition words added

Don’t overuse transition words

The first experiment yielded a positive result. However, the second

The first and third experiments yielded positive results, while the outcomes of

Types and examples of transition words

Additive transition words

Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases

Addition We found that the mixture was indeed, furthermore, moreov

Reference The solution showed a high degree of considering x, regarding x, in reg

Adversative transition words

(perhaps) even, if not

Causal transition words

Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases

Consequence Because Hitler failed to respond to therefore, because (of x), as a result (of x),

Condition We qualified survey responses as (even/only) if/when, on (the) condition that,

Sequential transition words

Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases

Enumeration This has historically had several first, second, third…

Continuation Subsequently, I discuss the way in subsequently, previously, eventua

Conclusion Finally, I consider these two themes in to conclude (with), as a final po

Resumption To return to my main argument, it is to return/returning to x, to resume, at a

Summation Patel (2015) comes to a similar as previously stated/mentioned,

Common mistakes with transition words

Confused use of therefore

 We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to

 We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to

Starting a sentence with also, and, or so

 Also, a second round of testing was carried out.

 A second round of testing was also carried out.

Transition words creating sentence fragments