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C/C++ Programming
Computer Languages:- It is defined as the way of communication between a person and a computer, and between two
computers. A person can communicate with a digital computer in computer languages, e.g., C/C++, FORTRAN,
PASCAL, BASIC, etc, just as human communicate in natural languages, e.g., ENGLISH, PASHTO, URDU, etc. There
are hundreds of computer languages used for communication with a computer and these languages are also called
Artificial Languages. Computer languages are of the following types.
1. Low-Level Languages:- The lowest and most elementary language of a computer is the Machine language also
called Binary Language or Language of 0 and 1. This is also called the language of computer, because computer
directly understands it. But it is very much difficult for users and are machine depended i.e it varies from machine
to machine. All the program codes are in pure binary form, which are very much difficult for the humans to
memorize or understand. A little bit highest level of this language becomes the Assembly language also called
symbolic programming language, which carry English like instructions and is human-readable but still it needs
the knowledge of computer internal hardware/working structure.

2. High level Languages:- The languages, which are one step higher than Low-level languages in human
understanding, are called High-Level Languages. These languages have their own set of characters, words and
symbols in which a programmer can write his own programs according to certain rules similar to the Natural
Languages. The high-Level Languages are also called Compiler or Procedural Languages. Programs written in
these languages are easier and understandable to humans than the Low-level Languages. These languages are
machine independed because these languages are more User-oriented than the machine internal structure, i.e.
Programs written in these languages using one computer can easily be run on another computer, e.g., BASIC,
FORTRAN, COBOL, etc.
Computer Languages and Packages:- In computer languages we define the problems and give our own instructions to
the computer, e.g. BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL,C/C++ etc. But in computer packages we can solve our problems
without giving our instructions to the computer. They need only a few keystrokes and ready-made commands to help in
solving our specific problems. Computer languages are versatile to solve the problems where as the computer packages
are not versatile and are specific to problem solutions.

What is C ? C is a general purposes high-level programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in the
mid 1970s. Although originally designed as a systems programming language, C has proved to be a powerful and flexible
language that can be used for a variety of applications, from business programs to engineering. C is a particularly popular
language for personal computer programmers because it is relatively small -- it requires less memory than other
languages.
The first major program written in C was the UNIX operating system, and for many years C was considered to be
inextricably linked with UNIX. Now, however, C is an important language independent of UNIX.
Although it is a high-level language, C is much closer to assembly language than are most other high-level languages.
This closeness to the underlying machine language allows C programmers to write very efficient code. The low-level
nature of C, however, can make the language difficult to use for some types of applications.

What is C++?
C++ is an object oriented programming language created by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1985. It implements “data abstraction”
using a concept called “Classes”, along with other features to allow Object Oriented Programming. Parts of the C++
program are easily reusable and extensible, existing code is easily modifiable without actually having to change to code.
C++ adds a concept called “operator overloading” not seen in the earlier OOP languages and it makes the creation of
libraries much cleaner.

C++ maintains the aspect of the C programming language, yet has features which simplify memory management.
Additionally, some of the features of C++ allow low level access to memory but also contain high level features.

C++ is a superset of C. C programs will run in C++ compilers. C uses structural programming concepts and techniques
while C++ uses object oriented programming and classes which focus on data.
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History of C: By 1960 a hoarde of computer languages had come into existence, almost each for a specific purpose. For
example, COBOL was being used for Commercial Applications, FORTRAN for Engineering and Scientific Applications
and so on. At this stage people started thinking that instead of learning and using so many languages, each for a different
purpose, why not use only one language, which can program all possible applications. Therefore, an international
committee was set up to develop such a language. This committee came out with a language called ALGOL 60. However,
ALGOL 60 never really became popular because it seemed too abstract, too general. To reduce this abstractness and
generality, a new language called Combined Programming Language (CPL) was developed at Cambridge University.
CPL turned out to be so big, having so many features, that it was hard to learn and difficult to implement.

Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL), developed by Martin Richards at Cambridge University aimed to solve
this problem by bringing CPL down to its basic good features. But unfortunately it turned out to be too less powerful and
too specific. Around same time a language called B was written by Ken Thompson at AT&T Bell Labs, as a further
simplification of CPL. But like BCPL, B too turned out to be very specific. Ritchie inherited the features of B and BCPL,
added some of his own and developed C. Ritchie’s main achievement is the restoration of the lost generality in BCPL and
B, and still keeping it powerful.

Advantages of C

• Programs written in C are very efficient and fast. This is due to its variety of data types and powerful operators. It is
many time faster than BASIC. This helps developers in saving their valuable time.

• C is a powerful and flexible language, which helps system developers to deliver various complex tasks with ease. C is
used for diverse projects as operating systems, word processors, graphics, spreadsheets, and even compilers for other
languages.

• C is popular among professional programmers for programming, as a result, a wide variety of C compilers and helpful
accessories are available.

• C is highly portable language. This means that a C program written for one computer system can be run on another
system with little or no modification.

• C’s another striking feature is its ability to extend itself. A C program is basically a collection of various function
supported by C library (also known as header files). We can also add our own functions to the C library. These functions
can be reused in other applications or programs by passing pieces of information to the functions, you can create useful,
reusable code.

• Writing C program with user-defined functions makes program more simple and easy to understand. Breaking a problem
in terms of functions makes program debugging, maintenance and testing easier.

Disadvantages of C
 C does not have OOPS feature that's why C++ is developed.
 There is no runtime checking in C language.
 There is no strict type checking (for ex: we can pass an integer value for the
floating data type).
 C doesn't have the concept of namespace.
 C doesn't have the concept of constructors and destructors.

Difference between C and C++

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C++ is an extension of C language. This means that you can not only use the new features introduced with C++ but can
also use the power and efficiency of C language. C++ is a direct descendant of C that retains almost all of the C features
as a subset. Here is a list of differences between C and C++.
1. The main difference between C and C++ is that C++ is object oriented while C is a function or procedure oriented
language.
2. C++ provides stronger types of checking that C and directly support a wider range of programming styles than C.
3. C does not have any classes or object. It is procedure and function driven.
4. C structures have a different behaviour compared to C++ structure.
5. The standard input & output functions differ in the two languages
C uses scanf & printf while C++ uses cin>> & cout<< as their respective input & output functions
6. C input/output is based on library and the processes are carried out by including it functions. C++ input/output is
made through console commands cin and cout.
7. C functions do not support overloading.
8. C does not support new or delete commands. The memory operations to free or allocate memory in C are carried
out by malloc() and free().
9. Undeclared functions in C++ are not allowed. The function has to have a prototype define before the main()
before use in C++ although in C the functions can be declared at the point of use.
10. After declaring structures and enumerators in C we cannot declare the variable for the structure right after the end
of the structure as in C++.
11. C has top down approach whereas C++ has a bottom up approach.
12. In C a character constant is automatically elevated to an integer whereas in C++ this is not the case.
13. In C declaring the global variable several times is allowed but this is not allowed in C++.
Structure of C/C++ program
A C/C++ program consists of three main parts. These are
1. Pre-processor Directives
2. The main( ) Function
3. C/C++ statements (Body of the program)
Preprocessor Directives
The instructions that are given to the computer before the beginning of the actual program are called Preprocessor
Directives. These are also known as Compiler Directives. The preprocessor directives consist of instructions for the
compiler. The compiler adds special instructions of code from these directives into the program at the time of compilation.
These pre-processor directives normally start with a number sing,( # ) and the keyword “include”. Pre-processor directives
are used to include header files in the program.
Example.
# include <iostream.h>
main( )
{
Statements;
Statements;
}
The main( ) Function
The only component that is required in every C/C++ program is the main( ) function. In its simplest form, the main( )
function consists of the name main followed by a pair of empty parentheses (( )) and a pair of braces ({ }). Within the
braces are statements that make up the main body of the program. Under normal circumstances, program execution starts
at the first statement in main( ) and terminates at the last statement in main( ).
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Body of the program (C/C++ statements) : The statements of the program are written under the main( ) function
between the curly braces { }. These statements are the body of the program. Each statement in C/C++ ends with a
semicolon. ( ; )
The #include Directive
The #include directive instructs the C/C++ compiler to add the contents of an include file into your program during
compilation. An include file is a separate disk file that contains information needed by your program or the compiler.
Several of these files (sometimes called header files) are supplied with your compiler. You never need to modify the
information in these files; that's why they're kept separate from your source code. Include files should all have an .H
extension (for example, conio.h).
C/C++ character set.
A character denotes any alphabet, digit or symbols to represent information. The following are the valid alphabets
(letters), numbers (digits) and special symbols permitted in C / C++

1. Alphabets (Letters) :
C/C++ language comprises the following set of letters to form a standard program. They are :
A to Z in Capital letters.
a to z in Small letters.

2. Numbers/Digits :
C/C++ language comprises the following sequence of numbers to associate the letters. 0 to 9 digits.

3. Arithmetic Operations:
+, -, *, /, %(Mod)

4. Special Characters:
C language contains the following special character in association with the letters and digits.
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
~ Tilde ! Exclamation mark
# Number sign $ Dollar sign
% Percent sign ^ Caret
& Ampersand * Asterisk
( Left parenthesis ) Right parenthesis
_ Underscore + Plus sign
| Vertical bar \ Backslash
` Apostrophe - Minus sign
= Equal to sign { Left brace
} Right brace [ Left bracket
] Right bracket : Colon
" Quotation mark ; Semicolon
< Opening angle bracket > Closing angle bracket
? Question mark , Comma
. Period / Slash
Keywords / Reserve words
Keywords (Reserved words) are the words that are reserved for specific purpose and can not be used for other purpose.
They have special meaning for the compiler and the computer knows their meaning. In C/C++ all the keywords are in
lowercase. Since the C/C++ language is case sensitive. Therefore the keywords must be entered in lowercase. Keywords
cannot be used as variable name in program. Some example of the keywords are:
break, default, for, case, do , return, if, int, float, long, double, else etc
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User defined words (Identifiers)

The programmers supplied words are known as the identifiers, because they are supplied by the programmer. They are not
reserved by the computer for special meaning. Such words are also known as identifiers. Data names are the most
common type of the user defined words.
The rule for the formation of an identifier are:
 An identifier can consist of alphabets, digits and/or underscores.
 It must not start with a digit
 C/C++ is case sensitive that is upper case and lower case letters are considered different from each other.
 It should not be a reserved word.

Variables:
A quantity whose value may change during execution of the program is called variable. It is represented by a symbol or a
name.
A variable represents a storage or memory location in the computer memory. Data is stored into the memory location. The
name of the memory location i.e. the variable name, remain fixed during execution of the program but the data stored in
that location may change from time to time.

Rules for writing variable name. (Rule for naming variables)

The following are the rules for writing a variable name is a program in C/C++
 The first character of variable name must be an alphabetic.
 Underscore can be used as first character of variable name.
 Blank spaces are not allowed in a variable name.
 Special characters such as arithmetic operators, $,#,@,% etc cannot be used in a variable name.
 Reserved words (keywords) cannot be used as variable name.
 The maximum length of a variable name depends upon the compiler of C/C++.
 A variable name declared for one data type can not be used to declared for another data type.

Local variable and Global variable

Local variable
Variables that are declared within the body of the function are known as local variables. These are the variables that the
function needs for itself. They are activated only when the function is called. They may not be read or written to from
outside the function in which they are declared. When the function returns, such variables no longer available.
Consider the following example:
#include <iostream.h>

void main( )
{
clrscr( );
int a,b,c;
}
In the program the variables a,b and c are local variables because they are available only in main function. They can not
be used in other function.
Global Variables
The variables that are declared outside of any function are known as the global variables. Such variables can be seen,
accessed and changed from any function down in the program. These variables are declared at the top of the program,
before a function or between two functions in the program. Unlike the local variable the value of the global variable can
be changed in any functions. Consider the following programming example in which a , b and c are the global variables
and d is local variable.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
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int a,b,c;
void main( )
{
int d;

Declaration of variables: Assigning the name and data type that a variable can hold is called declaration of the variable.
All variables that are used in a program are declared using variable declaration statement. The syntax to declare a variable
in C/C++ is
Type list of variables;
Where
type : Specifies data type of variables. For example, it may be int, float , char etc.
list of variables : Specifies a list of variables separated by commas, in a single statement more than one variable, separated
by commas, of same data type can be declared.

For example, to declare variables “abc” , “xyz” , and “s” of integer type, the statement is written as.
int abc, xyz , s;
To declare variable with different data types the statement can be written as.
int abc;
float xyz;
char name[15];

Initialization of variables:
When a variable is declared, a memory location is assigned to it. A know value can be assigned to the variable at the time
of its declaration. If we assign a value to a variable at the time of its declaration, it is called initialization of variable. For
example to declare variables a,b and c of integer type and assigning values a = 110 and b = 60, the statement is written as:
int a = 110, b = 60, c;
Constants :
A quantity that cannot change its value during execution of the program is called constant. It is represented by a symbol or
a name. Constants have fixed value. There are four types of constants in C/C++. These are.
1. Integer constants 2. Floating point constants
3. Character constants 4. String constants

Integer Constants:
A numerical value without a decimal part is called integer constant. The plus (+) and minus ( - ) signs can also be used
with an integer constant. Integer constants are used in expression for calculations. To print an integer constant, it is given
in the output statement without quotation marks. For example, to print integer constants 510 and 662 the output statement
is written as:
cout<< 520;
cout<< 662;
Floating point constants: Numeric values that have an integer as well as a decimal part are called floating point values.
These values can also be written in exponential notation. In exponential notation, a floating point constant is written as
123.5E2. The symbol E represents the exponent. A floating point constant may be a positive or a negative value. The
exponent may also be a +ve or a –ve value.

Character constants: A single character enclosed in single quotation marks is called character constant. For example ‘a’ ,
‘/’ , ‘b’ etc represents character constants.
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String constants : A sequence of characters consisting of alphabets, digits and/or special characters enclosed in double
quotation marks is called string constant. For example, “Pakistan” and “Lahore” are examples of string constants.
Data types in C/C++
The variable type specifies the type of data that can be stored in it. Each variable is declared by its type.
C/C++ has the five basic data types.
1. Bool Boolean
2. int Integer
3. float Floating Point
4. double Double Precision
5. char Character
The Bool data type:
The word bool stands for Boolean. It is used to declare logic type variables. In logic type variables only two values can be
stored. The true is equivalent to 1 and false is equivalent to 0.

The int Data type

The int represent the integer data. It is used to declared integer type variable. An integer is a whole number, i.e a number
without a fraction or a decimal point. For example, 601, 250 , -6 and 501 etc are integers. The range of values that can be
stored in int data type variables depends upon the computer system being used. In MS DOS, an integer type variable takes
two bytes in the memory and the range of values stored is form –32768 to 32767.
The storage capacity for integer type variable can be changed by applying the integer qualifiers. There are three qualifiers
that can be applied to int type variables. These are
1. short int 2. long int 3. unsigned int

The short int: The storage capacity of a short int type variable is two bytes. It can store integer values form –32768 to
32767.
The long int: The storage capacity of a long int type variable is four bytes. It can store integer from –2147483648 to
2147483647

The unsigned int: The unsigned int can store only positive whole-numbers. Its storage capacity is tow bytes. It can store
integer values form 0 to 65535.

The float data type: The float represent real or floating type data. The real type data is represented in decimal or
exponential notation. Float data may be signed or unsigned. For example, 23.23 , 16.21 , 0.56 , -9.87 are examples of
floating type data. The storage capacity of float type variable is four bytes and it can store real values form 3.4x10 -38 to
3.4x10+38.

The long float data type: The storage capacity of a long float type variable is twice the storage capacity of float type
variable. Its storage capacity is 8 bytes.

The double data type: The double is the real or floating type data. Its storage capacity is twice the capacity of float data
type. It is used to store large real values. The storage capacity for a double variable type is 8 bytes and it can store real
values from 1.7x10-308 to 1.7x10+308

The long double data type: The long double type variables are used to store very large real data values. The storage
capacity for long double variables is ten bytes. A long double variable can store real values from 3.4x10 -4932 to 3.4x10+4932

The char data type: The char stands for character. It is used to declare character type variable. In character type variables,
alphabetic characters, numeric digits and special characters can be stored. The storage capacity for a single character is 8
bits or one byte. A char type variable can hold from 1 byte to 65535 bytes.
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Operators
An operator is a symbol that instructs C/C++ to perform some operation, or action, on one or more operands. An operand
is something that an operator acts on. In C/C++, all operands are expressions. C/C++ operators fall into several categories:
Operators are special symbols used for specific purposes. C/C++ provides six types of operators. Arithmetical operators,
Relational operators, Logical operators, Unary operators, Assignment operators, Conditional operators, Comma operator .

Arithmetical operators (Binary Operators)

Arithmetical operators +, -, *, /, and % are used to performs an arithmetic (numeric) operation. You can use the operators
+, -, *, and / with both integral and floating-point data types. Modulus or remainder % operator is used only with the
integral data type.
Operators that have two operands are called binary operators.
Example
Operator Symbol Action Example
Addition + Adds two operands x+y
Subtraction - Subtracts the second operand from the first operand x-y
Multiplication * Multiplies two operands x*y
Division / Divides the first operand by the second operand x/y
Gives the remainder when the first operand is divided by the second
Modulus % x%y
operand
All arithmetic operators, except the remainder operator, are used for all type of numeric data. The remainder or the
modulus operator (%) can only be used for integer type data. It returns the remainder when one integer is divided by
another integer. For example, 10%3 returns the remainder 1.
Note: These operators are also called binary operators.

Relational operators
The relational operators are used to test the relation between two values. All relational operators are binary operators and
therefore require two operands. A relational expression returns zero when the relation is false and a non-zero when it is
true. The following table shows the relational operators.
Relational Operators Meaning
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
== Equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
!= Not equal to
Examples
Operator Symbol Question Asked Example
Equal == Is operand 1 equal to operand 2? x == y
Greater than > Is operand 1 greater than operand 2? x>y
Less than < Is operand 1 less than operand 2? x<y
Greater than or equal to >= Is operand 1 greater than or equal to operand 2? x >= y
Less than or equal to <= Is operand 1 less than or equal to operand 2? x <= y
Not equal != Is operand 1 not equal to operand 2? x != y

Logical Operators
Sometimes you might need to ask more than one relational question at once. For example, "If it's 7:00 a.m. and a weekday
and not my vacation, ring the alarm." C/C++ logical operators let you combine two or more relational expressions into a
single expression that evaluates to either true or false.
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C/C++ logical operators.

Operator Symbol Example
AND && exp1 && exp2
OR || exp1 || exp2
NOT ! !exp1

The Assignment Operator

The assignment operator is the equal sign (=). Its use in programming is somewhat different from its use in regular math.
If you write x = y;
in a C/C++ program, it doesn't mean "x is equal to y." Instead, it means "assign the value of y to x." In a C assignment
statement, the right side can be any expression, and the left side must be a variable name. Thus, the form is as follows:
variable = expression;
When executed, expression is evaluated, and the resulting value is assigned to variable.

x = y = z = 32;

This code stores the value 32 in each of the three variables x, y, and z.

Compound Assignment Operators

C/C++ compound assignment operators provide a shorthand method for combining a binary mathematical operation with
an assignment operation. For example, say you want to increase the value of x by 5, or, in other words, add 5 to x and
assign the result to x. You could write
x = x + 5;
Using a compound assignment operator, which you can think of as a shorthand method of assignment, you would write
x += 5;
In more general notation, the compound assignment operators have the following syntax :
exp1 operator= exp2
This is equivalent to writing
exp1 = exp1 operator exp2;
You can create compound assignment operators using the five binary mathematical operators.
C/C++ compound assignment operators.
When you write this... It is equivalent to this
x *= y x=x*y
Y -= z + 1 y=y-z+1
a /= b a=a/b
X += y / 8 x=x+y/8
y %= 3 y=y%3
The compound operators provide a convenient shorthand, the advantages of which are particularly evident when the
variable on the left side of the assignment operator has a long name. As with all other assignment statements, a compound
assignment statement is an expression and evaluates to the value assigned to the left side. Thus, executing the following
statements results in both x and z having the value 14:
x = 12;
z = x += 2;
Increment and Decrement Operators
C++ provides two special operators viz '++' and '--' for incrementing and decrementing the value of a variable by 1. The
increment/decrement operator can be used with any type of variable but it cannot be used with any constant. Increment
and decrement operators each have two forms, pre and post.
The syntax of the increment operator is:
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Pre-increment: ++variable
Post-increment: variable++
The syntax of the decrement operator is:
Pre-decrement: ––variable
Post-decrement: variable––
In Prefix form first variable is first incremented/decremented, then evaluated
In Postfix form first variable is first evaluated, then incremented/decremented
int x,y;
int i=10,j=10;
x = ++i; //add one to i, store the result back in x
y= j++; //store the value of j to y then add one to j
cout<<x; //11
cout<<y; //10

Operator Symbol Action Examples

Increment ++ Increments the operand by one ++x, x++
Decrement -- Decrements the operand by one --x, x--

The Conditional Operator (Ternary operator)

The conditional operator is C/C++ only ternary operator, meaning that it takes three operands. Its syntax is
exp1 ? exp2 : exp3;
If exp1 evaluates to true (that is, nonzero), the entire expression evaluates to the value of exp2. If exp1 evaluates to false
(that is, zero), the entire expression evaluates as the value of exp3. For example, the following statement assigns the larger
of x and y,
z = (x > y) ? x : y;

The conditional operator can't be used in all situations in place of an if...else construction, but the conditional operator is
more concise. The conditional operator can also be used in places you can't use an if statement.

The comma operator

The comma operator gives left to right evaluation of expressions. When the set of expressions has to be evaluated for a
value, only the rightmost expression is considered.
int a=1, b=2, c=3, i; // comma acts as separator, not as an operator
i = (a, b); // stores b into i
Would first assign the value of a to i, and then assign value of b to variable i. So, at the end, variable i would contain the
value 2.

The sizeof operator

As we know that different types of Variables, constant, etc. require different amounts of memory to store them The sizeof
operator can be used to find how many bytes are required for an object to store in memory. For example
sizeof (char) returns 1
sizeof (int) returns 2
sizeof (float) returns 4
If k is integer variable, the sizeof (k) returns 2.
the sizeof operator determines the amount of memory required for an object at compile time rather than at run time.

The order of Precedence

The order in which the Arithmetic operators (+,-,*,/,%) are used in a. given expression is called the order of precedence.
The following table shows the order of precedence.
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Order Operators
First ()
Second *, /, %
Third +, -

Statements
Statements are the instructions given to the computer to perform any kind of action. Action may be in the form of data
movement, decision making etc. Statements form the smallest executable unit within a C++ program. Statements are
always terminated by semicolon.

Compound Statement
A compound statement is a grouping of statements in which each individual statement ends with a semi-colon. The group
of statements is called block. Compound statements are enclosed between the pair of braces ({}.). The opening brace ({)
signifies the beginning and closing brace (}) signifies the end of the block.

Null Statement
Writing only a semicolon indicates a null statement. Thus ';' is a null or empty statement. This is quite useful when the
syntax of the language needs to specify a statement but the logic of the program does not need any statement. This
statement is generally used in for and while looping statements.

Conditional Statements
Sometimes the program needs to be executed depending upon a particular condition. C++ provides the following
statements for implementing the selection control structure.
if statement
if else statement
nested if statement
switch statement

The if Statement
The fundamental decision making statement in C/C++ is the “if statement”. This statement is also called as conditional
jump statement or conditional transfer of control statement, because it is mostly used to transfer the control to another
statement if and only if a condition is true. If the condition is not fulfilled i.e if the condition is false, transfer of control
does not occur and the program execution moves on the next statement following the if structure. If condition has the
following form:
if(condition)
statement;
or
if(condition)
{
statement;
statement;
statement;
}
The reserved word “if” is followed by a condition which is followed by a statement to be carried out if the condition is
true. A statement may be a single statement or a block of statements or nothing. When more than one statements are going
to be executed after the if statement, then the statements must be grouped by enclosing them within a pair of braces. Every
statement in the if block must end with a semicolon. Consider the following example.
if(marks<33)
cout<<”Fail”;
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In the above example the condition (marks<33) is tested. In case the marks is less than 33 , then the condition is true, the
statement in the if block will be executed and the message “ Fail “ will be printed. The flowchart of the if statement is as
below.

False True

is
condition?
If-else statement
The second form of the if statement is if-else statement. With the if-else statement, we test a condition and we perform
one of two alternatives. When one conditions is true then action first is performed and a different action is performed
when the condition is false. The general syntax of the if-else statement is as below.
if(condition)
statement;
else
statement;
OR
if(condition)
{
statement;
statement;
statement;
}
else
{
statement;
statement;
statement;
}
If the condition is true then the statements following the condition are executed. If the condition is false, the else clause is
executed. The flowchart of the if-else statement could be as.

False True
is
condition
?

Action 2
Action 1

Consider the following example.

Next statement
if (marks>=33)
cout<<”Pass”;
in the program
else
cout<<”Fail”;
 13

In the above example “Pass” will be printed if marks is greater than or equal to 33 else “Fail” will be printed.

Nested if statement
The if structure can be nested within one other i.e when an if statement is contained with in another, they are known to be
nested. The nested if statement is used for multiple way decision making. In case of nested statement one need to know
which else goes with which if. The rule is each else is paired with the previous if that does not have else. The general form
could be as:
If(condition)
{
if(condition)
{
statement;
}
else
{
statement;
}
}
esle
{
statement;
}

Consider the following example.

if(marks>=33)
if(marks>=45)
if(marks>=60)
cout<<”First Division”;
else
cout<<”Second Division”;
else
cout<<”Third Division”;
else
cout<<”Fail”;

In the above example if marks obtained is greater than 60, then “First division” will be printed, if marks obtain is less than
60 but greater than 45 then “Second Division” will be printed, if marks obtained is less 45 but greater than 33 then “Third
Division” will be printed and if marks obtained is less than 33 then “Fail” will be printed.

The nested if-else structure

When an “if-else” structure is placed in another “if-else” structure, it is called “nested if-else” structure. Is is ued for
multiple selection. Its general syntax is:
if(condtion-1)
statement-1;
else if(condtion-2)
statement-2;
else if(condition-3)
statemetn-3
-----------------------------
The Switch-Case statement (Decisions using switch statements)
 14

The switch-case statement is a special form of multiple alternative decision making i.e when multiple chice possibilities
are based on a single value; the switch statement is best choice. Actually switch statement is more efficient way of
representing nested-if statement. This statement is used to transfer the control to a selected case of any one of the several
stated cases; depending on the value of the switch expression. It has the following general form.
Switch(expression)
{
case valueone: statement(s);
break;
case valuetwo: statement(s);
break;
---------------------------------
case valuen: statement(s);
break;
default: statement(s);
}

1. Any legal C/C++ expression may be used in switch expression but it must be enclosed in the parenthesis.
2. After evaluation of the expression, control is transferred directly to the statement whose case value matches
the result.
3. If no match is found then control is transferred to the default statement. The default statement is optional.
4. The break statement is used to break switch statement i.e it is used to transfer the control out of the entire
switch statement to the first statement following the switch statement.
5. Any integer or a character constant follows the reserved word case.
6. If more than one statement are required to be executed in case body, no need to enclose them with in the
braces.

Consider the following program.

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main( )
{
clrscr( );
int op = 2;
switch(op)
{
case 1: cout<<” I am in case 1”;
case 2: cout<<” I am in case 2”;
case 3: cout<<” I am in case 3”;
case 4: cout<<” I am in case 4”;
default: cout<<” I am in default”;
}
getch( );
{
The output for the following program would be as:
I am in the case 2.
Looping : ( Define loop)
A loop is an essential part of programming technique that permits the repetitive execution of a statement or a group of
statements, whereas the counter is a technique for controlling a looping process. C/C++ has three looping statements, the
“for statement” the “while statement” and the “do-while statement”.
 15

The for Statement (loop)

The “for statement (loop)” is used to execute a set of statements repeatedly for a fixed number of times. It is also know as
counter loop. The structure of this loop is different both the “while” and the “do while” loops. It has the following parts.
1. Initialization
2. Condition
3. Increment or decrement
4. Body of the loop
The general syntax of the for loop is as follows.
For(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)
1. In initialization part, the value in the variable is assign when control enters into the loop first time.
2. The condition part, the test condition is given. The body of the loop executes as long as this condition remains
true.
3. In increment or decrement part, the value in the variable is incremented or decremented.
4. The statements under the “for” loop are the body of the loop. If more than one statement are to be executed ,these
are enclosed in braces.
Consider the following example
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main( )
{
clrscr( );
for(int num = 1; num<=10; num++)
{
cout<<num;
}
getch( );
}

The output is:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

In the above program the initial value of the num variable is 1. So the first iteration 1 is printed. Then at the end of the
loop the value of num is incremented by 1 which is 2. The value is compared with 10 which is less than ten. So again the
body of the loop is executed and 2 is printed. Then again at the end of the loop the value of num is incremented by 1. The
condition is checked and the next number is printed. This process goes on until the value of number becomes greater than
10.

Nested for loop

When a for loop is placed within the other loop, it is then called nested loop. In other words, we can say that loops that
occur within other loops are called nested loops. In the nested loop it is important that the control variable of the nested
loops need to be different. Consider the following example.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main( )
{
clrscr( );
for(outer=1; outer<=5; outer++)
{
 16

for(inner = 1; inner <= outer ; inner++)

{
cout<<”Pakistan ”;
}
cout<<endl;
}
getch( );
}

The output of the above program will be as;

Pakistan
Pakistan Pakistan
Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan
Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan
Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan

The while Statement (while loop)

The while statement, also called the while loop, executes a block of statements as long as a specified condition is true. The
while statement has the following form:

while(condition)
{
statement-1;
statement-2;
statement-3;
-------------
-------------
}
As long as the conditional expression in the while statement is true, the statement or group of statements in the body of the
loop will be repeated and this process continues until the condition becomes false and the control skips down to the
statement after the while loop.
Example.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main( )
{
clrscr( );
int num = 1;
while <num<=10)
{
cout<<num;
cout<<endl;
num++;
}
getch( );
}
output of the above program will be as under.
1
2
 17

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

The do-while statement (the do-while loop)

C/C++ third loop construct is the do...while loop, which executes a block of statements as long as a specified condition is
true. The do...while loop tests the condition at the end of the loop rather than at the beginning, as is done by the for loop
and the while loop. The do while loop is the same while loop but with a minor difference. The difference is the place
where the condition is tested. The while loop tests the condition before the executing any of the statement inside the loop,
the do while loop tests the condition after having executed the statement within the loop. Thus in this loop either the
condition is true or false, the body of the loop executes at least once.
The structure of the do...while loop is as follows:
do
{
statement-1;
statement-2;
statement-3;
statement-4;
}while (condition);

condition is any C/C++ expression, and statement is a single or compound C/C++ statement. When program execution
reaches a do...while statement, the following events occur:
1. The statements in statement are executed.
2. The condition is evaluated. It it is true, execution returns to step 1. If it is false, the loop terminates.
Example
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main( )
{
clrscr();
int num = 1;
do
{
cout<<num;
cout<<endl;
num++;
}while(num<=10);
getch();
}
Output of the above program will be as:
1
2
3
4
5
 18

6
7
8
9
10

The break statement

The break statement, when executed in a switch structure, provides an immediate exit from the switch structure.
Similarly, you can use the break statement in any of the loop. When the break statement executes in a loop, it immediately
exits from the loop.

The continue statement

The continue statement is used in loops and causes a program to skip the rest of the body of the loop.
while (condition)
{
Statement 1;
If (condition)
continue;
statement;
}
The continue statement skips rest of the loop body and starts a new iteration.

The exit ( ) function

The execution of a program can be stopped at any point with exit ( ) and a status code can be informed to the calling
program. The general format is
exit (code) ;
where code is an integer value. The code has a value 0 for correct execution. The value of the code varies depending upon
the operating system.
printf( ): The printf( ) statement is a library function which is used to print on creen the value contained in a variable.
The printf( ) statement can display a simple text message or a message and the value of one or more program variables.
The general form of printf statement is
Printf(“<format string>”, <list of variables>);
<format string> could be.
%f for printing real values
%d for printing integer values
%c for printing character values
scanf( ): The scanf( ) statement is another library function. It reads data from the keyboard and assigns that data to one or
more program variables.
The cout output stream
By default, the standard output of a program is the screen, and the C++ stream object defined to access it is cout.
cout is used in conjunction with the insertion operator, which is written as << (two "less than" signs).
1 cout << "Output sentence"; // prints Output sentence on screen
2 cout << x; // prints the content of x on screen
3 cout << 120; // prints number 120 on screen

The << operator inserts the data that follows it into the stream preceding it. In the examples above it inserted the constant
string Output sentence, the numerical constant 120 and variable x into the standard output stream cout. Notice that the
sentence in the first instruction is enclosed between double quotes (") because it is a constant string of characters.
 19

Whenever we want to use constant strings of characters we must enclose them between double quotes (") so that they can
be clearly distinguished from variable names. For example, these two sentences have very different results:
1 cout << "Hello"; // prints Hello
2 cout << Hello; // prints the content of Hello variable

The clrser ( ) function

This is used for clearing the output screen i.e console.
Suppose you run a program, alter it and run it again you may find that the previous output is still stucked there itself, at
this time clrscr(); would clean the previous screen.
One more thing to remember always use clrscr(); after the declaration like
int a,b,c;
float total;
clrscr();
Functions
A function is a self-contained block of statements that performs a coherent task of some kind. Every C/C++ program can be thought as
a collection of these functions. Writing functions avoids rewriting the same code over and over. Using functions it becomes easier to
write program and keep track of what they are doing. If the operation of a program can be divided into separate activities, and each
activity placed in different function, the each could be written and checked more or less independently and easily. Separating the code
into modular functions also makes the program to design and understand.
The most common syntax to define a function is:
type name ( parameter1, parameter2, ...) { statements }
Where:
type is the type of the value returned by the function.
 name is the identifier by which the function can be called.
 parameters (as many as needed):
Each parameter consists of a type followed by an identifier, with each parameter being separated from
the next by a comma. Each parameter looks very much like a regular variable declaration (for example:
int x), and in fact acts within the function as a regular variable, which is local to the function. The
purpose of parameters is to allow passing arguments to the function from the location where it is called
from.
 statements is the function's body. It is a block of statements surrounded by braces { } that specify what
the function actually does.
Types of functions
There are basically two types of functions.
1. Library functions / Built-in Functions. 2. User defined functions.

1. Library functions / Built-in Functions

As the name suggests, library/built-in functions are nothing but commonly required functions grouped together $ stored
in what is called library. These functions are also called built-in or intrinsic functions. These functions are present on the
disk & are written for us by expert programmers who write compilers for us. Almost always a compiler comes with a
library of standard functions the procedure of calling both types of functions is exactly same.
Example;
clrscr( ), get( ), getch( ), sqrt( ), main( ), scanf( ) etc
2. User defined functions.
User defined functions are those functions which are written by the programmers for a special purpose or task & can be
called in main program. The user defined functions are written for formulas for which built-in functions are not available
in the library of C/C++.
 20

Structure of User defined functions

The structure of user defined functions consists of three steps.
 Function declaration
 Calling of the function
 Functions definition
Accessing Built-in Functions:
The built-in functions are accessed through header files. Each built-in function is defined in its related header file. If a
built-in function is to be used in a program, its header files must be included in the program.
For example: “clrscr” function is defined in “conio.h” header file. If this function is to be used in a program, the
“conio.h” header file must be included in the program.
Arguments of Functions
To perform an operation, a function may require data. It performs operations on the data and produces result. The data that is passed to
a function is called arguments of the function.
The arguments of a function may be of different types. These may be int, float, string, double, etc. Some
functions may need more than one parameters, separated by comma. Some functions need no parameter.
The “conio.h” function
The “conio.h” stands for console input output. This header file contains basic input and output functions that are
used to get data from the keyboard and to send results from the memory to the output screen.
The “clrscr( )” function
The “clrscr” stands for clear screen. This function is used to clear the screen of the computer. When this functions is
executed, the screen is cleared and the cursor shifts to upper left corner, i.e to row 1 and column 1 of the screen.
Its syntax is : slrscr( );
The “getch( )” function
The “getch” stands for get character. This function is used to get a single character form the keyboard during program
execution. When a key is pressed.
 The entered character is not displayed on the screen.
 Pressing of the Enter key is not required to complete the input. The control shifts to the next statement as
soon as any key is pressed.
This function is normally used to pause the execution of program.
Its syntax is : getch( );
The “getche( )” function
This function is similar to “getch” function. It is also used to get a single character from keyboard during the program
execution. The main difference between “getch” and “getche” is that the entered character is displayed on the screen
when “getche” function is used.
Its syntax is : getche( );
The “getchar( )” function
This function is similar to “getch” and “getche” functions of “conio.h” header file. It is also used to get a single
character from a standard input device, i.e. from the keyboard during program execution. The main features of
this function are:
 When a character is entered, it is displayed on the screen.
 Enter key must pressed to complete the input.
Its syntax is : gechar( );
The “putchar( )” function
 21

The “putchar” stands for put a character. This function is used to put or print a single character on the standard output
device, i.e. the computer screen.

The “gets( )” function

This function is used to get (input) data into a string variable from the keyboard.
Any type of characters, including space & special characters can be entered using this function. Enter key is pressed after
entering the string. When Enter key is pressed, a null character is appeared at the end of the string.
Its syntax is : gets( stravar);
Where
Strvar : represent the string type variable into which data is to be entered.
The “puts( )” function
This function is used to print a string on the computer screen. The new line is inserted after printing the string.
It syntax is: puts(string);
The “string” may be a string constant or string type variable.
In case of a string constant, the string is enclosed in double quotes.
In case of a string variable, it is written without using quotes.

The “strlen” function

The “strlen” stands for string length. This function is used to find the length of a string. It counts the total number of
characters including spaces. Null character is excluded.
Its syntax is: in strlen(string)
Where
string : represents the string whose number of characters are to be counted. It may be a constant string or a string type
variable. It return integer type value.
The “strcmp” function
The “strcmp” stands for string compare. This function is used to compare two strings. It compares first string whit the
second string character by character.
Its syntax is: int strcmp(string1,string2)
Where:
string1: represents the first string. It may be a string constant or a string variable.
String2: represents the first string. It may be a string constant or a string variable.
This function returns integer type output as follows.
If string1 is equal to string2. it returns 0.
If string1 is equal to string2. it returns 0.
The “strlwr( )” function
The “strlwr” stands for string lower. This function is used to convert uppercase alphabetic characters (A to Z) in the input
string str into lowercase characters. All other characters are unchanged.
Its syntax is: strlwr(string);
Where
string: represents the string whose characters are to be converted to lower case. It may be a constant string or a string
type variable.
The “strupr( )” function
The “strupr” stands for string upper. This function is used to convert lowercase alphabetic characters (A to Z) in the input
string str into uppercase characters. All other characters are unchanged.
Its syntax is: strupr(string);
 22

Where
string: represents the string whose characters are to be converted to upper case. It may be a constant string or a string
type variable.
The “strrev( )” function
The “strrev” stands for string reverse. This function is used to reverse alphabetic characters ( A to Z) or (a to z) in the
input string str.
Its syntax is: strrev(string);
Where
string: represents the string whose characters are to be reversed. It may be a constant string or a string type variable.
The “pow10( )” function
This function is used to calculate 10 to the power of a given integer number x.
Its syntax is: pow10(x);
Where
x: is an integer number that represents the exponent of the number 10.
Example: If the value of 103 is to be calculated. The function is written as
Pow10(3).

The “Abs( )” function

This function is used to return absolute value of integer number.
Its syntax is: Abs(x);
Where
x: is an integer number. It may be an integer constant or integer type variable.
Example. If x = -9 then Abs(x) returns 9.

The “strncmp” Function

This function is similar to the “strcmp” function but it compares the specified number of characters of the two strings.
Its syntax is : int strncmp(string1, string2, n);
Where
String1: represents the first string. It may be a string constant or a string type variable.
String2: represents the second string. It may be a string constant or a string type variable.
n: represents a specified number of characters that are to be compared. It may be an integer constant or integer
type variable.
This function returns the int type output as follows.
 If the “n” characters of string1 are equal to the first “n” characters of string2, it returns 0.
 If the “n” characters of string1 are less than the first “n” characters of string2, it returns less than 0.
 If the “n” characters of string1 are greater than the first “n” characters of string2, it returns greater than 0.
The “strcpy” Function
The “strcpy” stands for string copy. This function is used to copy the contents of one string to another string variable
including the null character.
Its syntax is: strcpy(string1, string2);
Where
string1: represents the first string. It must be a string type variable because the contents of string2 are
to be copied on to it.
string2: represents the second string. It may be a string constant or string variable.
For example to copy the string “ I love Pakistan” into the string variable “pak”, the statement is written as: strcpy(pak,
“I love Pakistan”)
 23

The “strncpy” Function

This function is similar to “strcpy” function but is used to copy a specified number of characters from one string to
another string variable.
Its syntax is: strincpy(string1, string2, n);
Where
string1: represents the first string. It must be a string type variable because the first “n” characters of
string2, are to be copied into it.
string2: represents the second string. It may be a string constant or a string type variable. The first “n”
characters of this string are copied into the string1.
n: represents the number of characters of string2 that are to be copied into string1. It may be an
integer constant or an integer type variable.
For example to copy the first three characters of string “Pakistan” into the string variable pak, the statement is written
as: strncpy(pak, “Pakistan”, 3)

The “strcat” Function

The “strcat” stands for string concatenate. This function is used to append or combine the contents of one string to
another string variable including the null characters.
Its syntax is: strcat(string1,string2);
Where
string1: represents the first string. It must be a string type variable because the contents of string2 are
to be added at the end of this string.
string2: represents the second string. it may be a string constant or a string type variable. The contents
of this string are added at the end of the string1.
For example to add the string “istan” into the string variable abc that already contains the string “Pak”, the statement is
written as: strcat(abc, “istan”);
After executing the above function, the content of variable “abc” will be “Pakistan”.

The “strncat” Function

This function is similar to “strcat” function but it is used to append a specified number of characters of one string to
another string variable.
Its syntax is: strncat(string1,string2,n);
Where
string1: represents the first string. It must be a string type variable because the specified number of
characters of string2 are to be appended at the end of this string.
string2: represents the second string. it may be a string constant or a string type variable. The specified
number of characters of this string are appended at the end of the string1.
n: represents the number of characters of string2 that have to be appended at the end of string1. It may be
an integer constant value or an integer type variable.
For example to append the first 8 characters of string “Pakistan is my country” into the string type variable “str” that
already contains the contents “I live in”, the statement is written as.
strncat(str, “Pakistan is my country”, 8);
After executing this function, the contents of variable “str” will be “I live in Pakistan”.

The “pow()” Function

This function is used to calculate the exponential power of a given integer number.
Its syntax is: pow(x,y)
Where
 24

x: is an integer number whose power is to be calculated.

y: is an integer number that represents the exponential of the number.
Example: If the value of 23 is to be calculated, the function is written as: pow(2,3)

The “sqrt()” Function

This function is used to calculate the square root of a given positive number.
Its syntax is: sqrt(x);
Where
x: is the positive number of type double (or variable). It also returns a value of type double.
Example: if x = 9.0 then: sqrt(x) returns 3.0

The “floor()” Function

This function is used to round a given float value to the integer value. The given float value is converted to the largest
integer than the given float value.
Its syntax is: floor(x);
Where
x: is a float or double value/variable.
Example: if x = 9.6 then floor(x) returns 9.0
If x = -9.6 then floor(x) returns -10.0

The “ceil()” Function

This function is similar to the “floor()” function but if returns the rounded integer value greater than the given float or
double number.
Its syntax is: ceil(x);
Where
x: is the given float or double type given number or value.
Example: if x = 19.2 then ceil(x) returns 20.0
If x = -19.2 then ceil(x) returns -19.0

The “fmod()” Function

This function is used to calculate the remainder by dividing one floating number by another floating number.
Its syntax is: fmod(x,y)
Where
x: represent the nominator. It is a floating number or variable.
y: represent the denominator. It is a floating number or variable.
Example: if x = 9.50 and y = 4.00 then fmod(x,y) returns 1.5
The “cos()” Function
This function is used to calculate the trigonometric cosine of a given angle. The angle is given in radians as a floating
number.
Its syntax is: cos(x);
Where
x: represents an angle in radians.
Example if x = 0.0 the cos(x) returns 1.0

The “sin()” Function

This function is used to calculate the trigonometric sine of a given floating number. The angle is given in radians as a
floating number.
 25

Its syntax is: sin(x);

Where
x: represents an angle or value in radians
Example : if x = 0.0 then sin(x) returns 0.

The “tan()” Function

This function is used to calculate the trigonometric tangent of a given floating number. The angle is given in radians as a
floating number.
Its syntax is: tan(x);
Where
x: represents an angle or value in radians
Example : if x = 0.0 then tan(x) returns 0.

The “log()” Function

This function is used to calculate the natural logarithm (base e) of a given floating number.
Its syntax is: log(x);
Where
x: represents a given floating number.

The “log10()” Function

This function is used calculate the logarithm (base 10) of a given floating number.
Its syntax is: log10(x);
x: represents a given floating number.