Experiment 7 — Work and Energy on an

Air Track

Experiment 6 — Work and Energy on an Air Track

Site: Hayden-McNeil Online Course

Course: Introductory Physics Laboratory - Spring 2021- Northeastern University
Book: Experiment 7 — Work and Energy on an Air Track
Printed by: Mohammed Alhassoun
Date: Wednesday, March 17, 2021, 8:36 AM
Table of contents
Equipment
Objectives
Introduction
Investigation 1
Investigation 2
Questions
Additional Questions for Honors Sections
 EXPERIMENT 7

Work and Energy on an Air Track

Equipment
Linear air track with glider and air pulley
PASCO PASPort USB Link and Motion Sensor
Small block
1 oz lead weight with clip and paper tape

Figure 7.1 Experimental

Apparatus
 EXPERIMENT 7

Objectives
1. Experimentally verify the work-energy theorem.
2. Measure the acceleration due to gravity using precision instruments.
 EXPERIMENT 7

Introduction
In a previous experiment you may have studied the motion of an object that left marks on
paper at fixed time intervals. If so, you probably measured the distances the object
traveled between successive time marks by hand from the paper, and entered that
information into a computer point by point. This type of data collection only requires that
the computer be used as an analysis tool, performing simple velocity and acceleration
calculations. However, a computer can also be used to collect data with the help of an
electronic interface and sensor. The electronic interface used in this experiment is called
the Ultrasonic Measurement System (UMS). The computer takes over the tedious,
repetitive measuring tasks done by hand in earlier experiments, performing them much,
much faster and with far more reliability. It measures and records the object position
between 10 and 50 times a second (depending on the settings), keeps track of the time, and
records this data
in a file which lists position vs. time. The program that performs this task is called
Capstone. The resulting data can then be transferred to Excel, which can be programmed
to determine velocity and acceleration, handle curve plotting, and fit a theoretical curve to
the data points. This leaves you plenty of time to think about the physical concepts in with
the experiment.

Sonar Transceiver
The apparatus consists of an air track with a glider that rides on an air cushion, reducing
friction to a very small value. A special ultrasonic device, called a sonar range finder or
motion sensor, is mounted on one end of the track. The device has proven to measure the
position of a glider on an air track with great accuracy. It consists of a disc-shaped
transmitter/receiver (transceiver) connected to an electronic processor and a personal
computer. The transceiver is aimed at the glider, which carries a sound reflector plate on
its top.

When triggered by the computer, the sonar transceiver emits an ultrasound pulse in a
narrow cone directed down the track. This pulse will bounce off any object in its path and
return to the transceiver. The difference in time between sending and receiving the pulse is
called Δt and is measured by the electronics. The time, Δt , is proportional to the distance
the pulse has traveled. The proportionality constant is the speed of sound cs . Explicitly,
assuming that the speed of sound cs is constant (a good assumption), the distance d
traveled by the sound pulse is:
 d = cs Δt

where Δt is the time between sending and receiving the sonar pulse. Since the sound pulse
travels to and from the object, the actual distance x to this object is half of the total
1
distance d traveled by the sound. In other words, x = 2
cs Δt . This conversion from Δt to
x is made by the electronics. For each measurement, the computer records two quantities:
the (starting) time t at which the measurements of x are made, and the object distance x.

The PASCO motion sensor in this experiment uses an electrostatic transducer to transmit a
burst of 16 ultrasonic pulses with a frequency of about 49 kHz. This system, as all
measurement systems, is limited in precision. The transceiver has an intrinsic calculated
resolution in distance measurements of approximately ±1 mm. In other words, the error in
position of the UMS is

δx = 1 mm

Additional systematic errors may arise in the difference between the local speed of sound
and the sonar software default value of cs ≈ 343 m/s . However, as long as cs is constant
for the duration of the experiment, this will not effect the slope of your plot(s).

The Experiment
In this experiment, we will use the UMS system to investigate the principles of work and
energy. We will utilize the fact that, for constant, linear acceleration, v2 is directly
proportional to position. We will broaden our understanding of techniques for plotting data
and fitting lines to data to determine coefficients that lead us to verify physically well
known parameters like gravity. We will also explore experimentally the validity of the
relation between work and kinetic energy. The remainder of the introduction will discuss
the relevant work/energy equations as they apply to the motion of a glider on an inclined
plane, or a glider attached to a hanging weight and moving along a horizontal plane.

Motion in the horizontal

The work-energy theorem states that the total work W done by all forces acting on an
object moving from initial point i to final point f (in the horizontal plane) is equal to the
change in kinetic energy ΔK = Kf − Ki . The translational kinetic energy K of an object is
given by:

1
K= mv2
2

where m is the object’s mass and v is its speed. The work done by a constant force F on an
object that travels in a straight line along the x-axis is:
 W = Fx Δx

where Fx is the magnitude of the component of the total force parallel to the object’s
direction of motion and Δx is the distance the object moves. In terms of these equations,
the work-energy theorem is:

1 1
Fx Δx = mv2f − mv2i (7.1)
2 2

Motion along an inclined plane

Figure 7.2 shows an object of mass m on an inclined plane. The force on the mass due to
gravity along a frictionless plane is:

Fx = mg sin θ

Take x to be along the incline. The work done on m when it moves a distance Δx along the
incline is:

W = Fx Δx = mgΔx sin θ

Suppose that the object’s initial position and speed were xi and vi and, a short time later,
its position and speed are x and v. Then the work-energy theorem is:

1 1
mg sin θ (x − xi ) = mv2 − mv2i
2 2

Rearranging and solving for the final velocity we obtain:

v2 = 2g sin θ (x − xi ) + v2i

Figure 7.2 Glider on an inclined air track.

For convenience, suppose that xi is defined to be the position x0 at which the object’s
initial speed vi = 0 . Then our equation for the work-energy theorem becomes

v2 = 2g sin θ (x − x0 ) (7.2)

In the following experiment, we will test the work-energy theorem by verifying Eq. (7.2).

Horizontal motion of a glider connected to a hanging weight

Figure 7.3 shows a glider of mass m sitting on a frictionless horizontal track. The glider is
connected by means of a cord and pulley arrangement to a vertically suspended hanging
mass m'. The tension T of the cord is the only force on m parallel to the track, so when m
moves a distance Δx from start to the bumper, the work done on it is T ⋅ Δx .

The glider m and hanging mass m' are connected by a cord (which we assume will not
stretch). Therefore, if m moves a distance Δx , so does m', but vertically. The masses, m
and m' travel at the same speed. The total vertical force on m' is m ′ g − T , i.e. the force of
gravity minus the cord tension. Therefore, when m' moves down a distance Δx , the work
done on it is (m ′ g − T ) Δx . Thus, the total work done on the two masses is:

W = TΔx + (m ′ g − T ) Δx = m ′ gΔx

Here, the tension force cancels out because it is an internal force in our glider/hanging
mass system. Equation (7.1) gives a relation between the work and the change in kinetic
energies. For the work derived above,

1 1
m ′ gΔx = (m + m ) vf − (m + m ) vi .
′ 2 ′ 2 (7.3)
2 2

Suppose again that the glider starts at position xi with speed vi and, after traveling the distance
Δx , arrives at position x with speed v. Then Eq. (7.3) becomes

1 1
m ′ g (x − xi ) =
2 (m + m ′ ) v2 − (m + m ′ ) v2i
2

If we choose xi to be the location x0 at which vi = 0 , this equation simplifies and can be

rewritten:

2m ′ g
v2 = (x − x0 ) (7.4)
m + m′
Here the velocity depends on the two masses, the mass of the glider m and the mass of the
hanging weight m'. Compare this to the case of the inclined plane, where the result was
independent of the mass of the glider (see Eq. (7.2).

Figure 7.3 Plane and pulley arrangement.

 EXPERIMENT 7

Investigation 1
Measurements on the Inclined Plane
Procedure

1. Turn on the air source and set the pressure so the glider just moves freely. Do not
turn the air up too high, as this will cause the little air holes to act like jets and
produce a frictional force against the glider motion.
2. Level the air track. Adjust the screw at one end of the track until the glider does not
move when placed in the middle of the air-track. Measure the height h of the first
step of the block (see Fig. 7.2). The distance d in Fig. 7.2 is 1.000 ± 0.002 . When
you have finished measuring h, place the block beneath the leg with the screw.
3. Turn on the computer and log in. Click on the PASCO Capstone icon on the
desktop. The program window will open and a menu asking you to choose a
template should appear on screen. Select Table & Graph. A blank table and set of
axes should appear. You can choose the quantities to be recorded by clicking on the
<Select Measurement> buttons included for each table column and axis label. For
the table, change one column to Position (m), and the other to Time (s). Similarly,
set the y-axis of the graph to display position and the x-axis to represent time.
4. Click on the Hardware Setup button, and select Properties. Make sure the motion
sensor’s Default Sample Rate is set to 20 Hz. Close the Properties window.

Figure 7.4 Alignment of transducer.

5. Slide the glider up the track until it touches the motion sensor (see Fig. 7.4). The
angle in which the motion sensor points can be adjusted using the knob on the side
of its plastic housing. To capture the motion of the glider, the face of the motion
sensor must be parallel to the glider’s reflector. In order to ensure that this is the
case, click the Record button in Capstone and slide the glider up and down the
length of the air track. The resulting data that appears in the graph should show the
position smoothly changing as the glider is moved. If the curve jumps erratically or
does not show a change in position, adjust the angle of the sensor until the data
varies smoothly as expected. Once you have found a satisfactory sensor
orientation, release the glider and discard the test data that was gathered.
6. Now you are ready to begin collecting data for analysis. Slide the glider down the
 track until the reflector is about 20 cm away from the motion sensor. Click the
Record button in the Capstone window and release the glider. You should see the
data appear on the graph as the glider moves up and down the air track. After the
glider has bounced several times, click Stop. Inspect the data in the graph. If the
curve is smooth (i.e. no flat spots or erratic jumps), the data is acceptable. If the
curve is not smooth, check the alignment (redo step 5) and retake the data. If the
data is still unacceptable, ask your TA for help.
7. Highlight the data in the position column of your table by clicking on the column
header. Ensure that your measurements display sufficient precision by clicking the
button at the top of table that increases the number of digits shown. The position
data should display significant figures to at least the thousandths place. To
transfer your data to excel, highlight, copy, and paste each column in the table onto
your spreadsheet.
8. Turn off the air. Now begin the data analysis. Do all of the analysis in Excel, not in
Capstone. Do not forget to include units! Save your work FREQUENTLY!

Analysis: Measurement of g from Velocity Squared Versus Position

9. Plot the position vs. time for all the data. Collisions of the glider with the end of the
track can be noted by observing where the direction of the glider changes suddenly
on the graph. Determine the coordinates of two consecutive collisions by hovering
over them with the cursor. Locate these points in your data table and copy and
paste the data between them onto another sheet in Excel. Make sure you do not
include points that occur during the collision. Use the copied data list from here on;
start by labeling the new columns as Time (s) and Position (m).
10. Now make two new columns to the right of these, the first one containing the
velocity, the next one the velocity squared. (Here, you should make use of the
Excel math features to compute these quantities. If you have troubles doing this,
ask your TA for help.) Make sure that for the velocity, you are computing the
average velocity between subsequent points using the formula

xn+1 − xn
v= (7.5)
Δt

Also, find the error in the velocity squared (δv2 ) using Eq. (7.6):

( Δt )
δx
δv2 = √‾‾‾2
8v (7.6)

11. Create a new column for the average position between adjacent points using the
following equation:

xn+1 + xn
xavg = (7.7)
2
 We will assume that the velocities you calculated for each pair of points take place
approximately at the average position between them. Be sure to calculate the error in
xavg using Appendix A.

12. Create a plot of velocity squared versus average position (not time!). You should
plot your data as two separate series on the same graph. The first series will consist
of the data taken while the glider moved towards the motion sensor, the second
series, data taken while the glider moved away from the motion sensor. You can
distinguish between these on your data table by examining the sign of the glider’s
velocity – a negative velocity means the distance between the glider and the sensor
was decreasing, a positive velocity, the distance was increasing. If you need help
with this, ask you TA. Examine the plot; notice that these two branches of data do
not have the same slope. Why is this?
13. If you expand Eq. (7.2), you will find that it has the form v2 = Bx + C . Rewrite Eq.
(7.2) in this form to determine the physical significance of the quantities B and C.
The value of B and its relation to gravity and sin θ is essential to understanding and
completing the lab. Note that this equation is a linear relation between v2 (not v)
and x.
14. Use Excel to add a best-fit line to each branch of data and display the equations of
the lines on your graph. (Note: this is why you were asked to plot each branch as a
separate data series.) Your plot should now look similar to Fig. 7.5.
15. The slope B is related to gravity g and sin θ, where θ is the air track inclination
angle. The trigonometric function sin θ can be determined from the height h of the
block propping up the leg and the distance d between the air track legs (both h and
d were found in step 2). In addition, find the uncertainty in sin θ. From the
relationship you found between B, g and sin θ, and the relation between sin θ, h
and d, compute the experimental value of g for each branch of data. Show your
working and record the two values for g.
16. Average your two values for g and compare with the known value g = 9.81 m/s2 .
(Note: analyzing the data for each branch and averaging values for g corrects for
the effects of friction. Explain this with a force diagram!). Does your value of g
agree with the expected value within uncertainty? If v2 vs. x is a straight line with
slope that gives a proper g, then the work-energy theorem is verified, as already
explained in the derivation for Eq. (7.2).
17. Find the percentage difference between your experimental g and the known value
of g.

∣∣gknown − gexperimental∣∣
% difference = × 100
gknown
 Figure 7.5 Plot of v2 vs. x for two branches of the glider motion. The upper branch
describes the motion of the glider moving up the air track, towards the motion sensor.
The lower branch describes the motion of the glider moving down the air track, away
from the motion sensor.

Has the work-energy theorem been verified? What is the biggest source of error in
this investigation?
 EXPERIMENT 7

Investigation 2
Determination of g with Air Pulley
1. Now you will do an experiment with the configuration shown in Fig. 7.3, which
consists of a glider moving horizontally, being pulled by a weight moving
vertically. Before setting up the equipment, measure and record the mass of the
glider and of the hanging lead weight (approximately 1 oz). Ensure that the track is
still level. Attach a strip of paper tape to the clip on the glider and suspend the
paper tape over the air pulley with the lead weight attached to the other end.
2. Follow steps 6 through 8 in Investigation 1 to acquire and save a set of position
versus time data. However, this time release the glider from rest about 40 cm from
the motion sensor. (The tape must be taut so that the glider and weight will move
with the same velocities.)
3. Data analysis proceeds very much like in the previous investigation. Follow steps 9
through 12 of the previous investigation.
4. Here you will compare v2 = Bx + C with Eq. (7.4) and discern the physical
significance of B and C for this investigation with the lead weight included. Note
that here these constants are different from those from the previous investigation.
Record the slope B of the best-fit line from each branch of data. Using the
relationship you found between the slope B, the mass of the glider m, and the mass
of your hanging lead weight m', determine the experimental value of g for each
branch of the data. Show your work. Average your two experimental values of g,
and compare this to the known value. Find the percentage difference. Has the
work-energy theorem been verified?
5. In all of the calculations, the y-intercept C has been ignored. Can you use C to
calculate g? If so, how?
 EXPERIMENT 7

Questions
1. As the velocity of the glider increases, does the accuracy of the motion sensor
increase or decrease? (Hint: think about how the sensor determines the glider’s
position.)
2. In the configuration of Investigation 1, for the upwards part of the motion, how
does friction affect the total energy of the glider? How does it affect the total
energy for the downwards part of the motion?
3. For the configuration of Investigation 1, draw force diagrams for all the forces on
the glider including friction, for both the case of upwards and downwards motion.
4. For the configuration of Investigation 2, what is the acceleration of the glider if
m′ → ∞?
5. For the configuration of Investigation 2, what is the change in potential energy
from the moment of release to the moment of collision with the bumper? (Hint:
look at the change in x in the data list. Remember that only the weight is changing
potential energy.) Considering the kinetic energy of the system just before it
crashes into the bumper, what is the change in total energy of the system? Is the
change in energy positive or negative? Explain whether your result makes sense.
 EXPERIMENT 7

Additional Questions for Honors Sections

1. In your first Investigation you have used an equation for error in velocity squared
given as δv2 = √‾8v ‾‾2 ( δx ) . Derive it using error propagation formulae from
Δt
Appendix A.
2. Suppose that you want to do your second investigation on Mars, where the
acceleration of free fall is 2.5 times smaller than on the Earth’s surface. Calculate
the mass m ′Mars you should use in place of m ′ with the lab apparatus to obtain the
same plot of position vs. time (i.e. “Martian” data).
3. In this experiment, you calculated the average velocity v between adjacent data
points and then plotted the average velocity squared v2 with respect to the average
position xav between those points. Is this an approximation? Explain.
4. Power is defined as the rate of doing work, i.e. the work done per unit time
P = ΔW
Δt
. Estimate the maximum power of the experimental apparatus (in Watts =
Joules per second) in your first investigation.