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History of Computer Network

In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices. Computers from different
manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the
Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they
funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort. In 1967, at an
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of
connected computers. The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be
attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in turn, would be
connected to one another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached
host.
By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University
of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected
via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication
between the hosts.
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group, collaborated on what they
called the Internetting Projec1. Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end
delivery of packets. This paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the
datagram, and the functions of a gateway. Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two
protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking Protocol (lP). IP would handle datagram routing
while TCP would be responsible for higher-level functions
such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The internetworking protocol became known as TCPIIP.
Network :
A group of computers connected together through some media to share expensive hardware and software resources and
information is called a Network. OR
A network may be defined as “the environment in which two or more computers are connected together with the help
of certain specific media which can transmit data and information to each other”.
Networking
The concept that how connected computers in a network share devices through a specific medium is called networking.
The media may be cable media such as twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable or it may be wireless media such as
microwave satellite or infrared.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Networks
Following are some of the advantages of computer networks.
File Sharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that it allows file sharing and remote file access. A
person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on the other workstation, provided he is
authorized to do so. It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file from one system to another, by using a storage
device. In addition to that, many people can access or update the information stored in a database, making it up-to-date
and accurate.
Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is also an important benefit of a computer network. For example, if there are four
people in a family, each having their own computer, they will require four modems (for the Internet connection) and
four printers, if they want to use the resources at the same time. A computer network, on the other hand, provides a
cheaper alternative by the provision of resource sharing. In this way, all the four computers can be interconnected,
using a network, and just one modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all four members. The facility
of shared folders can also be availed by family members.
Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one computer on a network which can easily share files, the issue
of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but
when many computers are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such case. One can also design
a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage capacity.
Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market which are costly and take time for
installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and
can be used by the different workstations.
Some other advantages are as follows
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 A user can logon to a computer anywhere on the network and access their work files from the file server.
 Computers can be managed centrally - with the same software installed on each one.
 Time - it is much faster to install an application once on a network - and copy it across the network to every
workstation
 Sharing printers, plotters, modems etc saves money and time
 Security - the Network Manager can allocate usernames and passwords to all users to try to prevent
unauthorized access
 It is easy and convenient to monitor users - for example websites visited or documents printed - this can be
done using software running on the server
Disadvantages of Computer Networks
Following are some of the major disadvantages of computer networks.
Security Issues: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues involved. If a computer is a
standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a
computer hacker can get unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various network
security software is used to prevent the theft of any confidential and classified data.
Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets affected by computer virus, there is a
possible threat of other systems getting affected too. Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the
interconnectivity of workstations. Such spread can be dangerous if the computers have important database which can
get corrupted by the virus.
Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending on the number of computers to
be connected. Costly devices like routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a
computer network. He will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for each of the workstations, in case they
are not inbuilt.
Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a computer network breaks down, the system
becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File Server should be a powerful computer, which often makes it
expensive.
Some other disadvantages are as follows.
 If something goes wrong with the file server the whole network is unable to operate
 The technical skills needed to manage a network are much higher than working on a stand-alone computer
 It would take a long time to install software applications on each computer - one at a time!
 It can be frustrating to print to a printer in another room - and then find after a long trek - that there is no paper
in the printer!
 Users may use up too much of the storage space and this may cause problems on the network
 Users may use too much bandwidth - for example when listening to music files or watching video clips -
preventing others from using the network facilities properly
Network Components (Elements of Networking)
 Server: A powerful computer that provides services to the other computers on the network is called
Server. Server is not only a faster computer with a better processing, but it also requires much more
storage space to contain all the data needs to be shared with the clients.
 Client: Computer that uses the services provides by a server is called client. The client is usually less
powerful that the server with ordinary storage capacity, because most task are handled by the server
computer and the clients only requires services.
 Peer: A computer that acts as both a client and a server. A peer is not powerful computer like a server and
does not perform all functions that a server can perform.
 Media: Media are what the computer and other peripheral are connected over in a network to
communicate with each other. A medium is the physical connection between the devices in network.
Media may be wireless or wired.
 Resources: Anything available to a client on the network to be used in considered a resource. Resources
may be hardware such printers, fax machine, modem, scanners and disk drives or it may be software, such
as languages, databases, word processors, spread sheets and graphical packages etc.
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 Protocol: Protocols are written rules used to facilitate the complex process of communication between
two network devices. Protocol are usually available with all operating systems. The physical media only
transmits raw bits of data, while the protocols are responsible for what these bits mean. The protocols do a
lot for two communication devices to easily communicate with each other. The network application used
protocols to perform network operations for users, examples of protocols are TCP/IP, FTP, DNS etc.
 User: Any person that uses a client to access resources on the network is called the user. A user is such an
element of the network that is not restricted to be connected to the network in all conditions. A user is a
man, who uses the network for his one specific purpose, without the user a network is useless.
Types of Networks (LAN , MAN , WAN) (According to distance)
LAN, MAN and WAN are the types of networks according to their scale ( physical size or the distance between two
points or communication devices). Consider the following table.

Inter-process distance Processors (devices) located in same

10 meter Room
100 meter Building LAN (Local Area Network)
1 Kilo meter Campus
10 Kilo meter City MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
100 Kilo meter Country
1000 Kilo meter Continent WAN (Wide Area Network)
10000 Kilo meter Planet
WAN (Wide Area Network)
LAN (Local Area Network:
A Local Area Network (abbreviated as LAN) is a collection of computers and peripherals that are usually connected
together by cables and is confined or bounded to one building, site, campus or a city. A LAN offers a mean of pooling
network resources and information between a number a users. A central minicomputer or mainframe with a number of
“dumb” terminals attached to it is one form of LAN, but the term is most frequently used to describe a number of
interlinked Personal Computers (PCs), often with a more powerful computer controlling the network.

 They are privately owned networks capable of interconnecting a large number computers, terminal and other
peripheral devices with in a limited geographical area, typically under 1 Km across such as an office building,
a small company or a campus.
 The configuration of a LAN can be a star, a ring, or a bus.
 In LAN, transmission channels generally uses coaxial or fiber optic cables and special interface devices rather
than telephone line and modem. Thus the transmission speed is very high than the other types of networks.
 The main purpose of LAN is to link computers within an organization, a campus or company offices, so that
they may share expensive peripheral devices e.g high speed printers or magnetic disks, database and also to
exchange information.
 The smallest size in the network types.
Advantages and Disadvantages of LAN.
Advantages of connecting computers in a LAN
1. Workstations can share peripheral devices like printers. This is cheaper than buying a printer for every
workstations.
2. Workstations do not necessarily need their own hard disk or CD-ROM drives which make them cheaper to buy
than stand-alone PCs.
3. User can save their work centrally on the network file server. This means that they can retrieve their work from
any workstation on the network. They do not need to go back to the same workstation all the time.
4. Users can communicate with each other and transfer data between workstations very easily.
5. One copy of each application package such as a word processor, spreadsheet etc. can be loaded onto the file and
shared by all users. When a new version comes out, it only has to be loaded onto the server instead of onto
every workstation.
Disadvantages of connecting computers in a LAN
1. Special security measures are needed to stop users from using programs and data that they should not have access.
2. Networks are difficult to set up and need to be maintained by skilled technicians.
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3. If the file server develops a serious fault, all the users are affected, rather than just one user in the case of
a stand-alone machine.
Components of LAN :
All LANs must have at least three basic components that are:
1. Workstation which are actually PCs or terminals.
2. File servers or Disk Servers, which are special PCs or larger computers. Shared software resources are
stored on them including networking software for monitoring the entire network operations.
3. Cabling and connection hardware link the computers together. A special interface card or printed circuit
board has to be inserted into each computer on the network. This card is used to give a unique identity and
allow it to interact with other computers of the network. This card is called Network Interface Card (NIC)
or LAN card.
MAN ( Metropolitan Area Networks)
This network is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally uses similar technology. It might cover a group of
nearly corporate offices or a city and might be either private or public.
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its
geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan
region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.
 A MAN can support both data and voice, and might even be related to local cable television. A MAN just has
one or two cables and does not contain switching elements.
 A key aspect of a MAN is that there is a broadcast medium to which all the computers are attached, this
greatly simplifies the design compared to other kinds of networks.
 A MAN is slower than LAN but faster than WAN.
(Advantages and disadvantages of Network are advantages and disadvantages of MAN)
WAN (Wide Area Network)
Often business have offices throughout a large region. For instances, most banks have headquarters site and offices
throughout a state or nation. LANs and MANs are not the efficient networks in this case WANs fill this need.
 A WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent or even the world. It is a digital
communication system, which interconnects individual computers and LANs to communicate with each
other over a public transmission medium such leased telephone lines, microwave or satellite.
 Data communication speed of WANs is much slower than LANs and MANs. Further it can not be used for
sharing resources. Generally it is used only to rout short message, such as e-mail etc.
Types of network (According to computer attached to them)
Networks are divided into three types.
1. Server based (Client-Server) Network: The clients and servers support this network. Basic key points are.
 The server-based network is defined by the presence of servers on the network that provide security and
administration of the network.
 Processing tasks are divided between clients and servers. Clients request services, such as file storage or
printing, and servers deliver or provide these services
 Server computers typically are more powerful than client computers.
 Only requires on password for you to access all resources on the network that you have the permission to use.
 Each user is allowed access to only those resources that the user has the privilege to access.
 Some one must administer centrally the security on your network.
Advantages of Server-based Network:
 Strong central security, because a server keeps a file or a resource secure from accessing by the unauthorized
user.
 Central file storage, which allows all users to work from the same set of data and provides easy backup of
important data.
 Ability of servers to share available hardware and software, lowering overall costs.
 Optimized dedicated server, which are faster than peers at sharing network resources.
 Freezing of users from the task of managing the sharing resources.
 Easy manageability of a large number of users.
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 Central organization, which keeps data from getting lost among computers.
Disadvantages of Server-based network
Disadvantages of server based network are mostly related to the cost of server equipment
 Expensive dedicated hardware.
 Expensive network operating system and licenses.
 A dedicated network administrator is required.

Peer to Peer network (Peer network)

Peers support this network
 Peer network is defined by a lack of central control over the network, as there are no servers; users simply
share disk space and resources, such printers and faxes etc.
 Each shared resource must have its own password. The user who wants his resource to be shared among
network users assigns this password.
 A user can not specify which users on the network can access the resource when assigning a password to it.
Any user on the network that knows the password can access the resource. A peer (user) can not differentiate
among network user when allows access to a resource.
 Each user controls access to his own resources, which he has been shared with other users in the network
unlike a server based network.
 Because there is not central security trust, you will have to know the individual password for each secured
shared resource you wish to access.
 Peer networks are often organized into workgroups. Workgroups have no central login process, therefore, they
have very little security control. A user, when logon in to one peer on the network, can use any resources on
the network that are not controlled by a specific password.
Advantages of Peer to Peer network
Peer network are generally implemented in small businesses and organizations that can not afford the expensive
server hardware and software. The following are the advantages.
 No extra investment in server hardware or software is required.
 Easy setup
 No network administrator is required
 Ability of users to control resources sharing
 No reliance on other computer for their operation.
 Lower cost for small network
Disadvantages of Peer to Peer network
The following are the main disadvantages of Peer networks.
 Additional load on computers because of resources sharing.
 Inability of peers to handle as many network connections as servers
 Lack of central organization, which can make data hard to find.
 Requirement that users administer their own computers.
 Weak and intrusive security.
 Lack of central management, which makes large peer networks hard to work with.

Hybrid Network
 Hybrid networks are supported by all three types of computers, i.e server, clients and peers.
 Hybrid network is the combination of both server based and peer to peer network.
 In Hybrid networks most shared resources are located on servers, but network user still have access to any
resources being shared by peers in your work group.
 Network users do not have to log on to the domain controller to access workgroup resources being shared by
peers.
Advantages of Hybrid Network
 The advantages of server based networking
 Many of the advantages of Peer to Peer networking
 Ability of users and network administrator to control security based on the importance of the shared resources.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Network
 Disadvantages of Server-based networking.
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Server types
A server based network may have one server to perform the tasks of a server or separate servers dedicated to specified
tasks. Generally a server in a server based network is dedicated to perform specific tasks in support of other computers
on the network. For example, a file server is dedicated to the task of serving files. A print server is dedicated to the task
to provide print services to client computers on the network. Some common server types are given below.
1. File Server
2. Print Server
3. Application Server
4. Message Server
5. Database Server
Functions of all these servers are supported by Windows NT server operating system. One Windows NT Server can
perform all functions of different servers simultaneously on a small network. But on larger network, you need to divide
these functions among multiple servers.
File Server
File servers are designed specifically to support the file services for a network.
File servers are:
1. To allow network users to share files.
2. To provide the users network applications that store, retrieve and move file and data.
3. To provide user the facility of exchanging, reading and managing shared files and the data contained in them.
4. To keep track of different versions of the same file when used by more than one client.
Print Servers
Print servers provide print services to client computers.
Print servers are:
1. To allow user to share printers.
2. To allow users to place printers where convenient, not just near individual computer.
3. To achieve better workstation performance by using high speed network data transfer print queues and
spooling.
4. To allow to share network fax services.
Application Servers :
Application servers provide users with different types of application programs they need to use. They are almost
opposite of file and print servers. The application the client runs is stored on the client. Requests are then sent to the
server to be processed and the processed information is sent back to the client. This way the client processes little
information and the server does everything. The application server allow client to access and use extra computing
power and expensive software applications that resides on a shared computer.
Message Server:
Message servers provides in a wide variety of communication methods that has a good efficiency than simple file
services. With file services, data can pass between users only in text form. But message services are
1. Data can take the form graphics, digitized video, or audio, as well as text and binary data.
2. You can send an electronic note, attached to a voice-mail message, to a fellow user on a network.
Database Servers:
Database servers provide database services to client PCs. Most database systems are client-server based. This means
that the database applications run on two separate components.
1. The client-end portion of the applications run on the client, providing an interfae and handling less
intensive functions such as data requests.
2. The server-end portion of the application handles the intensive performance of database operations. It runs
on the database server managing the database, processing queries and replaying to clients.
Thus database servers means that.
1. In a client-server database the database server provide a network with powerful database capabilities that
are available for use on relatively weak PCs.
2. Provide security database optimization (to achieve greater possible efficiency) and data distribution.
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Network Topologies.
The topology is the geometric representation of the relationship of the links and the linking devices (Nodes) in a
Network. OR
The topology of a network may be defined as its physical layout i.e the way in which computers and other
equipments are connected. There are different basic layouts or topologies for networks. Following are the most
commonly used topologies.
1. Star topology 2. Bus topology 3. Ring topology 4. Mesh topology 5. Hybrid topology.
Star topology
In star topology each node (computer) is connected to a central computer, which controls the network, signals
travel from server to the stations along each individual station’s cable. Star topology may also use a central
platform in the form of a Hub where cables from different computers are plugged and thus providing a mean of
signal transmission.
The diagrammatic representation of a star network is as under.

HUB

This topology has the following advantages over its other counterparts.
1. Less cabling
2. Less expensive than Mesh as each device needs only one link and one I/O port.
3. Easy to install and reconfigure.
4. Robust, if a link fails, only that link fails.
5. Easy fault detection.
Disadvantages.
This topology has the following disadvantages.
1. Entire network is badly suffered when the central server fails.
2. Cable cost increases due to large number of cables from individual station to the central server or hub.
3. Entire network fails if Hub fails.

Bus topology
Bus topology is used, when the network installation is small, simple or temporary. A bus topology is that in which all
the devices or computers share a single cable. Information can be transmitted in either direction from any PC to any
other. When a single computer sends a message up or down the wire, all the computers in the networks receive the
message, but only one computer (the one which has a matching address) accepts the message and the rest of computers
neglect the message. In bus network only one computer can send a message at a time and the remaining computers set
idle. The computer waits until the bus become free. Another important issue in the bus network is termination. The
data in bus can be moved freely in both directions. So without termination, when a message reaches at the end of the
cable, it bounces back and moves in the opposite direction. This problem is called ringing. To solve this problem we
use a terminator at the end, which can absorb the signal and stop the reflection. Following diagram represents bus
topology.
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Repeater

Advantages of bus topology

The bus topology has the following advantages.
1. The bus is simple, reliable in a small network, easy to use and easy to understand.
2. The bus topology is less expensive, because it requires a less amount of cable.
3. It is easy to extend, tow cables can be join together by a barrel connector making a longer cable, allowing
more computer to join the network.
4. A repeater can be used to extend a bus, with the help of repeater the signal can travel in long distance.
Disadvantages
The bus topology has the following disadvantages.
1. Heavy network traffic slow down the network, because only one computer can send a message at a time. All
the other computers are set idle.
2. Each barrel connector weakens electrical signals, and too many prevent the messaged to be received correctly
at the destination.
3. It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus. A cable break anywhere between computers can cause them not to communicate .
4. The whole network goes down if main cable fails at any point.
Ring topology (Ring network )
In ring network (Topology) each computer is connected to the next computer, the last computer connected to the first
one. Ring networks are used when a high network performance is required or when a large number of clients access
the network. In ring topology each computer transmits what it receives from the previous one. The message flows
around the ring in one direction. There is no termination because there is no end in the ring.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

Ring topology has the following advantages.
1. It is very easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Very simple in Fault Isolation
3. Very high transmission rates are possible in ring network.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology:

Ring topology has the following disadvantages.
1. Failure of one computer will affect the whole network.
2. Adding or removing a computer will disturb the whole network.
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3. It is difficult to troubleshoot.
Mesh Topology
Mesh is that topology in which multiple links exist among network computers. Every device has dedicated a point to
point link to every device. Mesh topology may be found into one of the following types.
True Mesh
In true mesh the total number of links for “n” computers are “ n(n-1)/2 ” and every two computers in this network are
directly connected to each other. When the total number of

computers “n” is 6 then there will be total 15 links among them as shown in the following diagram.

In this diagrammatic representation there is a two way communication of data across each link.
Hybrid Mesh
In hybrid mesh total links are less than n(n-1)/2 for “n” computers. Each computer is not directly connected with each
other computer in the network. If for example the total number of computers “n” is 6 then there are 9 links instead of
15 then such network will be a hybrid mesh.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

Mesh topology has the following advantages:
1. Mesh network has high fault tolerance due to multiple links.
2. Due to multiple links mesh network can work fine even under sever load.
3. Use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry it own load. This eliminates traffic
problems as in case of shared links.
4. Mesh topology is robust. If one link fails, it does not effect other links.
5. Security & Privacy due to dedicated links.
6. Point to Point links make fault identification easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Cable cost is too high due to multiple links. This cable cost may even be more than a star network in case
of true mesh network among a large number of computers.
2. It is also very difficult to maintain a true mesh for a large number of computers.
3. Due to multiple links installation and reconfiguration is difficult.
4. Sheer bulk wiring can be greater the than the available space.
The OSI Model (Open System Interconnection Model)
The working procedure of data communication protocols and other software can be fully described by OSI seven
layers reference model. OSI is a non-tangible model and is very useful in understanding how equipment form of one
manufacturer could be connected with totally different equipment form some other manufacturer. This model is under
the process of development since 1977. OSI stands for Open System Interconnection and here communication software
can be understood by studying this model. This model has devised a hierarchy of the following seven layers so that
each layer is a service or procedure according to which the data to be communicated is processed and is forwarded to
the lower level layers at the sending point or higher level at the receiving point.
The upper three layers of this model are called high level layers as they are concerned with the software whereas the
lower four layers are called low level layers because they are concerned with the functions of different networking
hardware. These layers are described one by one below in detail.
1. Application Layer :
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It is the first high level layer and is closest to the users. It is used for providing support to the phenomena of the
transfer of information between end-user, application program and devices. Several types of protocols that exist in this
layer are converting specific and general application such as accounting, entry control and user identification.
2. Presentation Layer :
This is the second high-level layer and accepts the processed data from application layer for further processing. The
purpose of protocol in this layer is to ensure that different devices using data in different formats can be communicate
with each other, for example, handling the conversion between ASCII and EBCDIC codes. It may also be used to carry
out encryption to ensure the security of data during its transmission.
3. Session Layer :
This is third and last high-level layer of the OSI reference model and is actually the user interface to the network.
When the user requests for a particular service from the network, this layer handles the dialogue.
4. Transport Layer:
This layer is the last low-level layer and fourth layer of the OSI reference model. This layer handles the data
transmission between host computers by performing addressing and error controls to ensure a high quality data
transmission service for the network.
5. Network Layer :
This the third low-level layer and fifth layer in the OSI reference model which has the function of performing tasks
like routing of information around the network, connecting adjacent nodes in the network and also carrying out
accounting function to enable the network’s owner to charge the users.
6. Data Link Layer :
This the second low-level and sixth of the OSI reference model. This layer is used to handle the data transmission
errors by the corruption of data due to different types of interference that affect physical data transmission media used
in the networks. The techniques used for the receipt and acknowledgements of data by a receiver are handled through
this layer.
7. Physical Layer :
This is the last layer of OSI reference model and is the first low-level layer as it is closer to the hardware. This layer is
concerned with standards for mechanical, electrical and procedural aspects of the interface devices. An example of
such standards may be the number of pins contained with in a network’s connector. This layer is especially concerned
with how the binary data is transmitted along the communication channels.
The diagrammatic representation of the layer by layer architecture of entirely different networking products and the
way data is sent and received by them is given as follows.

Sender Receiver
Application Layer Application Layer
Presentation Layer Presentation Layer
Networking Hardware
Session Layer Session Layer
Transport Layer Transport Layer
Network Layer Network Layer
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer

There are several advantages of OSI reference model few of which are
1. OSI reference model gives a clear understanding about the working of communication software and
equipments.
2. OSI reference model when followed make different networking software capable to transmit their data
with each other.
3. This model provides a standard for the quality of communication between similar or different networking
equipments.
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Transmission Media (Cable)
Transmission media is very important component of data communication system. It provides channels for the
transmission of various types of data. It is a source of inter-connecting the computers in the form of a network.
Media is the plural of medium and thus communication media is a collection of different medium. Media are used
for the exchange of data among computers. A network is established with the help of communication media. The
media is composed of communication channel that are links between computers and are followed by the data
signals during their flow from one computer to another one. There are tow broad categories of communication or
transmission media. These are described as.

Cabling system or Guided Media:

A cabling system or guided media comprise cable-based data communication channels within a bounded area.
Bounded area is the region confined by data communication capacities of specific cable media. Types of cabling
have a major bearing on the network’s speed, performance, cost and practically e.g very thick cable being much
harder to lay in or along walls. Cabling system includes
1. Twisted pair cables: (both shielded (STP) and unshielded (UTP)). The shielded is made of aluminum or
polyester and is covering the original cable. An example of this may be the telephone wire that is the cheapest
but has slow transmission rates and suffers from Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) easily (it is a UTP). The
copper wire is used to provide communication channels. Copper wire transmits the data in the form of pulses
or electric current.
Advantages (Merits)
1. UTP has the lowest cost. STP is also less costly than thick coaxial and fiber optic cables.
2. The bandwidth capacity of STP is theoretically upto 500 MbPS, few support 155 MBPS and most of them
support 16 MbPS whereas a UTP can support 1 to 15 MbPS. MbPS stands for Mega bits Per Second and
MBPS for Mega Byte Per Second.
3. The node capacity of both STP and UTP cables is 2 computers, in both UPT and STP cables, attenuation is
100 meters which means that the signals can travel without degradation upto 100 meters.

Disadvantages (Demerits)
UTP is very much susceptible to Electro-Magnetic Interference i.e (EMI), however STP is less susceptible to EMI
due to its shielding effect. Anyhow more or less the EMI may have its susceptibility on both UTP and STP cables.
The standards categories:
Cat 1: Previously used for POTS telephone communications, ISDN and doorbell wiring.
Cat 2: Previously was frequently used on 4 Mbit/s token ring networks.
TIA-568 only recognized cables of Category 3 ratings or above.
Cat 3 UTP
Category 3 UTP is rated to carry data up to 10Mbit/s.
Cat 3 UTP was the standard cable for use with Ethernet 10Base-T.
Cat 4 UTP:
Category 4 UTP no longer common or used in new installations was frequently used on 16 Mbit/s token ring networks.
Cat 5 UTP
Category 5 UTP is rated to carry Ethernet up to 100Mbit/s and ATM up to 155Mbit/s.
Cat 5 UTP was the standard cable for use with Ethernet 100Base-TX.
Cat 5e UTP
Category 5e UTP is an enhanced version of Cat 5 UTP.
Cat 5e UTP is rated to carry data up to 1000Mbit/s.
Cat 5e UTP is the standard cable for use with Ethernet 1000Base-T.
Cat 5e can also be used to extend the distance of 100Base-TX cable runs up to 350 meters.
Cat 6 UTP
Category 6 UTP is very similar to Cat 5 UTP, except that it is designed and manufactured to even stricter standards.
Category 6 has a minimum of 250 MHz of bandwidth. Allowing 10/100/1000 use with up to 100-meter cable length,
along with 10GbE over shorter distances.
 12
Coaxial Cables:
Coaxial cables are high and well-insulated cables. They can transmit data much faster and more accurately than
twisted pair cables. The central cable shares a common axis and is therefore called coaxial or simply coax. There
are two types of coaxial cables.
1. Baseband coaxial : Baseband coaxial carries one signal at a time. A bit of 0 or 1 value is sent by the presence
or absence of voltage in the cable. Baseband signals can travel very fast but can only be sent over short
distances. Over about 1000 feet, special booster equipments are needed for baseband coaxial cables.
2. Broadband coaxial: Broadband coaxial can carry multiple signals on a fixed carrier wave, with the signals for
0s and 1s sent as variations on this wave. Data, audio and vedio transmission can take place simultaneously
using broadband coaxial cables.
Advantages (Merits)
1. Coaxial cables (also called Coax) are relatively inexpensive. Thin coax is less expensive than STP. Though
thick Coax is more expensive than STP. However it is less expensive than fiber optic cable.
2. The installation is simple and it has higher potential of bandwidth capacity.
3. The node capacity depends on the type of coaxial cable. Thick coax can connect 100 devices. Thin Coax such
as RG-58 can afford 30 computers.
4. Attenuation of RG-8 that is used in thick Ethernet is 500 meters whereas the attenuation of RG-58 that is used
in thin Ethernet is 185 meters.
Disadvantages (Demerits)
1. Though Coaxial cable offers much better resistance to EMI due to its shielding effect even then the
transmission speed is less than that of fiber optic cable.
10Base2 - Ethernet specification for thin coaxial cable, transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per second) with a
distance limit of 185 meters per segment.
10Base5 - Ethernet specification for thick coaxial cable, transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per second) with a
distance limit of 500 meters per segment.
10BaseF - Ethernet specification for fiber optic cable, transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per second) with a
distance limit of 2000 meters per segment.
10BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cable (category 3, 4, or 5), transmits signals at 10
Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.
100BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to transmit data at 100 Mbps
(megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.
1000BaseX -Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to transmit data at 1 Gbps
(gigabits per second) with a distance limitation of 220 meters per segment.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable is a high-speed data transmission medium. It contains tiny glass or plastic filaments that carry light
beams. Digital data is transmitted through the cable via rapid pulses of light. The receiving end of a fiber optic
transmission translates the light pulses into binary values, which can be read by a computer.
Because fiber optic cables transmit data via light waves, they can transfer information at the speed of light. Not
surprisingly, fiber optic cables provide the fastest data transfer rates of any data transmission medium. They are also
less susceptible to noise and interference compared to copper wires or telephone lines. However, fiber optic cables are
more fragile than their metallic counterparts and therefore require more protective shielding. While copper wires can
be spliced and mended as many times as needed, broken fiber optic cables often need to be replaced.
Since fiber optic cables provide fast transfer speeds and large bandwidth, they are used for a large part of the Internet
backbone. For example, most transatlantic telecommunications cables between the U.S. and Europe are fiber optic. In
recent years, fiber optic technology has become increasingly popular for local Internet connections as well. For
example, some ISPs now offer "fiber Internet," which provides Internet access via a fiber optic line. Fiber connections
can provide homes and businesses with data transfer speeds of 1 Gbps.
 13
Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable
Bandwidth –
Fibre optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. The amount of information that can be
transmitted per unit time of fibre over other transmission media is its most significant advantage. With the high
performance single mode cable used by telephone industries for long distance telecommunication, the bandwidth
surpasses the needs of today's applications and gives room for growth tomorrow.
Low Power Loss –
An optical fibre offers low power loss. This allows for longer transmission distances. In comparison to copper; in a
network, the longest recommended copper distance is 100m while with fibre, it is 2000m.
Interference –
Fibre optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference. It can also be run in electrically noisy environments
without concern as electrical noise will not affect fibre.
Size –
In comparison to copper, a fibre optic cable has nearly 4.5 times as much capacity as the wire cable has and a cross
sectional area that is 30 times less.
Weight –
Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires. They also occupy less space with cables of the same
information capacity. Lighter weight makes fibre easier to install.
Safety –
Since the fibre is a dielectric, it does not present a spark hazard.
Security –
Optical fibres are difficult to tap. As they do not radiate electromagnetic energy, emissions cannot be intercepted. As
physically tapping the fibre takes great skill to do undetected, fibre is the most secure medium available for carrying
sensitive data.
Flexibility –
An optical fibre has greater tensile strength than copper or steel fibres of the same diameter. It is flexible, bends easily
and resists most corrosive elements that attack copper cable.
Cost –
The raw materials for glass are plentiful, unlike copper. This means glass can be made more cheaply than copper.

Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cable

Cost –
Cables are expensive to install but last longer than copper cables.
Transmission –
transmission on optical fibre requires repeating at distance intervals.
Fragile –
Fibres can be broken or have transmission loses when wrapped around curves of only a few centimetres radius.
However by encasing fibres in a plastic sheath, it is difficult to bend the cable into a small enough radius to break the
fibre.
Protection –
Optical fibres require more protection around the cable compared to copper.
(Networking Devices)
1. Node
Definition: A node is any device connected to a computer network. Nodes can be computers, personal digital
assistants (PDAs), cell phones, or various other network appliances. On an IP network, a node is any device
with an IP address.
Any system or device connected to a network is also called a node. For example, if a network connects a file
server, five computers, and two printers, there are eight nodes on the network. Each device on the network has
 14
a network address, such as a MAC address, which uniquely identifies each device. This helps keep track of
where data is being transferred to and from on the network
2. NICs (Network Interface Card )/ Network Adapter
 They are peripheral cards that plug into the motherboard of computer and into a network cable.
 They are used to provide a computer an interface to a LAN, using a network cable.
 It is through NIC that your computer communicates on the network. Your computer software does not need to
be aware of how the NIC performs its function because the NIC driver software handles all the specifications
for your computer.
 Note that the CPU (processor) does not handle the transmission or reception of individual bits used in the
network. Rather it deals with packet transmission and reception. On the other hand network used bits
transmission and reception. Moreover the CPU speed may be different from the network data transfer speed.
Thus there becomes a need for an interface device i.e NIC to handle these types of problems.
The process is somewhat given below.
 To transmit on the network the CPU forms a packet in its memory and then instructs the NIC to begin
transmission.
 The CPU can continue other tasks while the NIC handles the details of accessing the medium and
transmitting bits.
 When the NIC finishes transmitting a packet, it informs the CPU about the transmitted packet.
 Similarly a NIC can receive an incoming frame of bits. The NIC waits for a frame of bits to cross the
network. If the destination address in the incoming frame matches the computer’s address or the broadcast
address, the NIC stores a copy of the frame in memory and waits for another one.
 The NIC then gives a complete packet of data to the CPU. The CPU allocates a buffer space in memory to
receive the packet and then instructs the NIC to read the next incoming packet into the buffer.
In short NIC converts data from the form stored in the computer to the form transmitted or received on the cable and
voice versa. In other words an NIC provides the computer a physical connection to the network.
You should know that different type of networks such as Ethernet, Token Ring or Fiber Optic Ethernet use a different
kind of NIC.
3. Modems : (Mo - Modulation : Dem – Demodulation)
 They are peripheral cards that provide a computer an interface to a Wide Area Network through a telephone
line.
 It is through Modems that your computer communicates on the network spanned on a very large area. Your
computer software does not need to be aware of how the Modem performs its function because the Modem
driver software handles all the specifications for your computer.
 Note that computer can only understand digital data while a telephone line can transmit only analog data. Thus
a network interface device i.e modem is required to convert the digital data into analog signals (modulation)
and vice versa (demodulation)
 The process is somewhat given below.
o To transmit on the network a modem accepts a sequence of data bits and applies modulation to these
bits. That is it converts digital signals to analog signals. A hardware circuit inside the modem called
modulator performs this function.
o Similarly to receive a signal modulated by the modulator of another modem, a modem converts those
analog signals to digital signals. A hardware circuit inside the modem called demodulator performs
this function.
 Thus transmission of data across a long distance requires a modulator at one end of the transmission line and a
demodulator at the other; note that one modem consists of both modulator and demodulator.
 The data communication between two modems is in full duplex mode.
 Just as some computers are faster than others, some modems are faster than others. The faster you go the more
devices will cost.
 Most analog modems operate at speeds from 14.4 kbps upto a theoretical limit of 56 kbps.
 Most modern modems can compress data also, which can greatly speed up transfer of some type of
information such as text and graphics. Thus a fast modem with compression capability is the best of all but it
will cost more.
 15
 A modem also provides the facility of error detection and correction to a network. A bad telephone system can
cause bits of data to be lost. If the lost bits are not detected and damaged data is not corrected, the data being
transmitted could be lost or permanently corrupted.
 Modems are of two types.

Internal Modem
They are plugged into the motherboard of computer at one side and to the telephone cable at other side.
External Modem
They are connected to the computer by a serial cable at one end and to the telephone cable at other end. The serial
cable (RS-232) must have connectors that match the modem at one end and the computer at the other end. On the
modem end, most external modems have a female DB25 (25 stand for 25 pins) connector and need a cable that has a
DB25 male connector. The other end of the cable, which connects to the computer, can have DB25 female. DB9 male
or small round PS/2 connector depending on the computer.

4. Access Point
In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP) is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related standards. The WAP usually connects to a router (via a wired network), and
can relay data between the wireless devices (such as computers or printers) and wired devices on the network.

In a wireless local area network (WLAN), an access point is a station that transmits and receives data (sometimes
referred to as a transceiver). An access point connects users to other users within the network and also can serve as
the point of interconnection between the WLAN and a fixed wire network. Each access point can serve multiple
users within a defined network area; as people move beyond the range of one access point, they are automatically
handed over to the next one. A small WLAN may only require a single access point; the number required increases
as a function of the number of network users and the physical size of the network.

5. HUBs:
All networks (except those using coaxial cable – as it is broadband medium and is having the capability to perform like
a hub) require bringing down media segment together to a central point called HUB (also called a multiport-repeater or
concentrator)
A hub fills the need of connecting multiple media segments together.
Hubs range in size from four ports upto several hundred and are specific to the network types. There are three main
types of hubs: passive, active, and intelligent.
a. Passive hubs: A passive hub simply concentrates (centralized) the network. It does not regenerate the signals and in
fact absorbs some of the signal. Thus it decreases the distance between devices. A passive hub allows each computer to
receive the signals sent from a sender computer.
b. Active hubs: Active hubs add the capability of amplification and regeneration of the signals to the passive hub.
Thus using active hubs, you can increase the distance between devices. The main problem with active hub is that they
amplify both noise as well the signal. That is signals are blindly amplified because active hubs have no real
intelligence to distinguish between the noise and the signal. Active hub are mush more expensive than passive hubs.
Active hubs are also called multi-port repeater because, they act like repeater but they have multiple ports for devices
to attach.
c. Intelligent hubs (Switches): Intelligent hubs, in addition to signal regeneration, perform some network
management and intelligent path selection. An intelligent hub sends the signals to only the destination device rather
than sending it to all devices connected to the hub. Using a switch is like having a dedicated connection between the
two transmitting devices. Many switching hubs can choose which alternative path will be the quickest and send the
data that way. Intelligent hubs function like bridges but they have multiple ports that are why they are called multiports
bridges. Intelligent hubs are expensive than other types of hubs.

Switches
Definition: A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local area
network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.
Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains more intelligence (and a
slightly higher price tag) than a hub. Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are
 16
received, determining the source and destination device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately. By
delivering messages only to the connected device intended, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and offers
generally better performance than a hub.
Repeaters :
Electromagnetic waves (electric signals) attenuate (weaken) while traveling along a transmission medium. This limits
the distance any medium can carry the data. Repeaters are used to repeat (amplify and regenerate) the signal that
allows it to travel farther, increasing the size of the network.
A repeater is an electronic device that can connect two LAN segments together. They do not have the intelligence to
connect different network architectures, such Ethernet with a Token Ring.
Repeaters can convert data from one cable type to another cable type i.e they can be used with multiple cable types.
Repeaters are two types.
a. Amplifiers: They simply amplify the signal as well as the noise.
b. Signal-regenerator: They reconstruct the damaged data by reducing the noise in the desired data and retransmit
the data with its original strength.
LAN LAN
Repeater
Computer Computer Computer Computer Computer
A B C D E

Bridges :
Bridges are used to connect network segments with similar topologies.
Like repeater, bridges do not pass on all the signals they receive. Rather they read the physical address of the source
and the destination computers to determine where the two communication devices are located so that to reduce
transmission traffic. Therefore, they are often used to increase performance on high traffic network segment.
A bridge works in a somewhat the following way
1. A bridge receives all the signals for both segment A and B.
2. the bridge reads the address and discards (filters) all signals from segment A that are addressed to the
computer on the same segment A, because they don’t need cross the bridge.
3. Signals from segment A that addressed to a computer on segment B are retransmitted to segment B with
no amplification of the noise.
4. The signals from segment B are treated in the same way.

Computer 1 Computer 2 Computer 3

A LAN with two
Segment A segments
connected by a
bridge
Bridge

Computer 4 Computer 5 Computer 6

Bridges can’t connect dissimilar network types. Rather it connects two LAN segment to make one logical network, in
which computers do no know whether they are connected to a LAN or a bridged LAN. The two segments may use
different cable types. Bridges are of two types:
 17
1. Transparent Bridges: They keep a table of NIC addresses to know which data to pass and which should
be filtered. They determine where to send data.
2. Source routing Bridges: They require the entire route to be included in the transmission and do not route
packets intelligently. IBM Token Ring networks use this type of bridge. These bridges, instead of
depending on NIC addresses, use information in the token ring frame to determine whether to pass the data
or not.
Inter-Network Connectivity Devices:
These devices are used to connect two different networks having the same of different protocols. They are used to
expand a Local Area Network so that to make a Wide Area Network from it.

1. Routers: Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect independent networks with protocols that function
in similar ways.
Routers are the combination of hardware and software, i.e they are special computers. Hardware components
comprise the physical interface to the various networks in the inter-network. These interface are, for instance,
Ethernet, TI, Frame Relay, ATM, etc. Software component of the routers consist of Operating System and
routing protocols.

Network A Network B

Router 1
Router 3
Network C
Router 2
Network D

Different Types of Network Connectors

1. RJ45:
Short for Registered Jack-45, an eight-wire connector used commonly to connect computers onto a local-area
networks (LAN), especially Ethernets. RJ-45 connectors look similar to the ubiquitous RJ-11 connectors used for
connecting telephone equipment, but they are somewhat wider.
2. RJ-11
Short for Registered Jack-11, a four- or six-wire connector used primarily to connect telephone equipment in the
United States. RJ-11 connectors are also used to connect some types of local-area networks (LANs), although RJ-
45 connectors are more common.

3. BNC connector
The BNC connector (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) is a common type of RF connector used for coaxial cable. It is
used with radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test instruments, video signals, and
was once a popular computer network connector. BNC connectors are made to match the characteristic impedance
of cable at either 50 ohms or 75 ohms. It is usually applied for frequencies below 3 GHz and voltages below 500
Volts. Similar connectors using the bayonet connection principle exist, and a threaded connector is also available.

What is an IP Address?
No doubt you've heard the term "IP address." Unless you're a techie, though, you may not have more than a shadowy
notion of what an IP address actually is or how it works. Let's explore the concept.
An IP address is a fascinating product of modern computer technology designed to allow one computer (or other
digital device) to communicate with another via the Internet. IP addresses allow the location of literally billions of
digital devices that are connected to the Internet to be pinpointed and differentiated from other devices. In the same
sense that someone needs your mailing address to send you a letter, a remote computer needs your IP address to
communicate with your computer.
 18

"IP" stands for Internet Protocol, so an IP address is an Internet Protocol address. What does that mean? An Internet
Protocol is a set of rules that govern Internet activity and facilitate completion of a variety of actions on the World
Wide Web. Therefore an Internet Protocol address is part of the systematically laid out interconnected grid that
governs online communication by identifying both initiating devices and various Internet destinations, thereby making
two-way communication possible.
An IP address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one to three digits, with a single dot (.) separating each
number or set of digits. Each of the four numbers can range from 0 to 255. Here's an example of what an IP address
might look like: 78.125.0.209. This innocuous-looking group of four numbers is the key that empowers you and me to
send and retrieve data over our Internet connections, ensuring that our messages, as well as our requests for data and
the data we've requested, will reach their correct Internet destinations. Without this numeric protocol, sending and
receiving data over the World Wide Web would be impossible.

IP addresses can be either static or dynamic. Static IP addresses never change. They serve as a permanent Internet
address and provide a simple and reliable way for remote computers to contact you. Static IP addresses reveal such
information as the continent, country, region, and city in which a computer is located; the ISP (Internet Service
Provider) that services that particular computer; and such technical information as the precise latitude and longitude of
the country, as well as the locale, of the computer. Many websites provide IP address look-up services to their visitors,
free of charge. If you're curious about your own IP address, you can locate these websites by performing a Google
search.

Dynamic IP addresses are temporary and are assigned each time a computer accesses the Internet. They are, in effect,
borrowed from a pool of IP addresses that are shared among various computers. Since a limited number of static IP
addresses are available, many ISPs reserve a portion of their assigned addresses for sharing among their subscribers in
this way. This lowers costs and allows them to service far more subscribers than they otherwise could.

Static IP addresses are generally preferable for such uses as VOIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), online gaming, or
any other purpose where users need to make it easy for other computers to locate and connect to them. Easy access can
also be facilitated when using a dynamic IP address through the use of a dynamic DNS service, which enables other
computers to find you even though you may be using a temporary, one-time IP address. This often entails an extra
charge, however, so check with your ISP.

Static IP addresses are considered somewhat less secure than dynamic IP addresses, since they are easier to track for
data mining purposes. However, following safe Internet practices can help mitigate this potential problem and keep
your computer secure no matter what type of IP address you use.

IPv4
Internet Protocol version four, or IPv4, is a system of addresses used to identify devices on a network. Originally
described in 1981 in RFC791, IPv4 is the most widely used Internet layer protocol, and at this point is used by the vast
majority of users to connect to the Internet.

IPv4 addresses are actually 32-bit numbers. This means that there are 2 32, or just over four billion, possible addresses.
Over time, however, it has become clear that more addresses than this will be required to ensure ongoing growth of the
Internet. The unused pool of IPv4 addresses is predicted run out in the next two years, so an alternative is required.

IP
1. Short for Internet Protocol, IP is an address of a computer or other network device on a network using IP or TCP/IP.
For example, the number "166.70.10.23" is an example of such an address. These addresses are similar to an addresses
used on a house and is what allows data to reach the appropriate destination on a network.

There are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B and C
are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses. Below is a listing of these addresses.

Class Address Range Supports .


Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254
Class B 128.1.0.1 to 191.255.255.254
Class C 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254
Class D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254
19
Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 Networks
Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks
Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks
Reserved for multicast groups.
Reserved for future use, or Research and Development purposes

IPv6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is a version of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is designed to succeed the Internet
Protocol version 4 (IPv4). The Internet operates by transferring data between hosts in small packets that are
independently routed across networks as specified by an international communications protocol known as the Internet
Protocol.

Data Rate:
Data rate of a signal is the rate, in bits per second that data are transmitted. The duration or length of a bit is the
amount of time it takes for the transmitter to release the bit; for a Data Rate R, the bit duration is 1/R.

Baud Rate:
The baud rate of a data communications system is the number of symbols per second transferred. A symbol may have
more than two states, so it may represent more than one binary bit (a binary bit always represents exactly tow states).
Therefore the baud rate may not equal the bit, especially in the case of recent modems, which can have (for example)
up to nine bits per symbol.

Peak Data Rate:

Peak data rate is the number of symbols per second which utilize the maximum available bandwidth. Or maximum
data transmission per second at a single transmission is called as peak data rate.
Bursty Data:
A burst is a continuous transfer of data without interruption from one device to another. Microprocessors allow burst
mode block transfers of data to memory and onboard caches. Disk and network adapters perform burst mode transfers
in which they control the system bus in order to send multiple blocks of data.

Intranet
An intranet is a private network that is setup and controlled by an organization to encourage interaction among its
members, to improve efficiency and to share information, among other things. Information and resources that are
shared on an intranet might include: organizational policies and procedures, announcements, information about new
products, and confidential data of strategic value.
An intranet is a restricted-access network that works much like the Internet, but is isolated from it. As is the case with
the Internet, an intranet is based on TCP/IP protocols. Therefore, a web page in an intranet may look and act just like
any other webpage on the Internet, but access is restricted to authorized persons and devices. In some cases, access to
an intranet is restricted by not connecting it to other networks, but in other cases a firewall is used to deny access to
unauthorized entities.
The difference between an intranet and the Internet is defined in terms of accessibility, size and control. Unless content
filters are being used or the government is censoring content, all the Internet’s content is accessible to everyone. On
the other hand an intranet is owned and controlled by a single organization that decides which members are allowed
access to certain parts of the intranet. In general, an intranet is usually very small and is restricted to the premises of a
single organization.

Extranet
An extranet is an extended intranet. In addition to allowing access to members of an organization, an extranet uses
firewalls, access profiles, and privacy protocols to allow access to users from outside the organization. In essence, an
extranet is a private network that uses Internet protocols and public networks to securely share resources with
customers, suppliers, vendors, partners, or other businesses.

Both intranets and extranets are owned, operated and controlled by one organization. However, the difference between
intranets and extranets is defined in terms of who has access to the private network and the geographical reach of that
 20
network. Intranets allow only members of the organization to access the network, while an extranet allows persons
from outside the organization (i.e. business partners and customers) to access the network. Usually, network access is
managed through the administration of usernames and passwords, which are also used to determine which parts of the
extranet a particular user can access.

Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic,
wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and
services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), the
infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing and telephony.