ELECTRICITY , MAGNETISM AND ELECTRONICS

III YEAR- PAPER V

UNIT I
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AND POTENTIALS

Electric flux:

The electric flux through a surface placed inside electric field represents the total number
of electric lines of force crossing the surface in a direction normal to the surface.

The scalar product 𝑬. ∆𝑺 is defined as the electric flux for the surface. ΔS is a vector whose
magnitude is equal to small area and the direction outward normal to that area.

The total flux ∅𝐸 = ∮ 𝑬. ∆𝑺 =E.S

If 𝜃 is angle between E and ΔS, then the total flux ∅𝐸 = ∮ 𝑬. ∆𝑺 = ∮ E. dS cosθ

Gauss law:
Gauss’s law is the converse of Coulomb’s law. With the help of Gauss’s law, we can
calculate E for a given charge.

Statement:

Gauss’s law states that total normal electric flux ∅𝐸 over a closed surface in an electric
1
field is ( ) times the total charge Q enclosed in the surface. Mathematically, it can be
∈𝑜
expressed as

𝑄
∅𝑬 = ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑺 𝑆 𝜀𝑂

Where 𝜀𝑜 is the permittivity of the free space.

Proof of gauss’s law:

(i) When the charge is within the surface.

Let a charge +Q be placed at O within a closed surface of irregular shape as shown in figure.
 Consider a point P on the surface at a distance r from O. now take a small area dS around
P. The normal to the surface dS is represented by a vector dS which makes an angle θ with
the direction of electric field E along OP.

The electric flux 𝑑∅𝐸 = 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 -----(1)

Where θ is angle between E and dS

From coulomb’s law, the electric intensity E at a point P distant r from a point charge Q is
given by
1 𝑄
𝐸= ( 2 ) -----(2)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑜 𝑟

From eqs (1) and (2), we get

𝑄 𝑄 𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑∅𝐸 = 2 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟2
𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
But ( ) is solid angle d𝜔 subtended by dS at O. Hence,
𝑟2

𝑄
𝑑∅𝐸 = 𝑑𝜔
4𝜋𝜀0
The total flux ∅𝐸 over the entire whole surface is given by
𝑄
∅𝐸 = ∮ 𝑑𝜔
4𝜋𝜀0
where ∮ 𝑑𝜔 is the solid angle subtended by the whole surface at O. This is equal to 4π.
Hence,
𝑄
∅𝐸 = 𝑥 4𝜋
4𝜋𝜀 𝑜

𝑸
∅𝑬 =
𝜺𝑶

Let the closed surface enclosed several charges say +𝑄1 , +𝑄2 , +𝑄3 , … . . , −𝑄1 , −𝑄2 , −𝑄3 , … ..

Now each charge will contribute to the total electric flux. Thus, the total flux is given by
1
∅𝐸 = ( 𝑄 + 𝑄2 + ⋯ − 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 − ⋯ )
𝜀𝑂 1
 1
= ∑𝑄
𝜀𝑂

Where ∑ 𝑄 is algebraic sum of all charges.

So the total normal electric flux over the closed surface is equal to (1/εo) times the total
charge enclosed within the surface which establishes the Gauss’s law.

(ii) when the charge is outside the surface.

Let a point charge +Q be situated at a point o outside the closed surface as shown in fig.

Now a cone of solid angle dω from O cuts the surface areas 𝑑𝑆1 , 𝑑𝑆2 , 𝑑𝑆3 , 𝑑𝑆4 at points
P,Q,R and S respectively. The electric flux for an outward normal is positive while for inward
drawn normal is negative. Therefore, the flux through areas, 𝑑𝑆2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑆4 are positive while
for areas 𝑑𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑆3 are negative. Therefore,
𝑄
The electric flux at P through area 𝑑𝑆1 = (− ) 𝑑𝜔
4𝜋𝜀 𝑂

𝑄
The electric flux at P through area 𝑑𝑆2 = (+ ) 𝑑𝜔
4𝜋𝜀 𝑂

𝑄
The electric flux at P through area 𝑑𝑆3 = (− ) 𝑑𝜔
4𝜋𝜀 𝑂

𝑄
And The electric flux at P through area 𝑑𝑆4 = (+ ) 𝑑𝜔
4𝜋𝜀 𝑂

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = − 𝑑𝜔 + 𝑑𝜔 − 𝑑𝜔 + 𝑑𝜔 = 0
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 4𝜋𝜀𝑂 4𝜋𝜀𝑂 4𝜋𝜀0
So, the total electric flux over the whole surface due to an external charge is zero. This
verifies Gauss’s law.
Electric field:

The region surrounding an electric charge or a group of charges, in which another charge
experiences a force is called electric field.

Intensity of electric field:

The intensity of electric field at a point in the field is defined as the force experienced by
a unit positive charge placed at that point.
Let F be the force experienced by a test charge qo placed at a point in the electric field, then
the intensity of electric field E at that point is given by
𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐸=
𝑞𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

Electric field due to infinite conducting sheet of charge:

Fig. shows an infinite charged conducting sheet

As the sheet is conducting, the charge will reside only on the surface of the conductor.
There will be no charge inside the sheet. Let 𝜎 be the charge density. We have to determine
the electric field at a point P, near the surface and outside of sheet. For this purpose , we
construct a cylindrical Gaussian surface passing through a point P. the Gaussian surface has
one flat face passing through P, Other flat face lying inside the surface of conductor and
surface being perpendicular to the surface of conductor.

Therefore, the flux through the two ends are 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 and zero respectively. The electric flux
through the curved surface is zero as E and 𝑑𝑆 are perpendicular. So, we have

∅= ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 + ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆
𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

∅ = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 + ∮ 0. 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 + ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠900

 ∅ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 + 0 + 0 = 𝐸𝑆
𝑞 𝜎𝑆
According to gauss’s law, 𝐸𝑆 = =
𝜀0 𝜀𝑂

𝝈
∴ 𝑬=
𝜺𝟎

Thus, the electric field intensity outside the infinite conducting sheet of charge is equal to
(1/ε0) times the surface charge density

Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere (non-conducting):

Case(i): At a point outside the charged sphere:

Consider a sphere A of radius R with centre O as shown in fig.

Let a charge q be uniformly distributed throughout its volume.

𝑞
The volume density of charge 𝜌 =
(4)𝜋𝑅3
3

Suppose P be an external point at a distance r (r>R) from the centre O of the sphere. We
shall find the electric field E at this point. For this purpose, we construct a Gaussian surface of
radius OP which is concentric with sphere A.
From the symmetry of charge distribution, the electric field at all points points of the
Gaussian surface is the same and will be perpendicular to the surface. Thus, E is directed
along the outward normal. For a small Gaussian surface, dS is also directed radially outward.
So far, a small Gaussian surface
𝑬. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠0𝑜 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑆
Now the electric flux through the entire gaussian surface is given by

∅𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) ……(1)

( area of the Gaussian surface of radius r = 4πr2)

In eq (i) E is constant at all points and hence taken out of integral. According to Gauss’s law,
the total electric flux over a closed surface is (1/εo) times the charge enclosed within the
surface. Thus,
𝑞
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = ( )
𝜀𝑜

1 𝑞 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

In vector form
1 𝑞 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑬= 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
Case(ii) At a point on the surface:

When the point P lies on the surface of the sphere, then 𝑟 = 𝑅. In this case, the field intensity
is given by

1 𝑞 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

Case(iii) At a point inside the charged sphere:

Here we shall find the electric field E at a point P which is inside the charged sphere at a
distance r from the centre. The Gaussian surface at P is shown in fig.

The out ward flux for a small portion of Gaussian surface will be

𝑬. 𝑑𝑺 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑆
(angle between E and ds is zero)

The electric flux through the entire Gaussian surface is given by

∅𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟 2 )

The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface = volume enclosed by it X charge per unit
volume
4
= 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌
3
Here, a charge q is uniformly distributed over a sphere of radius R. Hence,
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞 3𝑞
𝜌= = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (4) 𝜋𝑅3 4𝜋𝑅 3
3
From Gauss’s law
1 𝑟 3
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = [𝑞( ) ]
𝜀𝑜 𝑅

1 𝑞𝑟
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅3

This expression shows that the electric field E due to a uniformly charge sphere at an
internal point is proportional to the distance r from the centre.

Electric potential:

Electric potential at a point in the electric field is defined as the work done by an external
agent carrying a unit positive test charge from infinity to that point against the electric force
of the field.
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞𝑜
The MKS unit of the potential is volt. 1volt = 1joule/1coulomb

Equipotential surfaces:
The locus of all points which have the same electrical potential is called equipotential
surface. As the potential difference between any points on the equipotential is zero, hence
no work is done in taking a charge from one point to another. This is possible when the charge
is taken perpendicular to the field. In this way, the equipotential surface at every point is
perpendicular to the field. Hence, the lines of force at every point of the equipotential surface
are perpendicular to the surface.
 In case of uniform electric field, where the lines of force are parallel, the equipotential
surfaces are planes perpendicular to the lines of forces as shown in fig.

The equipotential surfaces are a family of concentric spheres for a sphere of charge or
point charge as shown in fig.

Potential due to a point charge:

Consider a point charge +q as shown in fig. its electrical field E is outward along radial line.
To calculate the potential at a point B situated at distance r B from the charge +q, we select
two points A and B along radial line. Let a test charge q o be moved from reference point A to
B.

The force exerted by the field of charge q on test charge q o is qoE.

Now to move the test charge q o towards B, a force -qoE must be applied.

The work done by external agent to move the charge q o through a small distance dr is given
by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 [𝐸. 𝑑𝑟] = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠180𝑜
𝑑𝑊 = −𝑞𝑜 𝐸 𝑑𝑟
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝑑𝑊 = − 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

Now the total work done in moving test charge from A to B

𝑟𝐵
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝐴 4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2

(Where rA is the distance of point A from q)

𝑞𝑞𝑜 1 1
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
so the potential difference between two points will be
𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝑞 1 1
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = = [ − ]
𝑞𝑜 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
To find the potential at point B, the reference point A is taken at infinity so that V A= 0.
Hence,
1 𝑞
𝑉𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐵
On dropping the suffix, the required expression becomes

1 𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

Potential due to electric dipole:

When two charges equal in magnitude but opposite but opposite in sign are separated by
a small distance the system is called an electric dipole. The dipole moment of this dipole is
2aq, when 2a is the distance between two charges of magnitude of q. the momentum p is a
vector quantity pointing from negative charge to positive charge.

Fig. shows the dipole of charges +q and -q of length 2a. here the aim is to determine the
potential at a point P at a distance r from the centre O of the dipole along the line OP making
an angle θ with AB. Let BM and AN be the perpendicular to OP.

Now the potential at P due to charge +q at B

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
= ( )= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐵𝑃 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑁𝑃
Potential at P due to charge -q at A is
 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
= ( )= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐴𝑃 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑀𝑃
Resultant potential at P is given by
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝑉= ( − ) … . . (1)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑁𝑃 𝑀𝑃
From right angle triangle ONB

ON = OB cosθ = a cosθ

NP = OP – ON = (r – a cosθ)

Similarly, from the right-angle triangle AMO,

OM = AO cosθ = a cosθ

MP = MO+OP = (a cosθ + r)

Substituting these values in equation (1), we get

1 𝑞 𝑞
𝑉= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 − 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) − (𝑟 − 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑞 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= [ 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 − 𝑎 2 cos 2 𝜃
𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2− 𝑎 2 cos 2 𝜃)
( 2aq = p dipole moment)

As 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, 𝑎 2 cos 2 𝜃 term neglected in comparison with r2

Hence,

𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

If θ=90o, V = 0. thus, the potential vanishes everywhere in the equatorial plane. This means
that no work done by the external agent in carrying a test charge from infinity along th e
perpendicular bisector of the dipole.
We also note that equatorial plane is equipotential line and the potential of a dipole
depends up on the p and not on q or 2a separately.
Potential due to uniformly charged circular disc:

consider a uniformly charged circular disc with charge q as shown in figure.

Let 𝜎 be the surface charge density. Her the aim is to calculate the potential V at any point
P on the axis of the disc at a distance r from the centre O. for this purpose we divide the disc
in to a large number of flat circular strips. Further, we consider one such strip of radius y and
width dy. As the width of the strip is very small, each point of this strip can be assumed to be
the equal distance AP= √𝑟 2 + 𝑦 2 from the point P.

The charge dq contained by the strip will be

𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝) = 𝜎 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Therefore, the potential at P due to this charge element will be
1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜎2𝜋𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑉 = =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐴𝑃 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 √𝑟 2 + 𝑦 2

The potential at P due to the whole disc can be obtained by integrating above equation with
in the limits 0 to R. Hence,
𝑅
𝜎 𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫
2𝜀𝑂 0 √𝑟 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑅
𝜎 1
= ∫ (𝑟 2 + 𝑦 2 ) −2 𝑦𝑑𝑦
2𝜀𝑜 0
𝜎
= [ √𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 − 𝑟]
2𝜀𝑜
At the centre of the disc, r = 0, hence

𝜎𝑅
𝑉𝑂 =
2𝜀𝑜
In case when 𝑟 ≫ 𝑅, the quantity √𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 van be approximated by binomial theorem as
1
𝑟2 2 𝑅2 𝑅2
√𝑟 2 + 𝑅 2 = 𝑟 (1 + 2 ) = 𝑟 ( 1 + 2 + ⋯ ) = 𝑟 +
𝑅 2𝑟 2𝑟

Now

𝜎 𝑅2 𝜎𝑅2 𝜋𝑅2 𝜎
𝑉= [ ]
𝑟+ 2− 𝑟 = =
2𝜀𝑜 2𝑟 4𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

1 𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟

Where q is the charge on the whole disc.

Potential on the rim of the disc:

Now we calculate the potential at a point P lying on the edge of the disc as shown in fig.

Now we divide the disc in to a large number of rings with P as the centre. Further we
consider the ring shown dotted with radius r and thickness dr centred at P. the length of the
segment will be 2rθ and its area will be 2rθ dr.

Hence, the charge dq on this segment is given by

𝑑𝑞 = 2𝑟𝜃. 𝑑𝑟. 𝜎
Potential at P due to this segment
1 2𝑟𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝜎
= .
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
In order to calculate the potential at P due to whole disc, we integrating above equation
within the limits 0 to 2R. Hence,
 2𝑅 2𝑅
1 2𝑟𝜃𝑑𝑟𝜎 𝜎
𝑉= ∫ = ∫ 𝜃 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀𝑜
0 0

From right angled triangle PAQ, 𝑟 = 2𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = −2𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃.

𝜋
Now when 𝑟 = 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 =
2

And when 𝑟 = 2𝑅, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = 0

0 𝜋/2
𝜎 𝜎𝑅
∴𝑉= ∫ −2𝑅𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝜋𝜀𝑜
𝜋/2 0

𝜋
𝜎𝑅
= [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] 20
𝜋𝜀𝑂

𝜎𝑅
𝑉=
𝜋𝜀 𝑂

QUESTION BANK

Essay questions-10M

1. State and Prove Gauss theorem in electrostatics

2. State Gauss theorem and derive an expression for the electric field due to uniformly
charged sphere?
3. Define Electric potential. Calculate the electric potential due to a circular disc.
4. Define Electric dipole. Derive an expression for Electric potential due to a dipole.
5.
Short questions- 5M

6. Derive an expression for electric potential due to a point charge

7. What are equipotential surfaces?
8. Derive an expression for Electric field intensity due to an infinitely conducting sheet
 MCQ’S- 1M

1. Gauss law is applicable for_________

a) Point charge
b) Sheet charge
c) Line charge
d) Point, sheet and line charge

2. “Total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed by that
surface divided by permittivity”. This is the statement for?

a) Gauss law
b) Lenz law
c) Coloumb’s law
d) Faraday’s law

3. Electric flux density is a function of_______

a) Volume
b) Charge
c) Current
d) Voltage

4. As charge increases, what happens to flux density?

a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) Becomes zero

5. As area increases, what happens to electric flux density?

a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) Becomes zero

6. Which, among the following, is the correct expression for electric flux density?

a) D=εE
b) D=ε/E
c) D2=εE
d) D=εE2

7. Strength of the electric field is ___________

a) Directly proportional to the force applied

b) Inversely proportional to the force applied
c) Directly proportional to the square of the force applied
d) Inversely proportional to the square of the force applied

8. The force applied to a conductor is 10N if the charge in the conductor is 5C, what is the
electric field intensity?

a) 10V/m
b) 2V/m
c) 3V/m
d) 15V/m

9. What is the electric flux density in free space if the electric field intensity is 1V/m?

a) 7.76*10-12C/m2
b) 8.85*10-12C /m2
c) 1.23*10-12C /m2
d) 3.43*10-12C /m2

10. If the charge in a conductor is 16C and the area of cross section is 4m 2. Calculate the
electric flux density.

a) 64C/m2
b) 16C/m2
c) 4C/m2
d) 2C/m2

11.SI unit of electric potential is

a) C-1
b) J-1
c) JC-1
d) JC-4

12. If 5 J of work is needed to shift 10C of charge from one place to another. The potential
difference between the places should be

a) 0.5 V
b) 2V
c) 5V
d) 10 V
13. The energy supplied by a unit charge as it moves from one point to the other in the
direction of the field is called

a) potential difference
b) electric field industry
c) electric field
d) electric field intensity

14.The electron in a hydrogen atom experiences an electric field from the atom's nucleus in
the order of

a) 1012 NC-1
b) 1011 NC-1
c) 1015 NC-1
d) 108 NC-1

15.If 1 joule of work is done against the electric field in bringing 1C positive charge from
infinity to a point in the electric field then the potential at that point will be

a) 1/2 volt
b) 1 volt
c) 2 volt
d) 3 volt

16. If the electric charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is Q, then the electric flux φ is

a) 0
b) Q
c) Q/ε
d) ε

17. For gauss’s law, point charges in enclosed area must be distributed

a) Arbitrarly
b) Sequentially
c) rotational
d) inline