MODERN PHYSICS LAB

ASIF ZAHIR
RIPHAH INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD I-14 CAMPUS ISLAMABAD
 Lab-II Modern Physics Lab Manual

Contents
Experiment # 1 ................................................................................................................ - 1 -

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using photoelectric effect . - 1 -

Experiment # 2 ................................................................................................................ - 8 -

Determination of dielectric constant of liquid and solid. ........................................................ - 8 -

Experiments # 3: ........................................................................................................... - 17 -

Study of Characteristics of G.M tube .................................................................................... - 17 -

Experiment # 04 ............................................................................................................ - 20 -

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics .................................................................................... - 20 -

Experiment # 05: ........................................................................................................... - 32 -

To study determination of beta particle range and maximum Energy (by half thickness
method).................................................................................................................................. - 32 -

Experiment # 06 ............................................................................................................ - 38 -

Measurement of short Half-Life ............................................................................................ - 38 -

Experiment # 07 ............................................................................................................ - 42 -

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method...................................... - 42 -

Page i of 49
Experiment # 1

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using

photoelectric effect

PURPOSE:

 To determine Planck‟s constant „h‟ from the stopping voltages measured at

different frequencies (wavelengths) of light.
 To determine the work function “f” of a metal.

INTRODUCTION:

One of the most important experiments from the early 20th century was the photoelectric
effect experiment. In this experiment, shining light upon a metal surface may cause
electrons to be emitted from the metal. In 1905, Albert Einstein working in a Swiss patent
office published a paper in which he explained the photoelectric effect. He argued that
light was not a wave – it is particulate – and it travels in little energy bundles (or packets)
called photons. The energy of one of these photons is , where h is the fundamental
constant of nature as proposed by Max Planck to explain blackbody radiation, and is
the frequency of the photon. This novel interpretation of light turned out to be very
significant and secured a Nobel Prize for Albert Einstein. Robert Millikan, co-founder of
the California Institute of Technology and fellow Nobel Prize Winner, performed the
careful experimental verification of Einstein‟s predictions.

THEORY:

An electron in a metal can be modelled as a particle in an average potential well due to

the net attraction and repulsion of protons and electrons. The minimum depth that an
electron is in the potential well is called the work function of the metal, F (see Fig. 1). In
other words, it is a measure of the amount of work that must be done on the electrons
(located in the well) to make it free from the metal. Since different metal atoms have
different number of protons, it is reasonable to assume that the work function depends

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Experiment # 1

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using photoelectric effect

on the metal. This is also supported by the fact that different metals have different values
for electrical properties that should depend on the electron binding including

Figure 1: Electron in a potential well at depth 𝜙

conductivity. The electron in the potential well of a metal is shown below in Fig. 1. It is
analogous to a marble trapped in a water-well. The shallower the well (i.e. the lower the
work function “ ”), less is the energy required to cause the emission of the electron. If
we shine a light with enough energy, then an electron is emitted.

When a photon with frequency “ ” strikes the surface of a metal, it imparts all its energy
to a conduction electron near the surface of the metal. If the energy of the photon ( ) is
greater than the work function ( ), the electron may be ejected from the metal. If the
energy is less than the work function, the electron will simply acquire some kinetic
energy that will dissipate almost immediately in subsequent collisions with other particles
in the metal. By conservation of energy, the maximum kinetic energy with which the
electron could be emitted from the metal surface Tmax, is related to the energy of the
absorbed photon , and the work function , by the relation,

(1)

Now consider the case of electrons

being emitted by a photocathode in
a vacuum tube, as illustrated Fig.2.
In this case, all emitted electrons
are slowed down as they approach
the anode, and some of their

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 Experiment # 1

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using photoelectric effect

kinetic energy is converted into potential energy. There are three possibilities that could
happen.

i. First, if the potential is small then the

potential energy at the anode is less than
the kinetic energy of the electrons and
there is a current through the tube.
ii. The second is if the potential is large
enough the potential energy at the anode is
larger than the kinetic energy and the
electrons are driven back to the cathode. In
this case, there is no current.
iii. The third case is if the voltage just stops the electrons (with maximum kinetic energy
Tmax) from

reaching the anode. The voltage required to do this is called the “stopping potential"
(V0). A typical IV characteristics for a given frequency of light is also depicted in Fig. 2.
Thus Eq. 1 can be rewritten as,

–  

 

It is worth noting here that, since the anode and cathode surfaces are different, an
additional contact potential “A” comes into the picture which simply gets added to the
work function “F”. Eq. (3) can be written in terms of wavelength as

( )( ) ( ) (4)

Standard value of h is known to be 6.626×10-34Js-1.

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Experiment # 1

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using photoelectric effect

Experimental Set up:

The present experimental set-up (see Fig. 3) comprises of a tungsten-halogen light source
with five different color filters, a Cesium-type vacuum phototube, a built-in power supply
and a current multiplier. The base of the phototube is built into a dark room and in front

of it a receptor (pipe) is installed to mount filters.

Procedure:

1. Plug in and switch on the apparatus using the red button at the bottom right corner of
the set up.
2. Before the lamp is switched on, put the toggle switch in current mode and check that
the dark current is zero.
3. Turn on the lamp source (it may take 5-10 mins. to warm up). Set the light intensity
near to maximum. Note that the intensity should be such that the value of current

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Experiment # 1

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using photoelectric effect

should not exceed the display range. In case it happens, you need to reduce the
intensity. You should not change intensity while taking data.
4. Insert one of the five specified filters into the drawtube of the receptor.
5. Set the voltage direction switch to “+ve” polarity. Adjust the voltage knob at
minimum and current knob at “X 0.1” position which means the resolution is up to
one decimal point. Vary the voltage and record the current till the value of current
becomes relatively constant. Use the display mode switch to record the values of
voltage and the corresponding current each time
6. Now, set the voltage direction switch to “-ve” polarity. Adjust the voltage knob at
minimum and current knob at “X 0.001” (we need higher resolution since current will
be less here). Vary the voltage and record the current till the value of current becomes
0. Use the display mode switch to record the values of voltage and the corresponding
current each time.
7. The above steps 5 and 6 provides data to plot the I-V characteristics of the phototube
for the wavelength (or frequency) selected by the filter.
8. Repeat the steps 5-7 for all the filters provided.
9. Fill up the observation tables and draw necessary plots. Determine the values of
planck‟s constant and work function of the metal used in the phototube.

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Experiment # 1

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using photoelectric effect

Observations:

Specification of Filters:

Table-1: For I-V characteristics

Color Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Wavelength 460 500 540 570 635
(nm)
Voltage (+ ve
Polarity
Current ( )
Voltage (-ve
Polarity)
Current ( )

Table-2 Data for stopping potential ~ wavelength

Stopping
Potential (V)
Wavelength
(nm)

Graph:

1. Plot I~ V characteristics for different wavelengths.

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Experiment # 1

Determination of Planck‟s constant and work function of metals using photoelectric effect

2. Plot Stopping potential ~ (1/wavelength) and calculate slope and intercept using

Eq. 4. A sample graph is shown in Fig.4.

Calculation and estimation of error: Determine h and f and estimate error.

Precautions:

1. Rotate all the knobs very slowly.

2. Handle the filters with utmost care and avoid touching their surfaces.

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Experiment # 2

Determination of dielectric constant of liquid and solid.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of capacitance involves the understanding of concentration of electric field

between the two plates of a capacitor, which depends on the dielectric material between
the plates of a capacitor. The relation which connects the character of the dielectric
material (called dielectric constant, ) with the capacitance is a simple, i.e .

THEORY:

According to Coulomb’s law, the force between two charges is given by the equation:

(1)

The equation has the identical form as Newton’s law of gravitation and the constant k is

analogous to the gravitational constant which determines the force between two masses.
The dielectric constant measured here is related to k by:

(2)

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates. If we move an

electric charge Q from one plate to the other at a potential ΔV, the capacitance of the pair

may be calculated using the equation:

(3)

The electric field which exists between the plates is simply:

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Experiment # 2

Determination of dielectric constant of solid.

(4)

Where d is the distance between the plates. If the surface charge density is σ, then
Gauss‟s law says the potential difference and electric field between the plates is:

(5)

If the plate area is A, then the total charge on the plate is Q=σA. The plate capacitance is
now:

(6)

If the medium between the two plates is something besides free space, then it is necessary
to replace with the dielectric constant of the material. Usually this is expressed using
the term relative dielectric, where ε is the dielectric constant of the material and

εr is its relative dielectric value. The relative dielectric is therefore a unit less number
usually in the range of 1 to 20. The capacitance with a dielectric medium of dielectric
constant will then be:

(7)

Commercially available capacitors are either cylindrical or disc type. In both the cases, it
is not possible to study variation of capacitance with distance between the plates or
determine the dimensions; area and
distance between the plates, in order
to calculate the dielectric constant of
the medium. Here we use
commercially available aluminum
panel sheets1 of different sizes as

Page - 9 - of 49

Figure 1
Experiment # 2

Determination of dielectric constant of solid.

capacitors. By measuring the areas and noting the distance between the aluminum sheets
from the data available from the manufacturer, we can determine the dielectric constant
of the material (which is low density poly ethylene, LDPE) if we determine the
capacitance C between the aluminum sheets and core (LDPE). The capacitances of theses
sheets are very small; of the order of nano-farad; it is difficult to record voltages at
different intervals unless we have a resistor of Giga ( ) Ohm. Hence, we apply square
wave of suitable frequency and measure the time constant from the charging curve using
an oscilloscope. If we apply a continuous square wave voltage waveform to the RC
circuit whose frequency matches exactly to that of the 5RC time constant (5T) of the
circuit, then the charging voltage waveform across the capacitor would look as in Figure
1.

EXPERIMENT SET UP:

 Arrange the experimental setup as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Description of capacitor connection to a SQR wave generator and the oscilloscope.

 Connect the Square wave generator alone to the oscilloscope and Set the Square
wave voltage ( ( )) to 20 volts.
 Make the connections as shown in Figure 2.

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Experiment # 2

Determination of dielectric constant of solid.

 Keep the frequency of Square wave a constant value (Between 6 to 8 KHz).

Adjust resistance and time per division control on the oscilloscope, so that a clear
and minimum one complete cycle of charging curve is displayed on the
oscilloscope.
 Using X-shift control of the oscilloscope move the charging curve along the X-
axis until the charging curve meets the 12.6V (which is 63% of the Square wave
voltage) point on the Y-axis of the oscilloscope as shown in Figure 3.
 Note the number of horizontal divisions the charging curve has been moved.
Calculate the time constant by multiplying with time per division on the CRO.
 Repeat the above steps for plates of different areas
 Dielectric constant is calculated using slope of the straight line(Figure 3) from the
formula:

(8)

The thickness of the APS is a standard one,

can easily be found from the supplier or
from technical data provided (we used
2.5mm thick sheet).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Typical value of dielectric

constant of low-density Figure 3 Wave shape detected in the oscilloscope.

polyethylene ranges from

2.2 to 2.35. The physical
dimensions of
commercially available
capacitors, either parallel
plate or cylindrical, being

Page - 11 - of 49

Figure 4 Graph of capacitance vs area of dielectric

Experiment # 2

Determination of dielectric constant of solid.

too small for the measurements, hence the difficulty of determining the value of dielectric
constant. Many experiments have been done using two bigger metal plates and paper
sheet or glass sheet as dielectric media, but the air gaps introduces the considerable error.
The APS being well sealed, and surfaces painted reduce these errors to a considerable
extent. Somewhat subjectivity is introduced in the measurement of time constant from the
charging curve; this can further be reduced using high quality L-C-R bridge capacitance
meter. Where C is directly measured

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 G-M counter, counting statistics, Characteristic, range and
maximum Energy of particles. And half-life of a radioactive
source.

INTRODUCTION:

Geiger-Müller (GM) counters were invented by H. Geiger and E.W. Müller in 1928 and
are used to detect radioactive particles. A typical GM Counter consists of a GM tube
having a thin end window (e.g. made of mica), a high voltage supply for the tube, a scalar
to record the number of particles detected by the tube, and a timer which will stop the
action of the scalar at the end of a preset interval. The sensitivity of the GM tube is such
that any particle capable of ionizing a single atom of the filling gas of the tube will
initiate an avalanche of electrons and ions in the tube. The collection of the charge thus
produced results in the formation of a pulse of voltage at the output of the tube. The
amplitude of this pulse, on the order of a volt or so, is sufficient to operate the scalar
circuit with little or no further amplification. The pulse amplitude is largely independent
of the properties of the particle detected and gives therefore little information as to the
nature of the particle. Even so, the GM Counter is a versatile device which may be used
for counting alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays, albeit with varying degrees
of efficiency.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To determine the plateau and optimal operating voltage of a Geiger-Müller

counter.
2. To investigate the statistics related to measurements with a Geiger counter.
Specifically, the Poisson and Gaussian distributions will be compared.
3. To investigate the relationship between absorber materials (atomic number),
absorption thickness and backscattering.
4. To determine the maximum energy of decay of a beta particle.
5. To measure the half-life of meta-stable Cesium-137.

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 Experiment # 03 Characteristics of G.M tube

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

 Set-up for ST-350 Counter

 GM Tube and stand
 shelf stand, serial cable, and a source holder
 Radioactive Source (e.g., Cs-137, Sr-90, or Co-60)

Figure 1 ST350 setup with sources and absorber kits

Principle of the Method

All nuclear radiations, whether they are charged particles or gamma rays, it will ionize
atoms/molecules while passing through a gaseous medium. This ionizing property of a
nuclear radiation is utilized for its detection. Geiger-Muller counter, commonly called as
GM counter or simply as Geiger tube is one of the oldest and widely used radiation
detectors. It consists of a metallic tube with a thin wire mounted along its axis. The wire
is insulated from the tube using a ceramic feed-through (Fig. 1). The central wire (anode)
is kept at a positive potential of a few hundreds of volt or more with respect to the
metallic tube, which is grounded. The tube is filled with argon gas mixed with 5-10% of
ethyl alcohol or halogens (chlorine or bromine). When an ionizing radiation enters the
Geiger tube some of the energy of the radiation may get transferred to a gas molecule

Page - 14 - of 49
Experiment # 03 Characteristics of G.M tube

within the tube. This absorption of energy results in ionization, producing an electron-ion
pair (primary ions). The liberated electrons move towards the central wire and positive
ions towards the negatively charged cylinder. The electrons now cause further ionization
by virtue of the acceleration due to the intense electric field. These secondary ions may
produce other ions and these in turn still other ions before reaching the electrodes. This
cascading effect produces an avalanche of ions. In an avalanche created by a single
original electron many excited gas molecule are formed by electron collisions in addition
to secondary ions. In a very short time of few nanoseconds these excited molecules return
to ground state through emission of photons in the visible or ultraviolet region. These
photons are the key element in the propagation of the chain reaction that makes up the
Giger discharge. If one of these photons interacts by photoelectric absorption in some
other region of the tube a new electron is liberated creating an avalanche at a different
location in the tube. The arrival of these avalanches at the anode causes a drop in the
potential between the central wire and the cylinder. This process gives rise to a very large
pulse with an amplitude independent of the type and energy of the incident radiation. The
pulse is communicated to the amplifier through an appropriate RC circuit, and then to a
counter which is called as scaler. Suitable arrangements are made to measure the counts
for a preset time interval. The schematic diagram of the G-M tube and the associated
electronic components is given in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the G-M tube and the associated electronics

Page - 15 - of 49
Experiment # 03 Characteristics of G.M tube

Experimental Setup:

Warning! Dangerous voltages can exist at the GM and SCINT connectors. Ensure that the
high voltage is set to zero or that the instrument is OFF before connecting or
disconnecting a detector.

1. Connect the ST360 to its AC adapter.

2. Connect a GM tube to the GM connector via a BNC cable.
3. Enter the HIGH VOLTAGE mode and set the high voltage to the recommended
value for the GM tube.
4. Place the radioactive source close to the GM tube‟s window.
5. Using the Operating Mode information described above, set the unit up to
perform the desired function.
6. Press the COUNT button to start data acquisition, the STOP button to halt data
acquisition (providing Preset Time is not being used), and the RESET button to
reset the time and data to zero.

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Experiments # 3:

Study of Characteristics of G.M tube

PURPOSE:

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the voltage plateau for the Geiger tube
and to establish a reasonable operating point for the tube. Fig. 3 shows count rate vs.
voltage curve for a typical Geiger tube that has an operating point in the vicinity of 500

Figure 3: Determination of Operating voltage

V.

Procedure

1. After setting up the equipment as described above place a source (

) in the lead castle at a suitable distance from the window of the
Geiger tube.
2. Find the voltage at which the GM tube just starts counting (~400V). Starting from
this voltage take the number of counts N(V) for 30 s, thrice at each voltage V, in

Page - 17 - of 49
Experiment # 03 Characteristics of G.M tube

steps of 20 volts. You will go over a plateau and should stop increasing the
voltage as soon as the number of counts starts increasing very rapidly.
3. Plot N(V) versus V. Choose a voltage on the central region of the plateau of N(V)
vs. V curve. Perform all subsequent measurements (described below) at this
voltage.
4. Identify from the graph / tabulated data
i. Starting Voltage
ii. Lower threshold voltage (V1)
iii. Upper threshold voltage (V2). It is called Breakdown threshold
voltage Discharge region.
iv. Calculate plateau, percentage slope, and plateau length, operating
voltage,etc.

Sr.No Voltage Counts (N) Background (Nb)

30 sec 30 sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

ANAYSIS & COMPUTATIONS

Estimate from the tabulated readings

 V1 = Starting voltage of plateau =

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Experiment # 03 Characteristics of G.M tube

(Just after rising edge of knee)

 V2 = Upper threshold of the plateau =
(Just before the start of discharge region)
 Plateau length VPL = V2 - V1 =
 Operating voltage V0 =

 The slope of the plateau is given by

( )

Where N1 and N2 are the count rates at the lower and the upper limits of the plateau and
V1 and V2 are the corresponding voltages.

Slope less than 10% is desirable

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

INTRODUCTION:

Systematic errors control the accuracy of a measurement. Thus, if the systematic errors
are small, or if you can mathematically correct for them, then you will obtain an accurate
estimate of the “true” value. The precision of the experiment, on the other hand, is related
to random errors. The precision of a measurement is directly related to the uncertainty in
the measurement.

Random errors are the statistical fluctuations during a measurement. If these values are
too close to each other, then the random errors are small. But, if the values are not too
close, then random errors are large. Thus, random errors are related to the reproducibility
of a measurement.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA:

Mean : Mean is the average value of a set of (n) measurements in an experiment.

Mathematically it is defined as

̅ ∑

Means is also called the average value.

Deviation : Deviation is the difference between the actual measured values and the
average value. Deviation from the mean, di is simply the difference between any data
point Ni , and the mean. We define this by

Page - 20 - of 49
Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

When we try to look at the error or average deviation, the value probably will become
zero because, we may have both positive and negative values which get cancelled. Yet an
average value of the error will be desirable, since 6it tells us how good the data is in a
quantitative way. Therefore, we need a different way to obtain the measure of the scatter
of the data.

Variance (s2) & Standard Deviation (s):

One way is to obtain standard deviation (s) which is defined as

(∑

Standard deviation is a square root of the variance, which is widely used to indicate about
the spread of our data.

∑
( )

2 (for large samples)

MEASURING BACKGROUND RADIATION:

In this section, several basic experiments are described to demonstrate the statistical
nature of radioactive processes. The importance of statistical methods in analyzing data
and estimating measurement uncertainties is also covered. The G.M. detector registers
pulses even when not exposed to radioactive sources. These pulses are caused by natural
and man-made radioactive isotopes found in our environment, and also by cosmic

Page - 21 - of 49
Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

radiation. The background radiation varies with time and depends on the local
environment, the building material, shielding and the weather. Hence, the background
count rate (counts per second) should be recorded before and after carrying out
measurements.

In the following discussion, the total number of counts recorded for a counting period
will be indicated by N (for count rate: N0) and background counts by B (background rate:
B0). The net count rate is given by NR = (N-B)/T (where T is the counting period in
seconds).

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

EXPERIMENT (A)

Make standard set up by connecting G.M. Counting System GC 601A/602A with G.M.
Detector placed in the optical bench or G.M stand as shown in figure (2 or 3). l Remove
the radioactive source from the source holder and set the preset time to 10 sec and take a
set of 100 readings and tabulate them as shown in table no. (3a). l Now plot a bar graph
for number of counts registered versus the Index Number say for group no. (1) as shown
in fig 6

Table 1

Index no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

BG Counts /10 sec 6 6 3 5 10 6 3 13 6 11

Now repeat the experiment, to have large data counts. Store the data for 100 sec. & take a
set of ten such measurements as shown in table (2) Plot these no. of counts Vs index no.
as shown in fig (5)

Table 2

Index no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

BG Counts /100 sec 69 63 68 62 63 61 66 70 61 67

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

We have already defined mean, variance and standard deviation at the beginning of this
chapter.

These parameters for the above set of tabulated background readings can be calculated as
follows:

Mean Value ̅

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

Variance: s2 = 6.53

Standard Deviation: s = 2.55

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

Figure 6: Plot of no. of pulses Vs. Index Number

Figure 5: Plots of no counts T=100 s for 10 measurements

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

Figure 7: Frequency distribution for 100 measurements of the background with T=10s

The sample variance is calculated with the divisor (n-1) to give an unbiased estimated
value for variance of the process.

INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS

The results follow a Poisson distribution on which practically all radioactivity

measurements are based. The results show that the mean value N is equal to the variance
s2; this is characteristic of the Poisson distribution.

The variance in any measured number of counts is therefore equal to the mean

value of counts. The square root of variance, the standard deviation is a measure of the
scatter of individual counts around the mean value. As a thumb rule we can say that
approximately 2/3 of the results are within one standard deviation of the mean value i.e.,
within the interval [ (N-s) and (N+s)]

Conversely, given the result from an individual measurement, the unknown 'true' count
lies within the interval [ N-ÖN and N + ÖN ] with a probability of approximately 2/3.

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

The above measured results of mean, variance and standard deviation follow Poisson
distribution. Results show that the mean value ( ̅ ) is almost equal to the variance ( )
which is characteristic of the Poisson distribution.

The variance in any measured number of counts is therefore equal to the mean value of
counts.

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

EXPERIMENT (B)

To illustrate that for number of counts recorded being high, Poisson distribution follows
closely normal or Gaussian Distribution.

PROCEDURE

Make standard counting setup as shown in figure (1) Place a Beta source about 2cm from
the end window of the detector. Record counts typically for a preset time of 25sec and
take 50 data readings. Compute Mean, Deviation and Standard Deviation and tabulate the
readings. Also compute other values, as indicated in the table.

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

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 Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

The average count rate for 'n' independent measurements is given by

The deviation of an individual count from the mean is (Ni -N). From the definition ̅ , it is
clear that

∑( ̅)

The Standard Deviation = N

EXERCISE

Make a plot of the frequency of rounded off events (Ni - N) Vs. the rounded off values.
Figure 8 Below shows ideal situation which is a Gaussian or Normal Distribution.

Two important observations can be made at this point, about gaussian distribution &
figure obtained above.

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Experiment # 04

Study of Nuclear Counting Statistics

 The distribution is symmetric about the mean value.

 Because the mean value is large, the adjacent values of the function are not

Figure 8: Plot of Frequency of Occurrence Vs Rounded of Values

greatly different from each other. i.e., the distribution is slowly varying which is
the expected behavior of a normal distribution.

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 Experiment # 05:

To study determination of beta particle range and maximum Energy (by half
thickness method)

PURPOSE:

To carry out the absorption studies on -rays with the aid of a GM Counter and hence to
determine the end point energy of -rays emitted from a radioactive source.

EQUIPMENT/ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:

 G.M Counting System 601A/602A with A.C main cord.

 G.M Detector (End window) stand (or) G.M Detector/source holder bench
 Radioactive source kit
 Aluminum absorber set

PROCEDURE:

 Make standard connections and arrangement between G.M. Counting system,

detector, absorber and source.
 Set the GM voltage at the operating voltage of the GM tube.
 Without source, make a few (about 5 readings) background measurements and
take an average of them for a preset time of say 60 sec.
 Compute Average background counts in 60sec (Ba = (b1+b2+b3+b4+b5) / 5).
 Compute Background rate = Ba/t (t = 60sec).
 Place a Beta source in the source tray at about 3 cm from the end window of the
GM tube.
 Take the Aluminium absorber set. Place an aluminium absorber of zero thickness
in the absorber holder at about 2 cm from the end window of the GM tube and
record the counts.

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Experiment # 05

To study determination of beta particle range and maximum Energy (by half
thickness method)

 The absorber thickness is increased in steps of 0.05mm and every time counts are
recorded. This process is repeated until the count rate becomes equal to or less
than half the count rate with zero absorber thickness.
 Data is to be collected for the standard source and the second source.
 Here in this case the standard source is Tl - 204 and the second source is Sr - 90.
Tabulate the data as shown in table. Density of Aluminum = 2.71g/cm3 (g/cm.
cube).

Table 3

 The below data is taken with Thallium (Tl - 204)

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Experiment # 05

To study determination of beta particle range and maximum Energy (by half
thickness method)

Table 4

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 Experiment # 05

To study determination of beta particle range and maximum Energy (by half
thickness method)

Figure 10

Figure 9

ANALYSIS & COMPUTATIONS:

PRINCIPLE:

The range of Beta particles is given by

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 Experiment # 05

To study determination of beta particle range and maximum Energy (by half
thickness method)

R0 = (0.52 E0 - 0.09) g/cm2 -- (1)

Where EO is the end point energy of Beta rays from the radioactive source in MeV. We
have the ratio of thickness required to reduce the counts of Beta rays from one source to
half to the thickness required for the other source is given by

-- (2)

EXERCISE:

 Subtract the background count rate from each measured count rate.
 Plot a graph of Net count rate (CPS) Vs absorber thickness (mg/cm 2) for
both sources.
 Draw the curve through these points as shown in Figure 10& Figure 9.
 From the plotted graph extrapolate and obtain thickness of aluminum
absorber required to reduce the count rate of Thallium and Strontium Beta
rays by half (t1½ and t2 ½).
 Substitute t1½ and t2½ in the above equation (2) and calculate the range
of rays (R2) from Sr90 source.
 Once we know the R2, we can find out the energy (E2) of Sr90 from
equation 1

For Thallium-204:

End point energy of Tl-204 = 0.764 MeV

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 Experiment # 05

To study determination of beta particle range and maximum Energy (by half
thickness method)

Rang of 204Tl = R1 = (0.52 E0 - 0.09) g/cm2

= (0.52 x 0.764 Mev - 0.09) g/cm2
= 0.30728 g/cm2

Thickness of Al absorber required to reduce the count rate of 204Tl by half,

t1½ = 34mg/cm2

Thickness of Al absorber required to reduce the count rate of Sr-90 by

half t2½ = 121mg/cm2

From Equation (2).

End point energy of 90Sr

( )

RESULT

End point energy of -rays from 90Sr = 2.28 MeV.

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 Experiment # 06

Measurement of short Half-Life

PURPOSE:

To determine short half-life of a given source, which can be obtained from a mini
generator or produced with a neutron source by activation.

EQUIPMENT/ACCESSORIES REQUIRED

 G.M. Counting system Type: GC 601A/GC602A

 G.M. Stand Type: SG 200
 End window G.M. detector Type: GM 120

Short Half-life source (Neutron activated Indium foil or Cs-137/Ba-137m isotope

generator, flask with eluting solution for generator)

PROCEDURE:

An Am-Be neutron source of strength of about 5Ci is in the Neutron Howitzer. The
maximum thermal neutron flux produced by this neutron source is about 4 x 104 n/cm2-
sec.

 Apply the required operating voltage for the GM tube.

 Place the irradiated indium foil under the window of the GM tube at a convenient
distance (1 cm) in order to get a good number of counts per second.
 Collect the counts for every 5 minutes for at least one hour.
 Note down the back ground count rate for 5 minutes, before and after the
experiment in order to subtract from the observed counts and record your
observations as shown in the Table below.
 Determine the count rate (N) for each interval of 300 seconds (5 minutes).
 Plot graph of log of the count rate (log N) versus time (minutes)

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 Experiment # 06

Measurement of short Half-Life

 It will be a straight line as shown below.

 Find the slope of the straight line graph using the least square fit methods (use the
formula) m = (nSxy - Sxy) / (Snx2 - (Sx)2)
 To determine the slope of the graph which gives the value of the decay constant.
 Where n = number of observations
 x = time interval, y = Log N

OBSERVATIONS

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 Experiment # 06

Measurement of short Half-Life

Background = 92/5 min = 18.4/min

Figure 11 Half life of indiom foile

ANALYSIS AND COMPUTATIONS

Intensity of radioactive source changes with time in accordance with relation

----- (1)

is the decay constant,

I is the intensity at any time t and Io is initial intensity.

The T1/2 by definition is the time required for the intensity to fall to one half of its initial
value.

Hence from equation (1) we have

In (I/I0) = - T ½

In (0.5) = - T ½

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Experiment # 06

Measurement of short Half-Life

Where T1/2 is half - life.

The above equation can be written as

Given the value of T1/2, one can calculate the value of 

HALF LIFE DETERMINATION:

The Log is actually natural Log and should be denoted by In.

EXERCISE:

 Subtract the background count rate from each measured count rate.
 Plot a graph of In (N) vs. elapsed time (min).
 This should give a straight line graph.
 From the plotted graph extrapolate and obtain T1/2
 Substitute T1/2 in the above equation to calculate the decay constant 

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Experiment # 07

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method

PURPOSE:

This experiment is designed to show the quantization of electric charge and allow
determination of the elementary charge, e.

INTRODUCTION:

As in Millikan‟s original experiment, oil drops are sprayed into a region where a uniform
electric field can be established, and the motions of drops are studied under the action of
the electric field being turned on and off.

Although this experiment will allow one to measure the total charge on a drop, it is only
through an analysis of the data obtained, and a certain degree of experimental skill, that
the elementary charge can be determined. By selecting drops which rise and fall slowly,
one can be certain that the drop has a small number of excess electrons. A number of
such drops should be observed and their respective charges calculated. If the charges on
these drops are integral multiples of a certain smallest charge, then this is a good
indication of the quantum nature of electricity.

THEORY:

An analysis of the forces acting on a charged droplet will allow determination of its
charge. Figure 13 shows the forces acting on the drop when it is falling in air and has
reached its terminal velocity (terminal velocity is reached in a few milliseconds for the
droplets used in this experiment). In Figure 13 vf is the velocity of fall, k is the coefficient
of friction between the air and the drop, m is the mass of the drop, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Since the net force on the drop is zero (constant velocity
motion),

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Experiment # 07

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method

----------------------------------------------------(1)

Figure 13 Figure 12

Figure 12 shows the forces acting on the drop when it is rising under the influence of an
electric field. E is the electric field, en is the charge carried by the drop, and vr is the
velocity of rise. Adding the forces vectorially (and assuming that terminal velocity has
been reached) yields:

In both cases there is also a small buoyant force exerted by the air on the droplet. The
buoyant force is taken into account by substituting ρ = ρoil – ρair for ρoil wherever the density
of the oil occurs in subsequent equations.

( )

where a is the radius of the droplet and ρ is the oil density (corrected for buoyancy).

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Experiment # 07

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method

To calculate a one employs Stoke‟s Law, relating the radius of a spherical body to its
velocity of fall in a viscous medium, namely

where η is the coefficient of viscosity of air.

( )√
√( )( )

However, for very small drops, the drop radii are on the order of the inter-molecular
spacing of the air in which the drops are moving. Thus, the assumption, implicit in
Stoke‟s Law, that the air can be treated as a continuous medium, is no longer valid. As
determined by Millikan, a correction factor of

( )

must be included in the expression for en to account for the inhomogeneity of the air. In the
correction factor, p is the atmospheric in cm of Hg, a is the radius of the drop (in m) as
calculated by the uncorrected form of Stoke‟s Law, and b = 6.17 × 10-6 m·cm Hg, a constant.

The electric field is given by E = V/d where V is the potential difference across the parallel
plates separated by a distance d. Substituting for the electric field and the correction factor
yields:

( )√
√ ( ) ( )

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 Experiment # 07

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method

Another method for determining the charge on the oil drop is to adjust the voltage (and
hence the electric field) until the oil drop floats. The charge on the oil drop is then given
by

√ ( ) ( )

where U = float voltage.

Apparatus:

The equipment supplied, as shown in Figure 3, consists of a stand supporting the oil drop
chamber, the light, and the measuring microscope; and a power supply for the light and
the voltage to produce the electric field in the chamber. In addition, an electronic digital
stopwatch is provided for measuring the rise and fall times of the oil drops.

An atomizer is used to produce the oil drops. The nozzle of the atomizer is placed against
the two boreholes of the chamber. A quick squirt will fill the chamber with drops which
become visible in the viewing area.

When determining the oil drop speeds, the actual distance, s, travelled by a drop is given
by

where y is the number of microscope scale divisions through which the drop moves. (Ask
your lab instructor to confirm that 2.017 is the correct number to use in this equation.)

NOTE: The optics of the microscope cause image inversion. ∴ Drops appear to rise under
gravity and fall when the electric field is on.

For the apparatus provided:

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 Experiment # 07

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method

( )
( )√
( )

( )

Procedure and Experiment:

Record the atmospheric pressure in cm Hg. All quantities other than the atmospheric
pressure are to be expressed in SI units.

For each of 10 oil drops, measure 4 sets of FIELD ON (500 V) and FIELD OFF times
and distances. (For FIELD ON the drops are actually rising but appear to fall, for FIELD
OFF the drops are actually falling but appear to rise.)

Also, for each drop, measure the float potential. (The float potential is the applied
voltage for which the drop has negligible vertical motion.)

To ensure that the drops are small and have a small number of excess charges, choose
drops which move slowly both when the field is on and when it is off.

For best results, ensure that some of the measured drops are moving at rise and fall speeds such
that it takes about 15 seconds to move 10 microscope divisions with the field on or off. It is also

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 Experiment # 07

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method

important that some of the drops move faster than this with the field on or off, so that you obtain
some drops with more than one excess charge.

Data for each drop should be recorded as follows:

Using the average rise and fall speeds calculate the charge on each drop. Using the
average fall speed and the float potential calculate the charge on each drop. (Note that the
subscripts in the equations refer to actual (rather than apparent) drop motion.)

An Excel spreadsheet is available to aid with the presentation and analysis of the data.
Note that you must do a complete set of sample calculations for one of the oil drops by
hand.

 Load the spreadsheet millikan.xls.

 If you are using a university computer, once the file has loaded save it to your
home directory (most likely on the h: drive) by selecting Save As... from the File
menu.
 Enter the time error in cell D4, the division error in cell D5, and the atmospheric
pressure and its error in cells J4 and L4.
 Enter the oil drop data in the appropriate cells of columns C, D, H, I, M, and O.
 Remember to periodically save your work. (Select Save from the File menu.)

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Experiment # 07

To determine charge of an electron by Millikan‟s oil drop method

 Print the spreadsheet by selecting Print... from the File menu. Unless you have
collected data for more than 10 drops you only need to print pages 1 and 2.
Therefore, in „Page Range‟ select „Page(s) From 1 To 2‟ and click on OK.
 Before leaving the lab, have your rough data and printed output signed by one of
the instructors.
By careful analysis of the results for each method (rise/fall method and float method),
verify the quantum nature of electric charge (i.e. the existence of an elementary
charge). Calculate the value of the elementary charge and compare to the accepted
value of 1.602 × 10–19C.

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