FiELD &M1SS10N AND VACUUM %REAKD0WN

G. N. Fursey
Bonch-Bruevich Electrotechnical Institute
of Communication
Leningrad, USSR

ABSTRACT
A survey is given on the development of the surface of
field emitters during the process of explosive emission.
Solid cathodes have been compared to liQuid cathodes.
The surfaces have been probed by application of se-
quences of nanosecond voltage pulses with different po-
latity (the first pulse serving for excitation of the
surface, the following for measuring the emission cur-
rent). As a result it has been firmly established that
maintenance of the emission process is due to formation
of liquid micropoints by the electrostatic forces of
the applied field.

1NTR0DUCTtON this point of view . Emitter heat ing by FE currents and

Vacuum break doun is a comp1*cated phenomenon con-
nected with a large amount of process es in strong elec-
tric fi elds . It is now f irmly es tab l i shed that field
emiss ion (FE) plays an important rol e at breakdown
initiation . FE appears also to be essential at the
stage of maintaining and devel opment oE the succeeding
di scharge process .
Moreover, FE is responsible fol appearance of
pre- breakdown currents, their interaction with
residual gases and electrodes. At this stage
there takes place considerable change of the
electrode surface micro- geometry, modifying the
conditions for breakdown ini- tiation . The most re 1i ab
le data are obtained for the prebreakdown phase .By the he lp
o E FE micros copy, physici sts succ eeded to di s ti ngui sh the
pure proces ses in ul crahi gh vacuum and to control
efficient ly surface state andvacuim gap geometry .
Never the les s , we st i 11 know very li tt I e about the
phase of explos i on of FE centers . On ly one re l i ab l e
fact is esvab I i shed , name ly the th erinal expl osi on of
a FE center over l oaded by FE current , 1eading t o ini -
tiation of explosive emission (EE) and development
of
a vaeuun breakdown . The present paper reports sorie new
resu lts ob tained during the las t years .
FIELD EMISSION IN THE PREBREAKDOhN PHASE
Dermal tnstobt/lty o/ a £E either
Inmany cas es (e speci al 1y under thorough cond i t i on ing
of e l ec trodes in high vacuum) vacuum breakdown i s ini -
t i ated by therna1 expl osion of a mi cro tip at the cathode
surface by the FE current [ l- 5] . The experiments of
Dyke [4, 5] , E linson [6, 7] , our group [8 - l3] , Mes yats
[14-19] and other invest igat ors ref1ected and deepened
the resu1ting thermal ins t abi l ity 1ead to trans i ti on
from field emission to explosive emission (1-2]
and vacuum breakdown.
In spite of the principal character of this resul I ,
its theoreti cal interpretati on is not suff i ei ent .
Actual ly all calcu l ations of thernal ins tabi 1ity have
been carried out for one-dimensional cathode geometry
(either cyl indric or conic) [S,6, 20 -24, 3S]. In these
models a uniform distribution of current and
temperature over every emitter cross section has
been assumed. The trios t important part be1ow the top of a FE
cathode was
excluded from consideration in these models. Moreover,
actua1 volume and surf-ace d is t r i but i ons of heat , and
the influence of a temperature field on these
sources, were not taken into account in the one-
dimensional mode1s . A cons i s t ent consideration oE al l these
facts
may be carried out on ly in a two -dimens i onal xiode l . In
the paper o I Hi t t erauer [2S ] an at tempt was made to ca I -
cu late the process of heat re1ease in a t ip with a form
close to real i ty. However, in thi s paper the same
assumptions were made as in [5,6,20-24,55], that
is, calculations were carried out actually in
one‹dimension-
al geometry .
In [26] the authors presented ca1cu1at i ons of ki ne -
tics of heating for a tip with axial symmetry with a
form approximated by the method of Dyke et a 1 . [27 J .
As heat sources the Not t i ngh ant eT:Ee e t 1 oca 1 i zed at th e
surface and volume effects of Joule and Thompson have
been cons i dered . In Fi g . la we pres ent the map of iso-
thePms calculated for a W tip the form given in
with the same Figure , the top radi us being eqnal
curvature tO 0 . 4 pih . Ini ti a1 at the emitter
current densi ty in thi s case i s eqnaI to 2 top
•10 ' A/ cv
At th e ini t i al stage , the main contribution to heat-
ing of the emit ter i s connected with the Nottingham
effect , since the temperature of any point of the sur-
face i s lower th an che invers ion temperature . Further
on, the temperature of the emitting surface near
the top becomes higher than the inversion
temperature which causes Nottingham cooling and
leads to a displacement of the temperature maximum 3200 t=48
from the surface into the bulk. Simultaneously, the
2800 ns 640
rate of temperature rise of the emitting surface
decreases. However, a complete stabilization of the 2f›00 0
temperature of the top is not achieved. In Fig. lb 6000
we present the dependence of tem- 5#go
perature of the t op <s and the max i num temperature 7p on the t
ilne (curves 1, 2, respective1y).

In the tip vo 1nine a domain of high temperature i s

formed (see Fig . 1c ther o we pres ent the temperature Jb00
di stribut ion along the emit ter axis for various mornen ts 200
of t i ze) . The va lue fy in the cen tra 1 part of the do- 0
main may become hi gher than the surface temperature of
1000 L even in the cas e when the me It ing poi nt i s not
achieved at the surface . In thi s case gi ant therzo-
elast ic stres ses are created . The va lue oE tangential
stresses at the tip surface exceeds 2• 10 Pa . such 6000
s tre ss es may des t roy the t ip before me I t ing .

I f the t ime of t ip des t ructi on by th ernal tens i on ex - ’000

ceeds the specific time of energy input, overheating
of 6000
the domain is pos s ib1 e . In thi s case destruction of *he
emitter surface will lead to an injection of a steam-
liquid mixture into the vacuum gap (the degree of
ioni-
zation may be sufficiently high).
3000
2000
I nt ens ive re 1 eas e of energy may be 1oca 1 i zed in very 1000
small volumes. It appears that even in the case of
classical (initially smoothed on an atomic level)
FE tip emitters there exist several mechanisms
favoring calization of FE and of the corresponding
’°- 0 \ 2 3 4 5 6 I tns/
energy re- leased by the current in a small surface
domain.

One of such nechani sris is a deforoational sharpening

of the top of the tip by strong eIectric fi elds in a pre-
breakdown phase, recent 1y observed in the nano- 6000
s econd range [ 28] .

The se cond i s the appearance of submi cros copi c pro-

5000
tuberances at the FE cathode surface. It is
connected with spontaneous surface migration in 6000
the field which ensures the emis s i on process [29] .
The activation energy in thi s case i s i mparted by heat y
ing the top b the FE current of high dens ity .
3o00
2000
In a re cent study [28] of
7 FE in the nanosecond range 1000
with fields of 7x10 V/cm and current densities of 107
A/ cm 2 , a spont aneous increase of the FE - current has
been ob served , the de1ay I ime i$ being 410 ns (Fi g . 2 a) .

The current increases approximately by 1.8 times

2 3
in this case. The delay time decreases linearly
with in- crease of the electric field f_. For
Sxl07 A/cm
E_>l0’ V/cm2)(j›
the current increase starts / ed fler heat:ing by f! e!d
A/en 2
at the pulse front. The current densities are
approxi- mately one order of magnitude smaller than
those at which the emitter is destroyed by emission
heating.
That is why the spontaneous current increase for
rect- tangular voltage pulses cannot be connected
with emitter heating. It was suggested [30) that the
effect is con- nected with defomation of the emitter
top by pondero- motiye forces of the electric field.
The deformation
of the FE emitter top has been studied in further
ex- periments {28].

K A/cm’)
b coinparati vely
Lbl By app Election o/ a posit?ue no /ta9e putse poor
De£ormati on was achieved by app lying vo lt age pre-
pulses of posi ti ve po1ari ty fron a generator of doub le
pu1s es , to 11owed by the negative FE -pu l s e . The dura-
tions iy and z_ of these pulses con ld be independently
varied I rom 0 to 80 ns . The i nterval At between the
back front of the positive pulse and the leading
edge of the negative pulse was varied from 0 to
155 ns. The amplitudes Uy and U_ could be modified
independently aS well.
then a pre-pulse (lie ld strengfih on the tip £’+U 10'
V/cm) i s appl ied at fixed th, the FE - current increases
by 1 . 3 to l . 7 times in comparison to the case when a
singl e pulse flu i s applied . The coefficient £ of the
current increas e decreases 1inear ly with the increase
of the interval ht between the pu1s es (Fig . 2b) . Be-
ginning with durations ›50 ns, .¥ depends weakly on the
value of i . Extrapo l ation of- the s tralght line in
Fig. 2b enabl es us to evaluate the relaxation eime dur-
ing which the emitter returns to initial sdate . For N
tips in the inves tigated range of I-i elds it is 180 ns .
Stationary voltage- current characteristics obtained be-
t-ore and after appl i cation of p*.ired pu1s es coincide .
The experiments perforiried show that applying electric
fie1ds wi th N10' V/cm to FE emi t t ers leads to elas t i c
deforiaati on and to increase of FE current . It may be
connected both with cathode sharpening and with modi-
fi cation of the surface properti es under load .
As obsemed in [29], the FE cathode top is
spontan- eously built up when reaching the maximum
current den- sity, i.e. the microrelief is
modified due to surface self-diffusion of atoms
in the strong electric field. The activation
energy for the surface migration was ob- tained by the
Jou1e di ss ipation and Not tingham effect
together wi th the hi gh densi ty emiss ion current (yx10 7
The efficiency of FE cathode heating i ncreas es with
the appearance of ni cropzotrus ions due No localization
of heat . I t leads to a further development of tire mi -
crorel ief, to an increase oE local strength of electric
field and field emiss i on current density, and final1y
to an exp l os ion of one or s evera l mi crotips with subse-
quent destructi on of the whol e FE cathode and devel op-
ment of a vacuun breakdown .
Thus, the spontaneous rearrangement of the FE
cathode is, apparently, one of the decisive
reasons for the in- stability of FE at maximum
current densities with atom- ically clean
surfaces.
Up to now, the migration processes could not be
re- gistered directly under such conditions since
in the pPeexplosive phase of FE when the space
charge has large influence on the process, the FE
gives low image contrast. To observe the build-up
effects, it was necessary to observe "fzoaen" tracks
of build-up (after obtaining the max imuxi current dens ity) at
1ow current densi ties (410 2 A/ cm2) (/ g . 5b) . I t was
es tab I i shed that the degree oI spontaneous sur I-ace re -
arrangement depends essentially on the current
pulse duration. It increased for repeated
switching on the vo lt age pulse of a fixed duration (Fig . 5c) .
The FE current during spontaneous bui ld -up changes
with time, the amplitude of the voltage pulse
being cons tant (Fig . 3c) . No stages of FE current al
tera- tions are distinctly observed: region I is
a stage of
rapid growth , and the quasi -scat ionary region I I is a
stage of comparatively slow current increase.
The character of the osci11ogran (1, F ig . 3c) is the
s ame fpr the whol e t ime interval from 10 6 to 10 2 s .
This :fact denons trates the common a l ity of the processes lead
ing to FE i ns t abi 1ity and to vacuum breakdown under these
cond i ti ons .
 IEEE Tea-sa.:ticn-
b [19].
It should be noticed that an increase of the
current in a preexplosive phase of FE (Fig. 5c)
cannot be ex- plained by a dependence of the g-
factor on the time ($=8/V where N is the field
strength at the FE cathode surface, and U the
voltage between FE cathode and anode of the
pzojectot). In a preexplosive phase the
current- voltage characteristics for smooth and
built-up FE cathodes are practically the same due to
the high cur- rent density and the influence of the
space charge.
Thus, from our point of view, the current increase
(Fig. 3c, 1) during the pulse is caused bY an
increase of temperature of the FE cathode top in the
process of spontaneous build-up.
As noticed earlier [31,35], the lowering of FE
cur- rent rise rate (Fig. 3c, region II) is caused
by tem- perature stabilization in a surface domain
of FE cathode top due to Nottingham effect
inversion.
this case the inversion temperature f* may be
deter-
mined by th e Murphy- Good Theory [ 32 J : yy,ZJ = 1
1 . 4 ^10 (9/ g) p2 where is the work function, eV; £’ is
the field strength, V/cm; T is the temperature K, and
Jy. j are the current densities for
temperature T=O , respective ly . The results o:I of
cal cul ations version temperature, where we
condidered
are in a good agreement other methods
El=ctrlcal Insulation VoZ. EI-2’J Wo. €, gu=t gqQ_
EXPLOSION OF FE EMITTERS INITIATING VACUUM
BREAKDOWN AND EXPLOSIVE EMISSION
The decisive stage in initiating vacuum breakdown
is the electric explosion of a local field emission
center. Explosive destruction of a FE tip
takes place under its overloading by FE current of
high density. The ex- perimental data obtained show
that this electric explo- sion takes place at high
energy density and high velo- city of its input.
Possibly, the energy deposited into the top volume
reaches several times the energy of sub- limation
In accordanctwith the conventional ter-
minology, this is a nonstationary phase explosion
[36,37]. Explosion of a microtip is accompanied by
transition of the cathode matter into a dense
plasma.
The mechanism of this phase transition is not
completely understood up to now.
Really, localization of energy at the cathode and
thermal explosion may be achieved by different ways,
for example, by the impact of a microparticle, by
laser radiation, by creation of a dense plasma cloud
over a local domain, etc. However, field emission of
high density is one of the most probable and natural
process- es in strong electric fields specific for
vacuum break- down.
The fundamental process in the cathode microdomain
explosion is the excitation of intensive electron
emission into a vacuum gap I1,2,B8]. This kind of
emission was called explosive emission (EE) due to
the conditions of its creation. EE is connected
with con- tinuous modification of the cathode
surface. During EE some emission centers are
destroyed while new centers are formed because of
h the interaction of a dense plasma with the cathode
surface. Maintenance of explosive emission and the
possibility of reiterations with re- peated pulses
are determined by reproduction of new emission
centers.
In comparison to known kinds of emission the EE
may be classified as a the of emission connected
with taking down the potential barrier [38,40]. The
explo- sive transition of condensed cathode matter
into a dense plasma changes continuously the matCer
density. So the barrier changes from a sharp step
to a diffuse, wide and low potential hump. Such an
idea appeared and was discussed more than once
(see, for example [4l]j. Recently it %as expressed
in a most definite form by Yuriev and Martsynovski
[40]. Besides the idea of
barrierless emission, Livshitz and Meyerovitch
consid- ered the possibilit Y °* a re so nance
character of explo-
sive emission [42].
In
'I and
in-
[33,54].
wi th the 2”¿ - val ues obt ai
ned by F'! g. 4 : mode ! o
sueees st ve
stages o f the vacuum
break in [1] .
 MAINTENANCE OF EMISS10N AND D1SCHARGE process was experimentally confirmed by Mesyats,
Proskurovski et a1. [19], our group 112] and in the
PROCESSES IN VACUUM most distinct form in experiments [48-51] (where
plasma near the cathode surface was artificially
created).
The next essential stage in formation of the
cathode processes at vacuum breakdown is maintaining
(repeating) the initial act of release of matter and
charges in vacuum gaps. The explosion plasma spreads
over the cathode surface, interacts with it, and
influences new microdomains leading to subsequent
explosions and devel- opment of active surfaces.

An early qualitative model[1,43] was as follows.

At the surface of a real cathode there are always
micropro- trusions. The FE current of high density
flows through the sharpest micropoint (Fig. 4a).
This FE current ex- plodes the microtip and forms a
cloud of dense plasma. In the region of surface
covered by the cloud the field strength increases
sharply which leads in its turn to explosion of
neighboring microtips (Fig. 4b). Further- more,
these explosions may be repeated due to capture
of new surface regions (Fig. 4c).

Mesyats et al. 2,l4,lS] performed direct

experiments using ultrahigh-speed photography of
high sensitivity in synchronous registration of
cathode plasma expansion (Fig . 6) and current i
ncrease. It was shown that
actua1ly (Figs. 4 and 6) at the ini ti a1 s tage of vacuum
b reakdown, pl as ma appears at firs t at the local point s
of the surface and only then the process spreads over
the surface . An i mens ive e l ectron beara i s exci ted
synchronous 1y wi th the appearance o I p1as ma .

Later on it has been established that processes

taking place at explosion of a single tip are
similar to the local processes at a macroscopical
sutface [44-46]. It was shown that the
velocity of plasma expansion at microtip explosion
is the same as that in experiments with extended
surfaces. Correlations in the
development of the processes in time were
established, too.

The model of the phenomenon suggested in [1,46]

appeared to be valid in main features. Different
links of the model are well confirmed by numerous
experiments. Explosive character of matter release
is confirmed by our group, investigations of
Mesyats, Proskurovski et a1 47-49], Jdttner [SOI and
others. Maintenance of the
 But the question about maintaining the process
remains still open. We suggested the process is due
to the strong electric field that acts on the
boundary plasma- metal. This field ensures the FE
from separate micro- tips, sufficient for their
explosion.

When a liquid phase 1s formed at the cathode

surface the electric field may lead to stretching
the microtips by Tonks-Frenkel mechanisms S2-S4].
Now there is also another model of microtip
formation developed by Hantzsche [55,56]. Jdttner
[59,60], Mesyats [19,58] and others. In
accordance with this model the micro- tip formation
is connected with hydrodynamics of
liQuid metal motion caused by high pressure of the
cathode dense plasma torch: plasma produces
pressure on the liquid layer of molten metal
forcing it out to the periphery and throws the
drops out. The drops in the process of taking off
may form a tip. It should be noticed that tips are
often formed in direction
tangential to the surface.Recently Proskurovski et al.
[19,48] suggested an idea concerning possibility of
producing strong electric field between the drop
taking off and the residual tip. This field may be
sufficient for intensive FE and explosion of a tip.
More recently Mesyats (61] suggested that high
current densities necessary for explosion process are
concentrated in a narrow neck formed before the drop
takes off.

Analysis of the data available shows that

apparently both stretching of the tips by the
electric field and their formation due to splashes
of liquid metal take place at different stages of
cathode surface evolution. However, we believe that
stretching of the tips by the
 zt’:r*' Imz '1 =tir n %’:l. EI '’’' ^1'a.", c'q-:t

eloctiio field is i more essenti:il process. 1t ir surface to achieve hetter conserva- tion [65] and
hard to imagine that onlv hydiod amiss of increase of a pzotuherance growth. It is
the motion of a liquid under pressure may ensure
such an accurate con- nection as exists in vacuum
discharges between tie form of a protuberance,
emission process, conditions of ex- plosion of a
local surface domain and the external circuit
,arametel’s.

Microtips corresponding in shape to those

stretched by electric fields are ohservef
practically in all ex- periments where the
conditions for their freezing appear to be
favorable. Trackr of such a stretching were
observed in our experiments more than once [12,
13,62-68]. In particular in Fig. 7 we present a
pic- ture of formation of mi°*°"Ps after repeated
excitation of EE on Cu microti, under its deep
cooling up to 4.2 K [68a. Deep cooling enabled us
to conserve microtips hetter than at 300 K. One can
distinctly see groups of comparatively large molten
protuberanccs perpendicular
to the microtip surface. It is essential that in the
top region of the exploded tip one can observe
micro- protuberances of submicron dimensions. In
Fig. 8a we present the result of stretching of
rather lengthy pro- trusions at an Au surface. In
this case after a break- down pulse we applied a
voltage pulse of opposite Folar- ity to the cathode
hardlv probable that .such stretched protuberances
per- pendicular to the surface are formed as a
result of throwing a liQuid mctal out.

1,um
Recently Cabovich and Poritskl [69,70] obtained
experi- mental evidence of stretching of microtips
in the field of a plasma Pace charge. Thev [54].
stretched tips in the field of a hydrogen plasma
(Fig. 5). The voltage
°PPlied was equal to only 500 V on a gap of #5 cm.
In
the center of the ion beam a crater was formed,
metal being splashed out on the cold surface of
metal. We
succeeded in freezing tips on the crater
periphery where the laver of liquid metal was
thin - at the ”shallow water" according to the
terminology of the authors [69].
Fuwsey: FI eJ d em1 ss1 on and vacuum b ea LI down

As seen on Fig . S, all ti:ps are high and thin . In a num-

ber of cases in the process of stretching , narrow necks
were forned on the tips and drops were taken off . The
forms of lips resemble those observed in our exp los ive
eniss ion experiments (cf. for exarap ie Figs . S and 8a) .
The character of the surface deve lopxient is in good
agreement with the model sugges ted in [ l , 45] (Figs . 4
and 5) .

Our group performed calculations of d)mamics

of stretching microprotuberances in strong electric
fields [54]. Analysis of protrusion profiles
shows that at high stretching velocities in 10
electric fields one can observe configurations
(Fig. 8b) similar to those pre- sented in Fig. 8a
and Fig. S. It is also 4hown that a crater-1ike
hole is always formed in the stretching process. 10

10
I t was shown above that the process of- explosive i5
entssi on (EE) initiated by s Wrong e 1 ectric fields is
supported in the 1ater stages by creation and local
e1ectric explosion o£ ni ceos copi c protons ions at the
cathode surf ace directly under the plasma . Essemi
al
ro1e of maintaining the process of EE i s connected with
presence of a 1i quid phase at the surface . The nodi- preceded f!e!d puUses .
fi cation of the cathode surface mi crogeometry was in-
vestigated np to not only by The final stage - by
”I-ro zen” marks at the cathode surface after EE .

In a number of recent papers [71-74] we succeeded in

obtaining inforiaati on concerning the dynani cs of the
local process at the cathode surface directly from the Sugges I:ed /orz o f ! nduoed r;'forot?ps.
kinetics of the emission current .

The main difficulty is connected with the fact

that discrete processes developing under the
plasma at the cathode surface are weakly expressed
in the emission current . The reason iS the inf luence
of the space charge of- the electron beam and the screening
of the cathode processes by the dense plasma .
Limitation of the surface in our
experiments was achi eved by placing the cathode matter
into a thin capi llary with die lec- tric wal1s so What
only the butt end remained open as eini t ting park . The
working surface of the cathode had dimens ions equal to 10"
0 to 10 8 m° . As cathode ma- Serial we uti li
zed liquid Ga, liquid all oy of KNa , graphite , Cu, Au, and
W. The main resu1ts were ob-
tained for currents o£ 0 . I to 2 A .

The. rtain idea was the study of the response of EE to

preceding pulses o:I the e lectri c I i eld (preliminary
exci tation of the li quid surface by s trong electri c
fields) . Pte appli ed a single voltage pulse of positive
po lari ty th to the liquid metal cathode (Ga) ; then /•0 80 120 ottns/ 40 80 120 J60otg§
after the time interval At a negative pulse V_ ini ti
ating EE was app1i ed . he inves ti gazed the form and
aripli tude of EE current as a function of fif (The vo ltage
diagraris are given in the upper part of Fig. 9).
and crorests Z o f- EE
The deve lopment of mi cro- i nhomogenei fii es on the cath - in I:he prone ss o f eu r›-face
ode under inf luence of the e le ctri c lie Id leads to a
consi derab Ie increase oE the current amp1 i tude (2 to 5
t imes , s ee e . g . 1 ' and 2, 5, 6 in F ig . 9) , and to an
increas e by a Imos t ten times of the curren t putse front
slope (Fig. 10). Furthermore, specific peaks occur Ga-ea thode s .
in the current oscillogiams (2, 3).
 face tension forces. This leads to a considerable
de- crease of the geometrical factor B=h/r. After
reaching maximum value the EE current decreases
during a time of
At {5 to 5xl0-' s. To be sure that the effects
observed are connected with the excitation of
liQuid surface by electric fields, we performed a
decisive experiment with a solid graphite cathode.
In this case pre-exci- tation of a solid surface by
field does not influence the process of EE .

In a second experiment we investigated how the

field pulse is transmitted to the surface and how it
influ- ences the excitation of a liquid surface in
4080 120 J60 200 the pre- sence of a dense plasma above the surface
created by preliminary explosions. This experiment
was carried on in two regimes: the exciting field
50 pulse had (A) "anti- emission" sign (Uy at the
cathode, Fig. 9b), and (B) "emission" sign (U_ at
the cathode, Fig. 9c). The ex- perimental procedure
J00 was as follows. The EE plasma was created by the
first pulse of explosive emission, then
150 we app lied the pulse of exci t ing fie Id , and wi th the
third putse ne analy zed the res ponse (Fi g . 9, voltage
diagrams) . Here three essentia1 result s were ob tained .
40 80 120 160 200 t (ns
(1) The character of EE k inet i cs of a Iiquid surface i n
vacuum (compare Fi gs . 9b and 9c wi th 9a) does not v ary .
50 (2) The pres.ence of p las ma near the cathode surface
favors a more effective expans i on of a 1 iquid me t a 1 by
100 e Iectri c lie 1ds , thus i ncreas ing EE response (Fi g . 9) .
(5) I t i s es s enti a1 that i f the pre-exci tation immedi -
150 ate ly precedes the thi rd tri al pu lse (coupare 11 , 12 ,
and 7, 8 in Fi g . 9) the EE res ponse decreas es in con-
pari son wi th the prey i ous current pu1se . Thi s e ffect
40 80 120 160 200 unambi guous ly demons tra tes that EE k ine ti cs cannot be
expIained only by EE p las ma exci tat i on .

50- To clarify this last point, we carried out an

addi- tional experiment with a sequence of two EE
100 oulses, varying the EE current in the first pulse
(Fig. 11). The current / in the first pulse
increased from 2.S A up to 140 A.
150-
It was observed that while the current J
200- increases, the value of J changes: it increases at
I the beginning and then it decreases (in comparison
to the first pulse for the overall interval 8t)
(Fig. 11).

Intensification of EE in the first pulse is due

We obtained al so a couplet e ly unexpected resu II -
the rlaxi muxi res ponse of EE to the s t i riul ation o£ the
1 i quid surface by e1ectri c fie 1ds does not take p lace i
immediate ly after applying the fi eld but with cons id-
enable delay (ct . l- 3, Fig . 9, Fig . 10) .
Since there are no other factors, we conclude
that modification of emission process in this
case is uniquely determined by perturbation of
the cathode surface . A very essencia1 fact is that
the process of excitation by the field appears to be
separated in time from the process of maximum
excitation of a liquid surface . This means that the mi
crore1ief of a l i qui d surface is formed as a result o:I
the inertial charac- ter of the lnotiqn . After maxi
mun deve1opment , the
mi cro cips begin to shrink under the i nfl uence of sur-
to the considerable increase of electric field at
the
cathode. At the same time this increase leads to a
more intensive development of tite chathode
microrelief and
to considerable acceleration of pulling out of
micro- tips from the liquid metal surface. This
leads to a significant reduction of delay in the
formation of the microrelief and increase of the
probability of explo- sion of excited
microprotrusions even in the first EE pulse. For
this reason, at reaching a certain EE in- tensity
(in our experiment for J =80 A), practically alI
miciotips fomed explode under the influence of the
first pulse. That is why there are no microtips at
the surface during the interval 8A (after pulse
excita- tion), the cathode microrelief has no time
to develop, and the second current pulse amplitude
remains the same as that in the first one (Fig.
11). With further forcing of explosive emission (/
=l40 A), during the first pulse we obseme not only
acceleration of the development of the chatode
microrelief, but also such a strong destruction
that at the arrival of the second
pulse the strongly destroyed liquid surface has no
time to restore to its initial state. Apparently,
the for- mation of a hollow at the cathode
surface takes place due to intensive
material loss during the first pulse.
I t 1eads to a considerab1e decrease of the lie ld at the
cathode surface and , therefore to a decrease of EE in-
tens i ty in the second put se in coxipari son to the I irse
one (Fig . 11c) .

In a third experiment we Sri ed to change dynani cs and

magnitude of The e f fect by modi lying phys ical and mechan-
ical properti es of a 1iquid meta1 . be expected that
creaking favorab l e conditions on the cathode (decrease
of the denisty P , surface tens ion coef fi ci ent o and
work function I) can ess ential ly int ensi fy the explosive
enission process.

We used the liQuid alloy KNa which possesses

small (in comparison to liQuid Ga investigated
earlier) values of o and p (for KNa they are equal to
o=110 dyn/cm, p=0 . 6 g/cm 2 ) . The ef £ect of EE
intensi:fica- t ion expected for decreas ing values of o and p
of the
cathode materi al was comp1 ete ly confirmed :

(1) Replacing the Ga cathode by KNa under adequate

ex- ternal conditions (similar geometry of the
cathode - anode gap, equal values of the cathode
surfaces and the same value of anodic voltage) we
obtained an increase of EE by more than five times
(Fig. 12), i.e. a current pu1s e /=80 to 100 A from the
sur:face of a KNa l iqui d cathode wi th capi11ary diameter dz--
200 pm .

In this experiment single voltage pulses were

applied to the cathode with a front s lore equal to 2 ns , a
dur- ation of 80 ns , and an amp l i tude of 20 kV . The
length of The anode- cathode gap was 3 m .

[A§
90

(2) In the case of KNa alloy the time of the

current increase up to maximum after the pulse
excitation of the cathode surface becomes much
smaller in comparison to the case of Ga. This
means that microtips on KNa are formed during the
excitation pulse, and more effec- tively than in
the case of Ga. The result obtained confirm our
point of view formulated above: the small values
of u and p make the excitation of microtips
for liquid alloy easier, the response in EE current
being accelerated and strengthened.

In a fourth experiment we investigated the solid

cathode. We asked the following Question: what is
the role of a liquid phase in EE kinetics if
initially the cathode matter is in the solid
state?

Investigations were carried out with solid frozen

Ga, Au, Cu , W , and C . The main res u1ts were
obtained for graph i te , since formati on of a 1iquid phase in
thi s case i s di ffi cult [74] .

I Inst As was established above at a certain stage the

E=10 6 V/cm 50 ns solid cathode surface turns into a liquid state.
Investiga- tion in a scanning microscope of the
"eroded" surface in the EE process shows that even
graphite melts [74, 76]. We succeeded [74] in
discovering not only marks of graphite melting but
appearance of hydro-capillary waves at its liquid
surface and formation of microtips on it (Fig. 13).
The nature of alterations on the sur- face is
similar to that observed for metals (see Fig.
13 and Figs. 5, 7).
 The procedure in the case of an initial solid
cathode is practically the same as in experiments ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with liquid cathodes. The first EE pulse created a
liquid phase, during the second pulse excitation of The author would like to express his gratitude to
a liquid graphite surface was produced, during the Ptof. O. A. Dyuzev, Dr. L. M. Baskin, Prof. L. N.
third (probing) pulse we observed the system Savushkin and Mr. Yu. R. Kanskii for reading the
response to this excitation. manu- script and useful discussions.
The results obtained are qualitatively
identical to those presented in Fig. 9.
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P0
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in a

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