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2-Cell Physiology
2-Cell Physiology
2-Cell Physiology
Glycocalyx
Cell ❖ Loose carbohydrate coat outside the cell
❖ Basic living unit of the body ❖ Important functions of CHO moieties attached to the
❖ Each type of cell is specifically adapted to perform one surface:
or few specific functions ➢ Many are negatively charge → negative
➢ E.g. red blood cells - transports oxygen from surface charge that repels other negatively
charged objects
the lungs to the tissues ➢ Glycocalyx attaches to the glycocalyx of other
❖ Comprised of 3 elements: cells → cells attach with other cells
➢ Cell membrane ➢ Many CHO act as receptor substances for
➢ Nuclear region binding hormones like insulin
➢ Cytoplasm ➢ Some enter into immune reactions
*nucleus is generally located at the center, but in some cells, it is
located at the periphery
MOLECULAR COMPOSITION OF CELLS
1. Water
❖ 70-85% of the total cell mass
2. Inorganic Ions
❖ 1% or less of total cell mass
❖ Involved in a number of aspects of cell metabolism
❖ Critical role in cell functions
Important Ions in The Cell CYTOPLASM & ORGANELLES
Cytoplasm
Large Quantities Smaller Quantities ❖ Semifluid matrix that occupies the volume between the
nuclear region and the cell membrane, containing
Potassium Sodium numerous organelles
Magnesium Chloride
Phosphate Calcium Nucleus
Sulfate ❖ Control center of the cell
Bicarbonate
❖ Usually located at the center of the cell
❖ Repository of the genetic information that directs all
3. Organic Molecules activities of a living cell
❖ CHO, Lipids, CHONs, Nucleic Acids ❖ Enveloped by a nuclear membrane
(macromolecules) ➢ Actually 2 separate membranes
❖ 80-90% of the dry weight of most cells
❖ Lipids - major constituent of a cell Endoplasmic Reticulum
❖ Extensive system of internal membranes that form
compartments and vesicles
❖ Agranular/Smooth ER (SER)
➢ Functions in organizing internal activities
➢ Enzymes become active when associated with
a membrane (ER) → enzymes embedded in
the ER catalyze the synthesis of a variety of
CHO and lipids
❖ Granular/Rough ER (RER)
➢ Surface of the RER is where the cell
MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURES OF THE CELL manufactures proteins intended for export
Cell Membrane
❖ Lipid bilayer, protect layer that covers the entire cell Ribosomes
surface which regulates what moves in and out of the ❖ Manufacturer of proteins
cell ❖ Read the RNA copy of a DNA gene → uses the
❖ Lipid bilayer information → directs the synthesis of a protein
➢ major barrier impermeable to the usual
water-soluble substances such as ions, Mitochondria
glucose, urea and others ❖ “Powerhouse” of the cell
➢ Fat-soluble substance such as oxygen, carbon ❖ Site of oxidative metabolism where ATPs are formed
dioxide and alcohol can penetrate the portion
of the membrane with ease Golgi Apparatus
❖ Closely related to the ER
Cell Membrane Proteins ❖ Functions in association with the ER
❖ Mainly glycoproteins ❖ Usually composed of 4 or more stacked layers of thin,
❖ Integral proteins flat, enclosed vesicles lying adjacent to one pole of the
➢ Protrude all the way through the membrane nucleus
➢ Provides structural channels (or pores)
❖ Plays a major role in synthesizing substances that are to
➢ Acts as carrier proteins by transporting
substance through active transport be secreted or used elsewhere in the cell
➢ Serves as receptors ❖ Prominent in secretory cells
❖ Peripheral proteins
➢ Attached to only one surface of the
membrane and do not penetrate all the way
➢ Function almost entirely as enzymes or as
controllers of transport of substances
Lysosomes Simple Diffusion
❖ Vesicular organelles formed by Golgi Apparatus and is ❖ Kinetic movement of molecules or ions occurs through
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm a membrane opening or through intermolecular spaces
❖ Intracellular digestive system - cells digest intracellular without any interaction with carrier proteins in the
substances (food particles, damaged cellular structures, membrane
or bacteria) ❖ 2 pathways:
❖ Turns cell waste into building material
➢ Through interstices of the lipid bilayer if the
Peroxisomes diffusing substance is lipid soluble
❖ Formed by self-replication ➢ Through watery channels that penetrate all the
❖ Contains oxidases rather than hydrodases way through some of the large transport
❖ Hydrogen peroxide - highly oxidizing substance and is proteins
used in association with catalase
❖ Catalase - present in large quantities in peroxisomes,
*Rate of diffusion - determined by the amount of substance
oxidizes many substances that might otherwise be
poisonous to the cells available, the velocity of kinetic motion and the number and
sizes of openings in the membrane through which the molecules
Secretory/Granular Vesicles or ions can move
❖ Storage vesicles
❖ Secretory substance formed by the ER-GA system Facilitated Diffusion
❖ Requires interaction of a carrier protein
Nucleolus
❖ Carrier protein - aids passage of the molecules or ions
❖ Contained in the nucleus
❖ May be one or more through the membrane by binding chemically with
❖ A structure that contains large amounts of RNA and them and shuttling them through the membrane in this
CHONs form
❖ Does not have a limiting membrane
Microtubules
❖ Long, hollow cylinders that influence cell shape
Centrioles
❖ Organelles associated with the assembly and
organization of microtubules
Flagella
❖ For locomotion/movement or even feeding
❖ Example: sperm cell
TYPES OF DIFFUSION
I. Simple Diffusion
❖ Passive transport through a membrane
❖ Natural movement of particles in and out of the cells
via semi-permeable membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
II. Diffusion through a Transmembrane channel (CHONs)
III. Facilitated Diffusion
❖ Transmembrane channels CHONs reconfigure hence
allowing larger molecule to move in
IV. Active Transport
❖ Requires energy
FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE CELL
Dynamic Equilibrium
Endocytosis
❖ Ingestion by the cell ❖ Movement of particles from an area of higher
❖ If a cell is to live and grow, it must obtain nutrients and concentration to an area of lower concentration
other substances from its surrounding fluids ❖ Depends on temperature (rate of diffusion is faster in
❖ Specialized function of the cell by which large particles higher temperatures) and concentration of solutes
enter the cell
❖ 2 principal forms:
Osmosis
➢ Pinocytosis - cell drinking
➢ Phagocytosis - cell eating ❖ Movement of water from an area of less solute
concentration to an area of higher solute concentration
Diffusion ❖ “Solutes suck”
❖ Movement through the membrane by random motion
of the molecules of the substances *In Hypotonic solution: (e.g. Water) Swelling occurs when
❖ Moving either through the cell membrane pores or in there are less solutes outside and more solutes in the cell
the case of lipid-soluble substance, through the lipid
*In Hypertonic solution: (e.g. NaCl 5%) Shrinkage occurs
matrix of the membrane
❖ Divided into 2 subtypes: when there are more solutes outside the cell and less solutes in
➢ Simple diffusion the cell so the H20 inside the cell moves out. As cells shrink,
➢ Facilitated diffusion they clump and clog small arteries
*In Isotonic solution: (solute is equal to the solvent; e.g. D5W)
Active Transport No change
❖ Actual carrying of a substance through the membrane *Crenation: clumping of cells
by a protein structure that penetrates all the way
through the membrane
Pinocytosis
❖ means the ingestion of extremely small vesicles *In most cells, pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis does not
containing extracellular fluid ; occurs continuously at undergo fermentation.
the cell membranes of most cells but especially rapidly
in some cells Aerobic/Cellular Respiration
❖ the only means by which most large macromolecules, ❖ If oxygen is available in pyruvic acid, it will enter the
such as most CHON molecules, can enter cells pathway of aerobic respiration
❖ Requires oxygen
Steps in Pinocytosis: ❖ Produces nearly 20 times as much ATP as is produced
1. Molecules such as CHON attach to the surface membrane, by glycolysis alone
usually to specialized receptors; the receptors generally are
concentrated in small pits on the surface, called coated pits.
Beneath the coated pits is a lattice work of clathrin as well as
additional contractile filaments of actin & myosin.
2. Once bound to the receptors, the surface properties of the
membrane change in such a way that the entire pit invaginates
inward with the contractile proteins surrounding the invaginating
pit causing its borders to close over the attached protein as well
as over a small amount of extracellular fluid
3. Immediately thereafter, the invaginated portion of the
membrane breaks away from the surface of the cell, forming a
pinocytic vesicle
CELL DIVISION
Cell Cycle
❖ Stages through which a cell passes from one cell
deivion to the next
Phagocytosis
❖ occurs in almost the same way as pinocytosis except
that it involves large particles rather than molecules
❖ only certain cells have the capability of phagocytosis, G1: The cell is growing in preparation for DNA synthesis.
most notably the tissue macrophages & some white Cellular contents are duplicated except for chromosomes.
blood cells S: DNA and chromosomes undergo replication and synthesis.
The cell is not dividing.
Steps in Phagocytosis: G2: More cell growth and synthesis; preparation for Mitosis
1. The cell membrane receptors attach to the surface ligands of Mitosis: Prophase/Prometaphase/Metaphase/Anaphase/
the particle. Telophase
2. The edges of the membrane around the points of attachment
evaginate outward within a faction of a second to surround the MITOSIS
entire particle; Progressively, more & more membrane receptors Prophase - Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; Nucleolus
attach to the particle ligands, all these occurring suddenly in a disappears; microtubules assembly begins
zipper-like fashion to form a closed phagocytic vesicle
3. Actin & other contractile fibrils in the cytoplasm surround the Prometaphase - Nuclear membrane breaks down; Kinetochore
phagocytic vesicle & contract around its outer edge, pushing the microtubules form and attach to polar microtubules that push
vesicle further into the cytoplasm. against each other and push the centrosomes apart
4. The contractile CHONs then pinch the vesicle off, leaving it
in the cell interior in the same way that pinocytic vesicles are Metaphase - Chromosomes line up on the Metaphase plate
formed.
Anaphase - Chromosomes break at the centromeres into sister
chromatids
Telophase - chromatids, now called daughter chromosomes
begin to decondense into chromatin; nuclear membranes begin
to form around each daughter chromosome; new cell wall begins
to form in plant cells; cleavage furrow forms in animal cells
ATP FORMATION
Glycolysis
❖ Pathway in which 1 six-carbon molecule of glucose is
oxidized to produce 2 three-carbon molecules of
pyruvic acid or pyruvate
❖ Takes place in the cytosol
Flagellar Movement
❖ flagellum of a sperm is similar to a cilium: in fact, it has
much the same type of structure and same type of
contractile mechanism.
❖ much longer and moves in quasi-sinusoidal waves
instead of whiplike movements.
CELLULAR MOVEMENTS
Ameboid Movement
❖ Movement of an entire cell in relation to its
surroundings
❖ Example: movement of white blood cells through
tissues
❖ Amoebae move in this manner, hence the name
*Typically, ameboid locomotion begins with protrusion of a
pseudopodium from one end of the cell. The pseudopodium
projects far out, away from the cell body, and partially secures
itself in a new tissue area. Then the remainder of the cell is
pulled toward the pseudopodium
Cilia & Ciliary Movements
❖ Whiplike movement of cilia on the surfaces of cells
❖ Occurs in only 2 places in the human body:
➢ Surfaces of the respiratory system
➢ Inside surfaces of the uterine tubes of the
reproductive tract
*In the nasal cavity and lower respiratory airways, the whiplike
motion of cilia causes a layer of mucus to move at a rate of
about 1 cm/min toward the pharynx, in this way continually
clearing these passageways of mucus and particles that have
become trapped in the mucus.
*In the uterine tubes, the cilia cause slow movement of fluid
from the ostium of the uterine tube toward the uterus cavity; this
movement of fluid transports the ovum from the ovary to the
uterus.