Chapter #3

CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATION
INTRODUCTION
Foundation is one of the most important parts of the structure. Foundation is defined as that part
of the structure that transfers the load from the structure as well as its own weight over a large
area of soil in such a way that the load does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
and the settlement of the total structure remains within a tolerable limit. Foundation is the part of
a structure on which the building stands. The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called
the foundation bed.
If bearing capacity of soil is less then and building is kind of heavy on then load of the building
is exerted down deep into the ground through foundation is called deep foundation. This
foundation may be of type like pile foundation, well foundation and caisson foundation. These
foundations are usually design for multi-story building and bridges.
Why foundations are provided?
Foundation should fulfill the following objectives:
 Distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of soil.
 Avoid unequal settlement.
 Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.
 Increase structural stability.
Why there are Different Types of Foundation
As we know that there are different types of soil and bearing capacity of the soil is different for
each individual type of soil. So depending on the soil profile, size and load of the structure,
engineers chose different types of foundation.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
In general, all foundations are divided into two categories, such as SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
and DEEP FOUNDATIONS. The terms Shallow Foundation and Deep Foundation refer to the
depth of the soil at which the foundation is placed. Generally, if the width of the foundation is
greater than the depth of the foundation it is labeled as “Shallow Foundation” and if the width of
the foundation is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called as “Deep Foundation.”
However, shallow and deep foundations can be further classified as shown in the following chart.
Main aspects of different types of foundation along with their images are given below. As
economic feasibility is one of the main factors in foundation type selection, it is also discussed
briefly with each type of foundation. To know other factors which affect the selection of
foundation read: Factors Considered for Selection of Foundation.

DESIGN OF FOUNDATION
Design of foundation include width, depth and block course of foundation. Its methods are given
below.

1) Width of foundation
The width of footings should be laid according to structural design. For light
loaded buildings such as houses, flats, school buildings etc. having not more than
two storeys, the width of foundation is given below:
i) The width of footing should not be less than 75 cm for one brick thick wall.
ii) The width of footing should not be less than 1 meter for one and half brick
wall.
Rules is used for this purpose
Width= 2T+30_______cm.
Width= 2T+12_______inches.
Where T is equal to thickness of wall
Formula for 2uble story building is given below.
Width = P/Pb
Where P = total load acting on the foundation
And Pb = safe bearing capacity of soil.

2) Depth of foundation.
There are many types of building foundations. With the exception of slab-on-grade foundations,
which are laid at ground level, most foundations may be installed at a variety of depths. The
required depth of any foundation can depend on several factors:
 Soil bearing capacity. This determines how much load (weight or force) the existing soil can
withstand.
 Soil type. Different types of soil have different properties that can affect their suitability for
supporting a foundation.
 Frost depth. The depth to which the soil freezes in the coldest time of the year, known as the
frost depth or frost line, often is used to determine the minimum depth for many types of
foundations.
 Groundwater table. A high groundwater table can limit the foundation depth as well as the
type of foundation that can be used. Groundwater height is usually included in a soil study.
 Minimum depth. Disregarding other factors, the minimum depth of a foundation typically is
not less than 18 inches to allow for the removal of topsoil and variations in ground level.

Depth for every types of foundation for ordinary soil can be formulated as per RANKINE as
follow:
 pb 1−sinθ 2
Depth ¿ ( )
w 1+sinθ
Where pb = safe bearing capacity
W = unit weight of the soil
Φ = angle of repose
3) Thickness of concrete block
The thickness of concrete block can be determine by the following formula
d = j√3p/m
where j = offset of base concrete [ 15cm or 6 in]
p = safe bearing capacity of soil
m = modules of rapture of concrete [ 2.46 – 5.27 kg/cm2]

PROBLEM#
Design the simple foundation for a wall 30cm thick assuming 6500 kg/m load of wall and 7500
kg/m2 bearing capacity of soil.
Teke 3.5kg/cm2 as modules of rapture of concrete used in foundation bed and 30o angle of repose
of the soil. While density of soil is 1500 kg/m2
SOLUTION
Total load per meter length = p = 6500 kg
Bearing capacity of soil = pb =7500 kg/m2 or 0.75 kg/cm2
Density of soil = w = 1500kg/m3
Modules of rapture = m = 3.5kg/cm2
Angle of repose = Φ = 30o
Width of foundation = p/pb = 6500/7500 = 0.867m say 0.9m
By thumb rule width = 2T+30
= 2x30+30 = 90cm or 0.9m [ OK ]
pb 1−sinθ 2
Depth of foundation =D= ( )
w 1+sinθ
7500 1−sin 30 2
= (
1500 1+sin 30
)
=
0.55m say 0.6m
= or 60 cm
Depth of concrete block = d = j√3p/m
(Assuming J = 15cm) = 15x√3x0.75/3.5
= 12.027cm say 15cm

CONSTREUCTION OF BRICK MASNORY LOAD NEARING WALL

Load bearing masonry construction is one of the oldest and most widespread construction
techniques in the world. Every wall element in a load bearing masonry structure carries the load
to the foundation which is then transferred to the soil. Load bearing masonry construction is
mainly used to construct smaller residential buildings.
Load bearing masonry construction technique involves the placing of the masonry unit as a layer
one at a time. The masonry units are held together by means of mortar which imparts strength
and stability to the whole unit.
The key feature of a load bearing structure is that every wall acts as a load carrying element. To
meet this purpose, the walls are constructed strong with a thickness of 9 inches or more.
Procedure:
While doing brick masonry load bearing wall is constructed of cement mortar. This mortar may
have ratio of cement and sand from (1:3) & (1:6) usually this ratio is ordinary work is kept from
(1:4) to (1:5) brick joints should be of same thickness these joint should be have same thickness
of 6mm. vertical joint in layer of brick masonry should not resided on one another. Thickness of
wall is based on the amount of load intended to be exerted on it that may be length equivalent of
one brick or half brick.
Foundation of this wall id kept wide as per bearing capacity of the soil thickness of wall is spread
out to the width of foundation. It is done by keeping bricks thickness upto 10cm with provision
of off set so that wall thickness is spread out to the width of foundation height of brick id kept at
least 20cm.

FOUNDATION OF FRAME STRUCTURE BUILDING

A framed structure is a network of beams and columns joined up to form the skeleton framework
of the building. The structural frame carries the total load of the building and transfers it to the
foundation. ... The floor space will incorporate a large number of columns.
In frame structure building wall is not made as load bearing walls because load of the whole
building is transfer through beams and column. Foundation of such building is prepared by
keeping load of building and bearing capacity of the soil into mind.
Foundation of such building is of following types.
1) Isolated column base
2) Strap foundation
3) Raft foundation
4) Pile foundation
1) Isolated column base
Isolated footings are designed to sustain the applied loads, moments and forces
and the induced reactions and to ensure that any settlement which may occur is
as nearly uniform as possible, and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is not
exceeded.
In this foundation design separately for each column if building is of 2 or 3 story
and bearing capacity of soil is normal.

2) Strap foundation
When the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap
footing
A strap footing is a component of a building’s foundation. It is a type of combined footing,
consisting of two or more column footings connected by a concrete beam. This type of beam is
called a strap beam.
3) Raft foundation
Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil reinforced with
steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the structure to the soil. Usually, mat
foundation is spread over the entire area of the structure it is supporting.
Raft foundation is generally used to support structures like residential or commercial buildings
where soil condition is poor, storage tanks, silos, foundations for heavy industrial equipment etc.

Foundation for eccentrically loaded column

If in a frame structure building and there are a column with more exertion of load as compared to
the other column and combine foundation are proposed then these column are specially design in
accordance with the extra load being exerted in column and column with less bearing load are
designed in same manner.

Foundation for stair case

For stair case the foundation is laied from its flaight and its built below the floor level this
foundation is design as per bearing capicity of soil and live load working in it. Concrete block is
built deep below as per requirement.
Width of foundation id built equalent to the width of two steps when masonary is being done on
concret block. Then stair is built over it as per concrete design.

DEEP FOUNDATION
A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth farther down
from the surface than a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a range of depths.
Importance
Deep foundation is required to carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soils or
fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth, or for functional reasons. Deep
foundations are founded too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base bearing
capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished
ground level.
It has the following types.
1) Pile foundation
2) Well foundation
3) Caisson foundation

1) PILE FOUNDATION
Pile foundation a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender column or long cylinder made of
materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support the structure and transfer the load
at desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction. Pile foundations are deep foundations.
Following are the types of pile foundation
1) Bearing pile
2) Friction pile
3) Bearing cum friction pile
4) Batter pile
5) Sheet pile
6) Guide pile

1) Bearing pile
A bearing pile is a column to transmit the load of the building through a layer of soil too weak to
take the load to a stronger layer of soil some distance underground; the pile acts as a column to
carry the load down to the bearing stratum using a combination of shaft friction and end bearing.

2) Friction pile
Friction pile is a kind of pile foundation. This type of pile utilizes the frictional resistance force
between the pile surface and adjacent soil to transfer the superstructure load. Depending on the
subsoil strata condition, resistance force due to friction can develop in a definite pile length of on
the full length.
3) Bearing cum friction pile
Piles which resist the loads due to the combined action of end-bearing resistance (fb) at
the pile bottom and skin friction resistance (fs) over its surface along the length are known
as bearing-cum- friction piles.

4) Batter pile
It is type of pile provided when vertical pile cannot resist horizontal load effectively. It may be
grouped with vertical pile to increase its lateral capacity. It is constructed at an angle to the
vertical pile. Generally, for dry ground inclination angle should be 30° & for waterlogged area it
should be limited to 15° with horizontal.

5) Sheet pile
Sheet piles are most commonly made of steel, but can also be formed of timber or reinforced
concrete. Sheet piles are commonly used for retaining walls, land reclamation, underground
structures such as car parks and basements, in marine locations for riverbank protection,
seawalls, cofferdams, and so on…….
6) Guide pile
Guide pile is temporary wooden pile made during making of coffer dam in construction of bridge
or dam etc.

TYPES OF PILE ACCORDING TO MATERIAL

The piles have following types according to material

1) Wooden pile
When the wood is used for pile purpose then it is necessary that the pile is made of good timber
that has a straight threads outer of timber and removed before using this pile.
The pile is usually of circular in a shape with a diameter of 30cm to 40cm. the pile length is
kept 20 times of timber diameter.

Wooden pile have many advantages

like they are less expensive it is
easy to bring change in their shape
& easy to driven inside the ground
but also have some de merits like
cant be used in bearing extensive
load and also create a difficulties in
moisture area they are susceptible
to termite.

2) Sand pile
These pile are cost less and
suitable for none heavy building.
Holes are dig in various spots in
ground and filled with soil and
they are compacted firmly and
covered with concrete thereby
making small piles known as sand piles.

3) Concrete pile
Concrete pile made of 2 types
I) Precast pile
 II) Cast in situ pile

I) Precast pile
Precast Concrete Piles are displacement piles that are one of the most economical pile systems
on a cost per lineal foot per load supported basis.

APPLICATIONS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE PILES

■ Building Foundations – Heavy Loads and Soft Soils
■ Tall buildings subject to earthquake loading
■ Industrial buildings with significant horizontal or bending stresses
■ Tank Foundations
■ Embankment and MSE Wall Support
■ Warehouses with heavy floor loading
■ Power Plants

ADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONCRETE PILES

■ Minimal spoils – great for Brownfield Sites
■ Pile Capacity Confirmed on Every Pile
■ Design/Build process – provides highest value through efficient design
■ Mechanical Splices provide Faster Installation and Minimal Waste

II) Cast in situ

Cast-in-situ piles are those piles which are cast in position inside the ground. Since the cast-in-
situ piles is not subjected to handling or driving stresses, it is not necessary to reinforce the pile
in ordinary cases or in places where the pile is completely submerged in the soil.
Reinforcements are necessary to be provided in a cast-in- situ piles, when the pile acts as a
column and is subjected to a lateral forces. Cast- in-situ piles can be divided into two types.
In one the metallic shell of the pile is permanently left in place inside the ground along with the
core while in the other type the outer shell is withdrawn.
It has following types

a) Simplex pile
It is the type of concrete pile which is cast in situ a simplex pile formed by driving a steel shell
with a specially designed point into the ground and filling the hole with concrete as the shell is
withdrawn is called simplex pile

b) Pedestal pile
A concrete pile that is cast in place with a bulb-shaped enlargement at its lower end
This pile is actually type of simplex pile with different that its lower is comparatively
thick then simplex pile the lower end of pile is like bulb-shaped pedestal.

c) Vibro pile
A vibro-pile is a closed off casing that is vibrated into the ground displacing and "densifying"
all the material in its path. The casing is then filled with concrete and reinforcement and then
extracted (or filled with concrete as it is extracted and the reinforcement is installed later.)

d) Franke pile
Franki piles, also known as pressure injected footings (PIFS), are high-capacity, cast-in-place
elements constructed using a drop weight and casing. A two to three-foot diameter steel casing
is vertically positioned at a planned location.
The bottom three to five feet of the casing is filled with a very dry concrete mix and a steel
cylinder with a diameter slightly smaller than the casing then repeatedly dropped inside. The
mix locks into the bottom of the casing and the repeated blows of the drop weight advance the
casing to the design depth.
The casing is stopped from advancing further and additional weight drops eject the dry mix out
of the bottom of the casing.
Additional dry mix is added and driven from the casing until a design resistance to further
displacement is achieved. Reinforcing steel and concrete are then placed in the casing and the
casing is removed.

e) Raymond pile
The Raymond concrete pile is constructed in place. A collapsible steel pile-core is encased in a
thin, closely-fitting, sheet-steel shell. The core and shell are driven to the required depth by
means of a pile-driver. The core is so constructed that when the driving is finished, it is
collapsed and withdrawn, leaving the shell in the ground,
which acts as a mold for the concrete. When the core is
withdrawn, the shell is filled with concrete, which is
tamped during the filling process. These piles are usually
18 inches to 20 inches in diameter at the top, and 6
inches to is usually No. 20 gauge. When it is desirable to
reinforce these piles, the bars are inserted in the shell
after the core has been withdrawn and before the
concrete is placed.
8 inches at the point.
When it is desirable,
the pile can be made
larger at the small
end. The sheet steel used for these piles.

4) Steel pile
Steel pile which is used as follow:
i) Steel pipe pile
ii) Sheet pile
iii) Disc pile
iv) Screw pile

i) Steel pipe pile

Steel pipe piles and steel pipe sheet piles are widely used in ports/harbors (piers, seawalls,
and breakwaters), urban civil engineering (earth-retaining walls and cofferdams), bridges
(foundations for steel pipe sheet pile foundations), and other applications, along with
widening their applications due to enlargement of the structures sizes, growth of water depth
for the structures and increase in construction work at sites where the bearing strata are deep
under thick soft ground.

iii) Sheet pile

Sheet piles are most commonly made of steel, but can also be formed of timber or reinforced
concrete. Sheet piles are commonly used for retaining walls, land reclamation, underground
structures such as car parks and basements, in marine locations for riverbank protection,
seawalls, cofferdams, and so on…….

iv) Disc pile

The disc steel pipe has an arrangement similar to the screw piles, where it has cast iron disc
attached to the bottom. The pile sinks into the soil while penetration. So, to facilitate the water
jetting process a hole is made at the bottom.
These types of piles can be employed in soft or sandy soil. This area is well suited as it allows
the sinking of the disc piles during the water jetting process.
Disc piles are more applied for marine constructions, as these areas require for large amount of
total penetration.
v) Screw pile
The screw piles are made of steel or cast iron. These form a long shaft that are terminating at
the end in the form of a screw base or a helix. The shaft that is employed in the screw piles can
be either a hollow one or a solid one.
The base of the screw has a diameter ranging from 0.45 to 1.5m. The screw bottom is driven into
the soil by means of an electric motor that help in easy penetration into the strata.
The screw piles have great application in clay or loose soils. Screw piles in these areas help in
increasing the bearing area. The installation of pile foundation in these types of soils are made
easy by the steel screw piling.

METHOD OF PILE DRIVING

Installation of pile in ground is called pile driving. Some method are used for pile driving which
are given below:
1) By drop hammer
2) By steam hammer
3) By boring method
4) By vibrating
5) By water jet
6) By screwing mehod

1) By drop hammer
A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a guide and
released to strike the pile head. This is a simple form of hammer used in conjunction with light
frames and test piling, where it may be uneconomical to bring a steam boiler or compressor on to
a site to drive very limited number of piles.
There are two main types of drop hammers:

 Single-acting steam or compressed-air hammers

 Double-acting pile hammers

 Single-acting hammer

This hammer type utilizes pressure from steam or compressed air to raise the ram, then
automatically releases the pressure allowing the ram to fall freely and strike the drive cap (pile
helmet).

 Double-acting hammer

The steam or compressed air is also utilized to supply

additional energy to the ram on the downward part of the
stroke. The combination of pressure on the down stroke
and a short stroke distance results in an operating rate
generally ranging from 90 to 150 blows per minute.
  Diesel hammers

Also classified as single and double-acting, in operation, the diesel hammer employs a ram
which is raised by explosion at the base of a cylinder. Alternatively, in the case of double-acting
diesel hammer, a vacuum is created in a separate annular chamber as the ram moves upward, and
assists in the return of the ram, almost doubling the output of the hammer over the single-acting
type. In favorable ground conditions, the diesel hammer provide an efficient pile driving
capacity, but they are not effective for all types of ground.

2) By vibrating method
Vibratory hammers are usually electrically powered or hydraulically powered and consists of
contra-rotating eccentric masses within a housing attaching to the pile head. The amplitude of the
vibration is sufficient to break down the skin friction on the sides of the pile. Vibratory methods
are best suited to sandy or gravelly soil.
Vibratory hammers are available in high, medium, and low frequency ranges.
It is important that a rigid connection be maintained between the hammer and the pile, usually by
means of a mechanical clamp, and a back-up system may be required to prevent release of the
clamp in the event of a power failure

3) Steam
Steam has been a prime power source for pile hammers since before the turn of the century. It is
becoming increasingly difficult, however, to find qualified firemen, and boiler maintenance is in
danger of becoming a lost "art." Coupled with these disadvantages are problems relating to local
smoke ordinances that all but rule out contractor's boilers, the difficulties of cold weather
operation, and the ever-present need for large quantities of clean water. On a commercial crane
pile driver, a boiler represents a second power source, one that idles while the main hoist works;
and the crane engine idles while the hammer works. All of this leads contractors and equipment
manufacturers to search for other power sources.

4) Boring method
Equipment comprises of a mobile base carrier fitted with a hollow-stemmed flight auger which is
rotated into the ground to required depth of pilling. To form the pile, concrete is placed through
the flight auger as it is withdrawn from the ground.
The auger is fitted with protective cap on the outlet at the base of the central tube and is rotated
into the ground by the top mounted rotary hydraulic motor which runs on a carrier attached to the
mast.
On reaching the required depth, highly workable concrete is pumped through the hollow stem of
the auger, and under the pressure of the concrete the protective cap is detached.
While rotating the auger in the same direction as during the boring stage, the spoil is expelled
vertically as the auger is withdrawn and the pile is formed by filling with concrete.
In this process, it is important that rotation of the auger and flow of concrete is matched that
collapse of sides of the hole above concrete on lower flight of auger is avoided. This may lead to
voids in filled with soil in concrete.
The method is especially effective on soft ground and enables to install a variety of bored piles
of various diameters that are able to penetrate a multitude of soil conditions. Still, for successful
operation of rotary auger the soil must be reasonably free of tree roots, cobbles, and boulders,
and it must be self-supporting.
During operation little soil is brought upwards by the auger that lateral stresses are maintained in
the soil and voiding or excessive loosening of the soil minimize. However, if the rotation of the
auger and the advance of the auger are not matched, resulting in removal of soil during drilling-
possibly leading to collapse of the side of the hole

5) By water jet/ jacking

 A means of imposing a static driving force on a pile by using jacks. Used extensively to install
piles in underpinning of structures. (A jacked pile)
The means of precisely transferring load from another source (either dead weight or a reaction
platform) in the performance of a pile load test.
Jetting is the use of a water or air jet to facilitate the placing or driving of a pile by means of
hydraulic displacement of parts of the soil. In some cases, a high-pressure air jet may be used,
either alone or with water. Also called Water Jet.
Jetting is used to aid the penetration of piles in to sand or sandy gravel, water jetting may be
employed. However, the method has very limited effect in firm to stiff clays or any soil
containing much coarse gravel, cobbles, or boulders.
Jetting is normally used when displacement-type piles are required to penetrate strata of dense,
cohesion less soils. Exceptions are very coarse or loose gravel where experience shows jetting to
be ineffective.
Piles, in some cases, have been successfully jetted in cohesive soils but clay particles tend to
plug the jets.
Jetting aids in preventing structural damage to the pile from overdriving. Water is pumped under
high pressure through pipes internally or externally attached to the pile, although air may be used
in combination with the water to increase the effectiveness in certain cases. 
Jetting adjacent to existing structures or piles should be avoided if possible. Although driving
vibrations are reduced, extreme caution must be exercised, since jetting causes disturbance of
soil material.

6) By screwing method
This method of pile is used to install disc pile or screw pile in this method pile is rotated with
tray lever and consequently pile gets installed into the ground.

LOAD TESTING METHOD OF PILE

Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles. Two types of
tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz. vertical, horizontal (lateral)
pull out, are performed on piles.
This test will be performed for the following purposes:
a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles
b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial Test.

Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required subject to
maximum of  ½% of total number of piles required. The number of tests may be increased to 2%
depending on the nature / type of structure. The test load applied is 1½ times the safe carrying
capacity of the pile.
1) First method: it is traditional method in this method wooden or steel plate form is made
over pile cap after its making and load is exerted over it. The load may contain on iron junk,
concrete blocks and stones etc. moreover water filled tanks are putt over it to increase load.
The load is kept at least for 24 hours. The load may be increased if the pile remain
sustained. The procedure will continue until pile fail.
2) Second method: in this method steel or concrete beam is placed over testing pile after
installation. Beam is fastened by steel cords on both sides and anchored to ground.
Hydraulic jack is installed over pile cap and below beam to exert the load on it load may
increase after 24 hours. This procedure will continue until the pile fail.
3) Third method: it is latest and rapid method of pile testing in this method pile is driven in the
ground with uniform ratio by applying continuous load the driving ratio is usually
considered 0.8mm per minute. When pile keeps on driving into ground without increasing
load it means pile have failed load volume is noted on this point. If exerted load is 1-1/2
times greater than designed load it means pile has succeeded the test but if not it means pile
has failed the test and it has to be redesigned.

PILE CAP
Pile cap is a structure which is built when single pile will not be able to take the load of the
overlying structure
This is generally built when there are some restrictions on the size of a single pile
Pile cap is like a slab below which there are various piles or a group of piles . Such that they
combine to act as a single pile which witstand the load from the superstructure or column
MINIMUM SPACING OF PILE
Spacing among pile should be established in such a manner that it does not affect cost and one
pile drive may not affect other pile. This spacing is calculated by considering sub-soil conditions
as follow.
1) Kept 3 times of pile diameter for friction pile. This spacing must be at least one meter.
2) Kept 2 times of pile diameter for friction pile. This spacing must be at least 75cm.
WELL FOUNDATION
Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is
generally provided below the water level for bridges.
Caisson or well have been in use for foundations of
bridges and other structures since Roman and Mughal
periods The term 'caisson' is derived from the French
word caisse which means box or chest.
Well foundation is made by the following types
1) Simple excavation method
2) Caisson method

1) Simple excavation method

This method is suitable for dry and hard surface and usually not adopt in case of longer depth.
In this method excavation is done according to the design of simple equipment like showel, pick
axe and bucket etc. can be used for this purpose well kerb may be formed deep inside the well if
there is danger of surrounding soil falling into the foundation. Well kerb is made for RCC
sometimes well kerb is of wood. Shape of x-section of concrete kerb is trapezoidal brick or stone
masonry done over it. Then inner excavation is carried on and well kerb will keep driving down
along with masonry as long as excavation is completed. Finally bottom is filled with concrete.
Then more soil and sand is dumbed over it. Lower layer of concrete refers to bottom plug and
upper layer of concrete refer to top plug. Concrete slab are made over it over which pier is made.

2) Caisson method
This method is adopted in well foundation whenever deep excavation is required. In this method
caisson of required depth is prepared that is usually of circular cylinder shape. Caisson may be
of square or rectangular shape as well. Caisson are usually made of steel or concrete. It is then
placed on spot of foundation. It is dewater from inner side with any suitable method like
sucking pumps inner of caisson is then excavated in such manner that bottom of trench located
above the caisson very lower edge or bottom. caisson keep driven into the ground as long as
inner side is excavated. In order to prolong the caisson height another caisson is placed over
existing one to achieve the required height.

CAISSON FOUNDATION
A caisson foundation also called as pier foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a
bridge pier, in the construction of a concrete dam, or for the repair of ships.

Types of Caisson Foundations

 Box Caissons
 Excavated Caissons
 Floating Caissons
 Open Caissons
 Pneumatic Caissons
 Sheeted Caissons
Box caissons are watertight boxes that are constructed of heavy timbers and open at the top.
They are generally floated to the appropriate location and then sunk into place with a masonry
pier within it.
Excavated caissons are just as the name suggests, caissons that are placed within an excavated
site. These are usually cylindrical in shape and then back filled with concrete.
Floating caissons are also known as floating docks and are prefabricated boxes that have
cylindrical cavities.
Open caissons are small cofferdams that are placed and then pumped dry and filled with
concrete. These are generally used in the formation of a pier.
Pneumatic caissons are large watertight boxes or cylinders that are mainly used for under water
construction.
A pneumatic caisson is a type of watertight enclosed structure used during construction in water
or wet areas. These caissons are box-shaped or cylindrical structures designed to keep water out
of the construction zone by acting as a seal from the wet external environment while keeping the
inside of the structure dry.
COFFER DAM
Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering and
construction of the permanent facility (structure) in the dry. A Coffer Dam is a temporary
structure designed to keep water and /or soil out of the excavation in which a bridge pier or other
structure is built. Meaning of Coffer Dam : Coffer = Box To take up the Foundation works in
the Marine Region, it is necessary to obstruct the water flow by means of Coffer Dam.
Purpose: To retain Soil & Water Can be used as either Temporary or Permanent Main purpose
is to provide dry working area for workers It is constructed to facilitate pile driving operations.
It is used to place grillage as well as the raft foundations It is used, when the foundations for
piers and abutments of a bridge, dams, locks, etc. are to be constructed. Sometimes it is also
provided to store water temporarily.

TYPES OF COFFER DAM

1) Cantilever Sheet Pile Cofferdam
2) Braced Cofferdam
3) Earth Embankment Cofferdam
4) Rock fill Cofferdam
5) Double Wall Cofferdam
6) Cellular Cofferdam
 1) Cantilever coffer dam
This type of cofferdam is susceptible to leakage and flood damage, making these forms of
damming better suited for smaller depths of water, up to 18 feet. They can be constructed of
wood, concrete, or steel, each with their own size limitations in what they can handle. Wooden
sheet pile cofferdam is suitable for up to 9 feet, steel sheet pile is suited up to 18 feet head of
water, similar to concrete, which suitable when headroom is limited. They are bored and cast in
place and are to be used to avoid noise and vibration.

2) Braced coffer dam

Braced cofferdams are the sheeting and bracing systems to support walls of an excavation or to
exclude water from an excavation. It is mostly used in urban areas. They are frequently used in
the construction of bridge piers and abutments,

The various components of braced cofferdams are:

Laggings – Horizontal timber planks placed by hand as the excavation proceeds.
Sheet piling –  Timber, steel or concrete sheet piles installed vertically by driving.
Soldier beams – Vertical beams of timber or steel for taking reaction from laggings. They are not
required when sheet piles are used.
Wales – Horizontal beams for transferring reaction from laggings or sheeting to the struts.
Struts – Compression member for carrying reaction from one side to other side of excavation.

3) Embankment protected coffer dam

This type of cofferdam is suitable for high heads of water with low velocity. A successful
cofferdam does not need to be completely watertight because some seepage of water into the
excavation is usually well-tolerated. The water collected is pumped out of the excavation
afterwards. The embankment is provided with a free board minimum of 3 feet to prevent
overtopping by waves. This type of cofferdam requires large base area and is adopted when an
area of excavation is very large. Clay soil is appropriate for the construction in dry season. If
constructed in wet season, sand fill is the best material.

4) Rock fill coffer dam

This cofferdam type is made of rock-fill. A typical section rock-fill cofferdam is better than the
earth fill. These are very pervious and are usually provided with an impermeable membrane of
soil to reduce seepage. The crest and upper part of impermeable membrane are provided with a
rap to protect against the wave action.

5) Double well coffer dam

This type of cofferdam is suitable when it is required to exclude water over 36 feet. This
consists of two straight, parallel vertical wall of sheet piling tied to each other and the space
between them filled with soil. Double-Wall sheet pile cofferdam higher than 7.5 feet should be
strutted. Sometimes an inside berm is provided. Consequently, this helps to keep the phreatic
surface within the berm.

6) Cellular coffer dam

A cellular cofferdam is constructed by driving sheet piles of special shapes to form a series of
cells. The cells are interconnected to form a watertight wall. These are filled with soils and, as a
result, provide stability against the lateral forces. There are two types of cellular cofferdams,
namely diaphragm type and circular type.
EXERCISE
MCQS

1) Minimum depth of foundation ‘d’ in terms of its breath

a) b
b) 2b
c) 3b
d) 4b
2) According to thumb rule the breath of 9 inch thick wall is
a) 18 inch
b) 24 inch
c) 30 inch
d) 36 inch
3) Foundation suitable for high rise building or in running water
a) Spread
b) Raft
c) Strap
d) Pile
4) A pile transfer a load at its lower end
a) Bearing pile
b) Friction pile
c) Bearing cum friction pile
d) All of theses
5) A pile that transfer load to its surface is
a) Bearing
b) Friction
c) Bearing cum friction
d) All of these
6) Inclined pile is called
a) Bearing pile
b) Friction pile
c) Better
d) Sheet pile
7) A pile used to enclose loose soil
a) Bearing pile
b) Friction pile
c) Better
d) Sheet pile
8) Foundation suitable for deep culvert
a) Spread
b) Raft
c) Well
d) Caisson
9) foundation suitable for bridge in deep water
a) spread
b) raft
 c) well
d) caisson
10) caisson foundation in which air pressure are used
a) open
b) box
c) pneumatic
d) none of these
11) a pile that transfer load at its lower end as well as its surface
a) bearing
b) friction
c) bearing cum friction
d) sheet
12) a temporary wall constructed to change the direction of flowing water is called
a) weir
b) barrage
c) coffer dam
d) none of these
13) foundation suitable for frame structure four story building is
a) spread
b) raft
c) strap
d) pile
14) foundation suitable for series of closed space column
a) spread
b) raft
c) strap
d) pile
15) foundation suitable for single story building
a) spread
b) raft
c) strap
d) pile
16) ratio of cement mortar used in brick masonry
a) 1:4
b) 1:5
c) 1:6
d) a & b
17) according to thumb rule breath of wall 30 cm thick
a) 60cm
b) 90cm
c) 120cm
d) 15cm
18) Pile mostly used in retaining wall
a) Guid pile
b) Sheet pile
c) batter
 d) none
19) pile used in coffer dam construction
a) bearing
b) sheet
c) friction
d) all of these
20) thickness of wall of well foundation
a) retaining wall
b) steining
c) curb
d) transover
21) which pile is penetrated inclined
a) batter
b) sheet
c) anchor
d) friction
22) this is shallow foundation
a) pile foundation
b) raft foundation
c) pneumatic foundation
d) none of these
23) raft foundation is also called
a) mat
b) cantilever
c) pile
d) none of these
24) exclusion of water of a building
a) going
b) keeping
c) dewatering
d) discharging
25) which foundation is suitable for slopped ground
a) stepped
b) raft
c) well
d) pile
26) ratio of concrete used in construction is
a) 1:1:2
b) 1:1.5:3
c) 1:2:4
d) 1:4:8
27) Formula of width of foundation
a) W=p/pb
b) W= pb/p
c) W= pxp
d) None of these
 SHORT QUESTION + ANSWER

Q1) state foundation?

ANS)
Foundation is one of the most important parts of the structure. Foundation is defined as that part
of the structure that transfers the load from the structure as well as its own weight over a large
area of soil in such a way that the load does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
and the settlement of the total structure remains within a tolerable limit. Foundation is the part of
a structure on which the building stands. The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called
the foundation bed.

Q2) define shallow foundation?

ANS)
if the width of the foundation is greater than the depth of the foundation it is labeled as “Shallow
Foundation

Q3) define deep foundation?

ANS)
if the width of the foundation is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called as “Deep
Foundation.

Q4) define raft foundation?

ANS)
Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil reinforced with
steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the structure to the soil. Usually, mat
foundation is spread over the entire area of the structure it is supporting.
Q5) differentiate b/w shallow AND deep foundation?
ANS)
Generally, if the width of the foundation is greater than the depth of the foundation it is labeled
as “Shallow Foundation” and if the width of the foundation is smaller than the depth of the
foundation it is called as “Deep Foundation.”

Q6) define strap foundation?

ANS)
When the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap
footing
A strap footing is a component of a building’s foundation. It is a type of combined footing,
consisting of two or more column footings connected by a concrete beam. This type of beam is
called a strap beam.

Q7) define well foundation?

ANS)
Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is generally provided below the water level
for bridges. Caisson or well have been in use for foundations of bridges and other structures
since Roman and Mughal periods The term 'caisson' is derived from the French word caisse
which means box or chest.
Q8) define caisson foundation?
ANS)
A caisson foundation also called as pier foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a
bridge pier, in the construction of a concrete dam, or for the repair of ships.

Q9) enlist the types of caisson foundation?

ANS)
1) Open caisson
2) Box caisson
3) Pneumatic caisson

Q10) define pile foundation?

ANS)
Pile foundation a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender column or long cylinder made of
materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support the structure and transfer the load at
desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction. Pile foundations are deep foundations.

Q11) enlist types of pile foundation?

ANS)
Following are the types of pile foundation
1) Bearing pile
2) Friction pile
3) Bearing cum friction pile
4) Batter pile
5) Sheet pile
6) Guide pile

Q12) what do you understand by cast in situ?

ANS)
Cast-in-situ piles are those piles which are cast in position inside the ground. Since the cast-in-
situ piles is not subjected to handling or driving stresses, it is not necessary to reinforce the pile
in ordinary cases or in places where the pile is completely submerged in the soil. Reinforcements
are necessary to be provided in a cast-in- situ piles, when the pile acts as a column and is
subjected to a lateral forces. Cast- in-situ piles can be divided into two types. In one the metallic
shell of the pile is permanently left in place inside the ground along with the core while in the
other type the outer shell is withdrawn.

Q13) what is pile cap?

ANS)
Pile cap is a structure which is built when single pile will not be able to take the load of the
overlying structure
This is generally built when there are some restrictions on the size of a single pile
Pile cap is like a slab below which there are various piles or a group of piles . Such that they
combine to act as a single pile which witstand the load from the superstructure or column

Q14) define coffer dam?

ANS)
Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering and
construction of the permanent facility (structure) in the dry. A Coffer Dam is a temporary
structure designed to keep water and /or soil out of the excavation in which a bridge pier or other
structure is built. Meaning of Coffer Dam : Coffer = Box To take up the Foundation works in
the Marine Region, it is necessary to obstruct the water flow by means of Coffer Dam.

Q15) what is the purpose of coffer dam?

ANS)
Purpose: To retain Soil & Water Can be used as either Temporary or Permanent Main purpose
is to provide dry working area for workers It is constructed to facilitate pile driving operations.
It is used to place grillage as well as the raft foundations It is used, when the foundations for
piers and abutments of a bridge, dams, locks, etc. are to be constructed. Sometimes it is also
provided to store water temporarily.

Q16) enlist the types of coffer dam?

ANS)
1) Cantilever Sheet Pile Cofferdam
2) Braced Cofferdam
3) Earth Embankment Cofferdam
4) Rock fill Cofferdam
5) Double Wall Cofferdam
6) Cellular Cofferdam

Q17) what is braced coffer dam?

ANS)
Braced cofferdams are the sheeting and bracing systems to support walls of an excavation or to
exclude water from an excavation. It is mostly used in urban areas. They are frequently used in
the construction of bridge piers and abutments,

Q18) define rock fill dam?

ANS)
This cofferdam type is made of rock-fill. A typical section rock-fill cofferdam is better than the
earth fill. These are very pervious and are usually provided with an impermeable membrane of
soil to reduce seepage. The crest and upper part of impermeable membrane are provided with a
rap to protect against the wave action.

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