DIKTAT BHS INGGRIS

SENTENCE

Meaning of sentence

When we comunicate in language arally or in writing we use words which are related
with one another. The relationship between words so as to convey meaning and
purpose is very unique.The arrangement and combination of words into larger
contruction : into phrases, and into clauses, and into sentences are rule-
govermed.They should conform with the rules of arragement which exist in a given
language .The rule is diffrent from one language to another.English like many other
thousands of language in the world, posseses the higest level of gramatical element,
namely sentence. A sentence is “ a group of words arranged in such a way, which
generally consists of subject and predicate.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCE

Sentence are generally classified in two ways, one by types and one by the number
of formal predications.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCE BY TYPE

a. Declarativi sentence (statements )

They visited the musium
b. Interogative sentences ( questions )
Did the child eat her breakfast ?
c. Imperactive sentences ( commands, request )
Go out !
d. Exclamatory sentences ( exclamation )
Where do you live ?

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES BY NUMBER OF FULL

PREDICATIONS

a. Simple sentence
Copper is a good conductor.
Go !
Are you beautiful?
b. Copper is used for cables and copper is a good conductor.
He is a millionaire but he is very stingy.
The man stole typewrite and he hid in his house.
The boy ran away and the child stopped crying.
 I like it but he she doestn’t.
She didn’t enjoy the film nor did I.
c. Complex sentence.
The kitchen was on the fire when I come home.
The man who stole typewrite hid it in his house.
d. Compound – complex sentences.
The man stole typewrite and he hid his house until he could safety get out
of the office.

WH QUESTION
Wh-question : who, what, where , when
A1. Compare the word order of yes / no question and wh – quest.

Statement : Bill likes tea

Yes / no question : Does Bill like tea ?
Wh-questions : What does Bill like ?

Coments

( 1 ) wh – questions of this type begin with a question word, such as who,

what, when or where.The rest of the word – order pattern is the same as in
yes / no question : do does or some other auxiliary is placed before the
subject.

( 2 ) who substitutes for a noun phrase which refers to a person.

What substitutes for a noun phrase which refers to a thing.
When substitutes for an adverbial which refers to time.
Where substitutes for an adverbial which refers to places.

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

Questions short answers

What does she study ? English
What did she study at night ? grammer
Where does she study at night ? in the library
When does she ussually study ? in the afternoon
When did she study yesterday ? in the afternoon
Who does she visit everyday ? Bill
Whom does he visit everyday ? Bill
A 2. Observe the word order of questions with the verb be.

Statement : Bill is in the room

Yes/no question : is Bill in the room?
Question : Where is Bill ?

Comment
( 1 ) The wh – word which replaces a part of the predicate phrase is put at
the beginning of the question.
( 2 ) The rest of the pattern is the same as for yes / no questions : the form
of be ( am , are , is , was or were ) is placed before the subject.

A.3. Notice the use of the expression do what

Statement : Hengky studies English everyday

Yes / no question : Does Hengky study English everyday ?
Wh- question : What does Hengky do?

Comment :

Do what is substitute for the verb and any other essensial part of the verb
phrase. In the example, do what correspond to the verb phrase study
English.

A.4.
Statement : Bill looks at Any every day
Yes / no question : Does Bill look at Any every day ?
Wh – question : Who does Bill look at every day ?

PASSIVE VOICE

A.Notice the active and passive sentences.

PRESENT:

Active : We write letters every day

Pasive : Letters are writtenevery day

PAST :

Active : We wrote letters yesterday

 Passive : letters were written yesterday.

COMMENTS
1. The object of an active sentence is the subject of the corresponding
passive sentence.
2. In the passive sentence, a form of be appears before the main verb
3. In the active form , the tense is shown by the main verb ( present write,
past wrote ) in the passive form , the tense is shown by the form of be :
present am , is , are. Past was, were.
4. The main verb of a passive sentence is in the past participle form.

NOTE :
If the main verb of the active then be of the corresponding
Sentence in : passive sentence is :
a. Present tense present tense : am, is , are
b. Past tense past tense : was, were
c. Infinitive infinitive : be
d. –ing - ing : being
e. Past participle past participle: been

Infinitive ( future with will,modal should, have to).

Active. We are going to write letters tomorrow.

Passive. Letters are going to be written tomorrow.

Active . We will write letters tomorrow

Passive. Letters will be written tomorrow

Active . We should write letters

Passive. Letters should be written.

PROGRESSIVE

Active We are writing letters.

Passive Letters are being written.

Active We were writing letters.

Passive Letters were bein

PERFECT

Active We have written letters..

Passive Letters have been written

Active We had written letters.

Passive Letters had been written

Exercise the following active sentences into their corresponding passive sentences.

a. Someone locks the door every night.

The door is locked every night.
1. He is repair those enginers.
2. Edison invented the electric light before I was born.
3. We should buil more houses next year.
4. The doctor is going to perform the operation.
5. They are completing the material.

READING AND COMPREHENSION

CONDUCTOR, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS.

IF we connect a battery across a body , there is a movement of free electrons

towards the positive end. This movement of electrons is an electric current to flow .
These are : conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

In the first category are substances which provide an easy path for an electric
current. All metals are conductors, however some metals do not conduct well.
Manganin, for example , is a poor conductor. Copper is a good conductor, therefore
it is wsidely used for cables . A non – metal which conducts well is carbon. Salt water

Is an example of a liquid conductor. A material which does not easily release

electrons is called an insulator.Rubber, nylon, porcelain and air are all insulator.
There are no perfect insulators. All insulators will allow some flow of electrons,
however this can usually be ignored because the flow they permit is so small.

Semiconductors are midway between conductors and insulators. Under certain

conditions they allow a current to flow easily but under others they behave as
insulators.Germanium and silicon are semiconductors. Mixturnes of certain metallic
oxides also act as semiconductors. These are known as thermistors. The resistance
of thermistors falls rapidly as their temperature rises. They are therefore used in
temperature – sensing device
Exercise A Rephrasing

Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with expressions from
the passage which have similar meanings :

1. The flow of free electrons is an electric current.

2. Materials in the first group are called conductors.
3. Materials which provide a path for an electric current are conductors.
4. All insulator permit some flow of electrons.
5. Germanium sometimes acts as an insulator and sometimes as a conductor.

Exercise B contextual reference.

What do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to ?

1. All materials can be classified into three groups according to how readily they
permit an electric current to flow.
a. Three groups
b. All materials
c. Free electrons
2. Undercertain conditions they allow a current to flow easily but under others
they behave as insulators.
a. Conductors
b. Semiconductors
c. Insulators
3. These are known as thermistors.
a. Metalic oxides
b. Semiconductors
c. Mixtures of certain metallic oxides
4. They are therefore used in temperature – sensing devices.
a. Thermistors
b. Semiconductors
c. Metalic oxides.

ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

Just like adjectival phrases, adjectival clauses are also groups of words that
describe nouns.

These clauses are placed after the nouns they are describing.They have verb in
them.

Examples:

The boy who was sick went to see a doctor.

My brother whom you met on the four, has emigrated to Australia.

The walet which I found on the floor contained a lot of money.

Relative Clause

Study these sentences.

1. Starter motor brushes are made of carbon.

2. The carbon contains copper

Both these sentences refer to carbonWe can link them by making sentence 2 a
relative clause.

1 + 2 Starter motor brushes are made of carbon WHICH CONTAINS COPPER.

The relative clause is in capitals. Note that THE CARBON in sentence 2 becomes
which.

Study these other pairs of sentences and note how they are linked.

3. Industrial consumers are supplied.at higher voltages than domestic

consumers.
4. These consumers use large quantities of energy.
3 + 4 consumers WHO USE LARGE QUANTITIES OF ENERGY are supplied
at higher voltages than domestic consumers.
5. 33 kv lines are fed to intermediate substations.
6. In the intermediate substations the voltage is stepped down to 11 kv.
5+6.kv lines are fed to intermediate substations WHERE THE VOLTAGE is
STEPPED DOWN TO 11 KV.

Now link these sentences. Make the second sentence in each pair a relative
clause:
1. The coil is connected in series with a resistor.
The resistor has a value of 240 ohms.
2. The supply is reduced to 415 V in the disteribution substation.
The supply is reduced to 415 V in the distribution substation.
3. Workers require a high degree of illumination.
The workers assemble very small precision instruments.
4. Manganin is a metal.
This metal has a comparatively high resistance.
5. The signal passes to the detector.
The signal is rectified by the detector.
6. A milliammeter is an instrument.
The instrument is used for measuring small current.
7. Workers require illumination of 300 lux
The workers assemble heavy machinery.
8. Armoured cables are used in places.
There is a risk of mechanical damage in these places.

READING AND COMPREHENSION

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Current moves from a point of high potensial energy to one of low potensial.
It can only do so if there is a path for it to follow.This path is called an electric
circuit. All circuits contain four elements : a source , a load, a transmission
system and a control.
The source provides the electromotive force. This establish the difference in
potensial which makes current flow possible. The source can be any device
which supplies electrical energy . For example, it may be a generator or a
battery.The load converts the electrical energy from the source into some
other form of energy. For instance, a lamp changes electrical energy into light
and heat. The load can be any electrical device.
The transmission system conducts the current round the circuit. Any
conductor can be part of a transmission system.Most systems consist of
wires.It is often possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one
section of its transmission system.For example, the metal chassis of many
electrical devices are used to conduct current. Similarly the body of a car is
part of its electrical transmission system.
The control regulates the current flow in the circuit. It may control the current
by limiting it , as does a rheostat, or by interrupting it, as does a swith.
In this simple flashlight circuit, the source comprises three 1-5 v cells in
series. The load is a 0 – 3 W bulb. Part of the transmission system is the
metal body of the flashlight, and the control is a sliding switch.
The funcion of this circuit is to operate a television camera aboard a space
satellite. Here the source is a battery of solar cells. A solar cell is an electric
cell which converts sunlight into electrical energy. The load is the television
camera.The transmission system is the connecting wires. The control is a
relay actuated by transmissions from ground control.
Although the function of this circuit is much more complex than that of the
flahlight, it too consist of the four basic elements.

EXERCISE A Rephrasing
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with
expressions from the passage which have a similar meaning.

1. A lamp converts electrical energy into light.

2. The generator provides the circuit with electromitive force.
3. The metal frame of the oscilloscope is part of its transmission systemm.
4. The rheostat controls the current flow in the circuit.
5. A battery of solar ceels supplies power to the circuit.
EXERCISE B Contextual reference

What do the pronouns in italics in these sentences refer to ?

1. Current moves from a point of high potential energy to one of low potential.
(a) Current
(b) Energy
(c) A point
2. For example, it may be a generator or a battery.
(a) The source
(b) A device
(c) Electromotive force.
3. It is often possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit to be one section of
its transmission system.
(a) The metal frame’s
(b) The unit’s
(c) The circuit’s
4. Although the function of this circuit is much more complex than that of the
flashlight, it too consists of the four basic elements.
(a) This circuit
(b) The function
(c) The flashlight

EXERCISE C Relative clauses 2 : making definitions

Study these two sentences :

The cables were undamaged

The cables were armoured

We can link them in two ways using a relative clause :

1. The cables WHICH WERE ARMOURED were undamaged.

2. The cables,WHICH WERE ARMOURED were undamaged.

Sentence 1 means that only the armoured cables were undamaged.Other cables, for
Example pvc coated cables, were damaged. The relative clause is a defining one. It
defines the type of cable which was undamaged. It carries essential information.

Sentence 2 means that all the cables were undamaged and all the cables were
armoured. The relative clause is a non – defining one . It adds some extra
information to the sentence but it is not essential. We can remove it from the
sentence and the sentence still makes good sense. It is separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas.

We can make a difinition of solar cell by joining (a), (b), (c)

A solar cell is an electric cell which converts sunlight into electrical energy.

Now make eight definitions using the information in this table. Yuo must decide on
the correct combinations of (a),(b) and (c)

(a) (b) (c)

a. Generator a material measures light

an insulator an instrument readily releases elec

tron.
an alternating current a current flows first in one di
rection, then in the
other.
a direct current a device does not readily re
lease electrons
a resistor impedes the flow of
current in a circuit.
a conductor measure current
a light meter converts mechanical
energy into electrical
energy.
an ammeter flows in one direction
only.

GUIDED WRITING

STAGE 1. Sentence building

Join the following groups of sentences to make ten longer sentences . Use the words
printed in italics above each group. You may omit words and make whatever
changes you think are necessary in the word order and punctuation of the
sentences.

1. Which
A resistor is a devide
A resistor is used to add resistance to a circuit.
2. Both
Many type of resistors are made
Fixed and variable resistors are made.
3. Either.......or
Most resistors are made from two materials
Resistance wire and compressed graphite are used.
4. Such as, which
Wirewound resistors consist of a coil of resistence wire.
Nichrome is a resistance wire.
The resistance wire is wound on a former.
5. To
A ceramic coating is applied over the winding.
The ceramic coating insulates the winding.
6. For example
For small currents, carbon resistors are used.
Small currents are usual in radio work.
7. Which
Carbon resistors are made of compressed graphite.
The graphite is formed into small tubes.
8. Which
Connections are made withwires.
The wires are attached to the ends of the resistor.
9. Either........or
Variable resistors may have a coil of resistance wire.
Variable resistors may have a carbon.
10. So that
The wire or track is mounted
A sliding contact can rub over it to select the resistance required.

READING AND SUMMARIZING

STAGE 1 Comprehension
1. Study this passage carefully and answer the questions which follow :

MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC (MHD) GENERATION

 Inconventional power generation, fuel such as oil or coal is burned. The
burning fuel heats boilers to produce steam. The steam is used to drive
turbo – alternators. The MHD process generates electricity without
requiring a boiler or a turbine.
MHD generation works on the principle that when a conductor cuts a
magnetic field , a current flows through the conductor. In MHD generation
the conductor is an ionized gas. Small amounts of metal are added to the
gas to improve its conductivity . This is called seeding the gas. The
seeded gas is then pumped at a high temperature and pressure through a
strong magnetic field.The electrons in the gas are collected at an
electrode. This movement of electrons constitutes a current flow.
Two methods of MHD generation can be used : the open – cycle and the
the closed – cycle. In the open – cycle method the hot gas is discharged.
In the closed – cycle method it is recirculated.
The open - cycle method uses gas from burning coal or oil. The gas is
seeded and then passed through a magnetic field to generate current.
The seeding elements are recovered and the gas can then be used to
drive a turbin before being allowed to escape.
The closed – cycle method uses an inert gas, such as helium , which is
heated indirectly. The gas is circulated continually through the MHD
generator. MHD generation is still in its early stages but alredy an
efficiency rate of 60% has been reached . This compares with a maximum
of 40% from conventional power stations.

1. How does the MHD process differ from conventional system.?

2. What principle does MHD generation make use of ?
3. What form does the conductor take in the MHD process ?
4. What happens to the gas ?
5. What methods of MHD generation are in use ?
6. How do the two methods differ ?
7. How does the efficiency of this process compare with conventional
system ?

ADVERB CLAUSE
Adverb clause are groups of words which further describe verbs.

They function the same way adverbs do.

They are introduced in sentences by conjunctions.

Exames :

1. I am going to bed because I have a headache.

2. The schools are upgraded so that we can have a better education.
3. The jewel is kept where no one see it.

Adverb clauses can be divided into clauses of TIME, PLACE, PURPOSE, REASON
AND RESULT.

A Adverb clauses of time

Adverb clauses of time can be introduced by using the word ‘ when ‘

Examples :

1. Please visit me when you have the time

2. The soppers ran out of the building when they heard the fire alarm.

B. Adverb clause of place.

Adverb clauses of place can be introduced by using the ward ‘where’

Examples:

1. You may only park your car where there is a parking sign.
2. The thieves hid their loot where no one could find it.

C. Adverb clauses of purpose

Adverb clauses of purpose can be introduced by using the words ‘ so that’

Examples :

1. He is training very hard so that he may enter the Olympics.

2. I am telling you all this so that you can dicide what to do.

D. Adverb clauses of reason

Adverb clauses of reason can be introduced by using the word ’ because.’

Examples :

1. This car was repossessed because he did not pay up the instalment.
2. I decided to returm bome after several years because I wanted to see
parents.
E. Adverb clauses of result be introduced by using the words ‘ such....that.

Examples :

1. The children found the zoo such an interesting place that they wanted to visit
it again.
2. Maria has such a severe headache that she had to see the doctor.

READING COMPREHENSION

MEASURING POWER FREQUENCY FIELDS

What is the point of this brochure ?

If you are reading this brochure, that probably meanst that you have asked
someone to make measurements of magnetic ( and possibly electric ) fields in and
around your home office or store or you are planning to make such measurements
yourself.

Probably the question that prompted you to make that request was are the fields in
my home or work place safe ? Frustrating as it may by , nobody understands the
interachtions between fields and peoples’ health well enough to be able to answer
that question.

So,what are the questions we can answer ? We can help you understand :

. what fields are

. where fields come from.

. how similar you fields are to other peoples fields

. what is know about possible risks

Many people want to know how to similar their fields are to the fields in other homes
or places of work. Knowing this may help you to decide if your situation is unusual.

Unfortunately, it won’t answer the question’ are my field safe.However learning more
about fields may help you to avoid unnecessary fears, and making measure ments
may help you to develop some simple strategies to avoid some fields.

You can find a summary of basic electrical facts inside the back cover.

What are these things called field that will be measur at my place ?

Electric and magnetic fields occur throughout nature and in all living things. Like
gravity. The involve one of the basic forces of nature. The molecules in our bodies
and in all other living and non living things are held together by electric fields. The
messages that flow in our nervous systems involve electric and magnetic
fields.When you get a shock from static electricity by touching someone on a dry
winter day. The spark is caused by strong electric fields from the many charges you
have picked up from the rug. When you use a magnetic compass to locate north it is
responding to the natural magnetic field which is created by charges flowing deep
inside the molten core of the earth.

The electric power system .Wiring in building and all electrical appliances that are
plugged in make power frecuency .or 60 Hertz (HZ) .electric and magnetic
fields.These 60 HZ fields are the fields that will be measured at your place. Most
measurement programs only measure magnetic fields.

The strength of 60 HZ electric and magnetic fields can be measured with special
instruments called electric fields meters and magnetic field meters (or Gauss meters
) The words used in describing measurements of field strength sound technical.but
the basic ideas are no more complicated than measuring weight in pounds or
distance in miles. The strength of an electric fields is measured in units of volts per
meter. Abbreviated v/m. When the field is strong. Large units of a thousand volts per
meter or :” kilo” volts per meter are used.This is abbreviated as kv/m.

Several diffrent units are commonly used to report the strenght of magnetic fields.
The two most common units are the gauus and the tesla . Like gallons and ounces
or miles and feet.gauss and tesla are just diffrent units for measuring the same thing.
The gauss and the tesla. The gauss is a fairly large unit so magnetic field strength is
often reported in thousandths of a gauss or “ milli “ gauss ( abbreviated mG ) The
tesla is an even bigger unit so magnetic field strength is often reported in milionths of
a tesla or micro tesla ( abbreviated ) Ten milligauss eguals one microtesla.

What are electric fields ?

Both electric and magnetic fields are made by charges. Positive electric charges (
protons ) and negative electric charges ( electrons ) are found throughout nature and
in all thing electrical. A positive and a negative charge attract each other.Two
positive charges repel or push each other apart. Similary, two negative charges repel
each other. Charges are tiny – many may be contained in a single atom.

Every charge is surrounded by some thing called an electric field. This field carries
forces from one charge to another. The idea of a “ force field “ may sound very
mysterius, but it is really no more mysterious than gravity. Around every mass ( like
our bodies, or the earth ) there is some thing called a gravitational field . All objects.
Including our bodies. Are pulled toward the earth because of the gravitational field
made by the earth ‘s mass. In similar way a positive electric charge pulls negative
charges toward it, or pushes positive charges away from it, because of it electric
field.
In short, electric fields represent the forces that electric charges ecert on other
changes at a distance because they are charged.

The total ( or net ) charge on an object affects its voltage in general, the higher the
voltage of an object, the more charges it carries. Each of the charges makes its own
electric field. These separate fields all add together and act like a single
field.Because object at higher voltages carry more changes . They make stranger
electric fields.

The electric power system and appliances we connect to it. Produce electric fields
because charges are pumped into wires by the electric generators at power stations.

NOUN CLOUSE

I know your name.

Your name is noun

His house is in Bandung

His house is noun

Where he lives is in Bandung

Where he lives is noun clause

This is your book.

Your book is noun

This is what you bought yesterday

What you bought yesterday is noun clause

This is a pen

A pen is noun

This is what you are looking for is noun clause

SUBORDINATOR

Example
Ira told me who sent the flowers

He wants to know who she saw

Do you know what time it is ?

I know whose hair is the most beautiful.

She hates whoever comes to visit her.

I know that he is clever

It is true that he is stupid

I don’t want to know where she is going.

Give him whatever he wants

Do you know how he could be there ?

She did not explain when the boy was born.

We do not know why she left home.

I want to know which one is the best

READING COMPREHENSION

An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mecanical energy.
Motors can be designed to run on direct or alternating current. Its most important
parts are the rotor, the stator and the brushgear.

The rotor is the moving part. It contains an armature, which is a set of wire loops
wound on a steel core.When current is fed to the armature , these windings produce
a magnetic field. The armature and core are mounted on a shaft which runs on
bearing. It provides a means of transmitting power from the motor.

The rotor also contains a commutator.This consist of a number of copper segments

insulated from one another. The armature windings are connected to these
segments. Carbon brushes are held in contact with the commutator by springs.
These brushes allow current to pass to the armature windings. As the rotor turns, the
commutator acts as a swith making the current in the armature alternate.

The stator does not move. It consists of magnetic and electrical conducton . The
magnetic circuit is made up of the frrame and the poles. Wound round the poles are
the field coils. These form the stator’s electrical circuit. When current is fed to them,
a magnetic field is set up in the stator.
The motor operates on the principle that when a current – carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced on the conductor.

The interaction of the forces produced by the magnetic field of the rotor and the
stator makes the rotor spin.

EXERCISE

Select the word from the three alternatives given which is most similar in meaining
to the word in italics as it is used in the passage

1. Provides
a. Produces
b. Supplies
c. Allows

2. Segments
a. Sections
b. Pieces
c. Wires

3. Alternate
a. Reverse
b. Change
c. Flow in one direction then in another

4. Interaction
a. Acting together
b. Operation
c. Result

A.Modal auxiliaries : will, can , etc

B. Statemen connected with and................too, and.............either, and but.

Notice the form and meanings of the modal auxiliaries.

Will -------------------- futuru time.....................( be going to )

Can ------------------- ability.............................( be able to )

May ___________ permission....................( be permitted to,have permission to)

Maight---------------- possibility......................( it is possible that.......)

Should--------------- obligation........................( ought to )

desirability

must------------------ inference..........................( I conclude that.........

conclusion

probability it is very probable that..)

necessity.........................( have to )

Exercise 1. Form sentences using the modals.

Paul is going to write a letter tomorrow.

Paul will write a letter tomorrow.

1. Bill and George are going to play tennis tomorrow.

2. It is possible that George is very good tennis player.
3. Aldy is able to swim very well.
4. We have to get up at six tomorrow morning.
5. It is possible that George will wacth television tonight.
6. Henky is able to read Japanese
7. You have permission to come in and see the doctor.
8. Mary ought to write a letter to his parents every week.
9. Mr John has to take another English course
10. Adit is going to study in the library tonight.

Exicise 2. Notice the affirmative statement connected with and and too.

1. John studies hard . Helen studies hard

John studies hard and Helen does too.

2. Bill doesn’t play baseball. Ali doesn’t play baeball.

Bill doesn’t play baseball, and Ali doesn’t either.
3. Bill is a student. Mr Adit isn’t a student.
Bill is a student but Mr Adit isn’t .
 1. Mary arrived early. Her friends didn’t arrive early.
2. They weren’t in chicago. Mary was in chicago.
3. They shouldn’t miss class. She shouldn’t miss class.
4. John didn’t go to Mexico last summer.Bob went to Mexico last summer.
5. John was here yesterday. Paul was here yesterday

READING COMPREHENSION

CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

A. Electric current
The photo on the opposite page shows a simple electric circuit . A cell
provides an electric current ( or current ). This flows through wires, which
conduct the electricity ( provide a way for it to travel ).The current is used to
light a lamp. So, like all circuits, the example includes.

An electrical supply – in this case, the cell.

An electrical conductor ( conductor ) – an electrical path – in this case, wires.
One or more electrical component ( or components ) electrical devices ( in
theis case , the lamp ) which have a function.

Current – measured in amperes, or amps (A) – is the rate of flow of electric

charge. Electric charge is carried by electrons – particles with a negative
charge (-) , which are normally.
Attached to atoms. When an electric current flows through a conductor , the
electrons move from one atom to another.- in the case of a copper wire, from
one copper atom to the next. If the number of electrons flowing through a
conductor increases, then the amperage or ampage ( current ) increases .
When electrons flow, carrying a current, they can be called charge carries.
Notes : In everyday English, cells are called batteries. In technical Engllish, a
battery is a number of cells placed together.
Lamps are often called bulbd in everyday English.

B. Voltage and resistance

The amount of current ( in amps ) flowing through a circuit will partly depend
on the electromotive force ( EMF ) of the electrical supply.Electromotive force
is measured in volts (V) and is generally called voltage. The voltage depends
on the ‘strength” of the electrical supply. In the diagram above, adding a
second cell would supply a higher voltage.
The amount of current will also depend on electrical resistance ( or resistance
) . This value – in ohms is measure of how easily current can flow through the
conductors and components in a circuit. For example , a lamp creates
resistance because the filament the metal wire inside it is very thin.This limits
the amount of current that can flow. Resistance also depends on the materials
used as conductors. For example , copper has a low resistance and so is a
good conductor.

Material with very high resistance , such as plastics , are called electrical
insulators ( insulators ). Only very high voltages cause current to flow
through them.Materials that are good insulators are used to insulate
conductors. An example is plastic insulation around electric wires. This stops
people from touching the conductor and if it is live ( carrying current ) from
getting a dangerous electric shock

C Electrical power
The tex below , about electrical power, is from a home improvements
magazine.

The amount of current, in amps, required by an electrical appliance such as

a TV or an electric kettle depends on the power of the appliance.This number
expressed in watts (W) will be marked somewhere on the appliance.To
calculate the required current, simply take the wattage and divide it by the
voltage of the the electrical supply in your home around 230 volts in most of
Europe. Therefore, for an electric kettle with a power rating of 2,000 watts (
as specified by the manufacturer ) , the current required is : 2,000 = 8,7 amps.
230 volts

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES :

There are two types of conditionals the real ( factual and habitual ) and the
unreal ( contrary to fact or hypothetical ) The real or future possible as it is
sometimes called is used when the speaker expresses an action or situation
which usually accurs or will accur if the circumtances in the main clause are
met.

Hypothetical situation if I am not planning anything for this morning, when

someone asks me if I want to go to the market, I say :

If I have the time , I will go

X y
( I will go unless I don’t have time)
( If X is true, then Y is true )

If my stomachache disappears, we can play football.

(I will play football unless I have a stomachache)

However, the unreal condition expresses a situation ( past, present or future )

that would take place or would have taken place if the circumstances
expressed were or had been difrerent now or in the past.

The if clause can come first or last in the sentence with no change in
meaning.Notice that when the if clause comes first, it is followed by a comma.

If we didn’t have to study , we could go out tonight.

OR
We could go out tonight if we didn’t have to study.
( Both sentences mean : we can ‘t go out tonight because we have to study.)

Note : in the unreal condition, the past tense form of be is always were in a
conditional sentence; it can NEVER be was in correct English.

If I were... If we were...
If you were... If you were...
If he were...
If she were... If they were...
If it were...

Unreal conditional sentences are difficult for foreign student to undestand

because it seems that the truth value of a sentence is the opposite of the way
the sentence appears. If a verb in an unreal conditional sentence is negative,
the meaning is actually negative.

If I were rich, I would travel around the world.

( I am not rich ) ( I ‘m not going to travel around the world )

If he were sick , he would stay home today.

( He’s not sick ) ( he’s not going to stay home today.)

But

If I hadn’t been in harry , I wouldn’t have spilled the milk.

I was in harry.) ( I spilled the milk )
If the firemen hadn’t arrived when they did, they couldn’t have saved the
house.
( The firemen arrived in time ) ( They saved the house )
We would have left yesterday if it hadn’t snowed
( we didn’t leave yesterday ) ( it snowed )

The following rules will guide you in deciding which tense to use in conditional
sentences.Remember :

Past perfect = had + ( verb in past participle )

Modal + perfect = modal + have + ( verb in past participle )

Remember that the following rules can be reversed . The if clause can go
either at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence.

REAL CONDITION ( POSSIBLY TRUE )

Future Time

If + subject + simple present tense ...........+ will + ( verb in simple form )

Can
May
Must

If I have the money , I will buy a new a car.

We will have plenty of time to finish the project before dinner it is only ten o’
clock now.

Habitual

If + subject + simple present tense .........+ simple present tense....

If the doctor has morning office hours, he visits his patients in the hospital in
the afternoon .( no modal )
Albert usually walks to school if he has enough time

Comman

If + subject + simple present tense..............+ command form*.....

*Remember that the command form consist of the simple form of the verb.
If you go to the post Office, please mail this letter for me.
Please call me if you hear from Bill

UNREAL CONDITIONS( NOT TRUE )

Present or future time

If + subject + simple past tense....+ would + ( verb in simple form )
Could
Might
If I had the time, I would go to the beach with you this weekend
( I don’t have time ) ( I ‘m not going to the beach with you)

He would tell you about it if he were here

( He won’t tell you about it ) ( He’s not here )

If he didn’t speak so quickly, you could understand him.

( He speaks very quickly.) ( You can’t understand him )

Past time

If + subject + past perfect......+ would + have + ( verb in past participle )

Could
Might

If we had known that you were there, we would have written you a letter.
( We didn’t know that you were there .) ( We didn’t write you a letter. )

He would have sold the house if he had found the right buyer.
( He didn’t sell the house ) ( He didn’t find the right buyer .)

If they hadn’t lost our way, they would have arrived sooner.
( they lost our way ) ( they didn’t arrived early. )

Note: It is also possible to indicate a past unreal condition without using the
word if . In this case , the auxiliary had is placed before, rather than after, the
subject. This clause will usually come first in the sentence.

had + subject + ( verb in past participle )

Had we known that you were there, we would have written you a letter.
Had he found the right buyer, he would have sold the house

The above rules indicate the most common methods of using tenses in
conditional sentences. However, if the two actions cleary happened at quite
diffrent times, the verbs should show that difference.

Less common : If he had seen the movie, he would tell you.

Past future
More common: If he had seen the movie, he would have told you.
VOCAB

Electrical and electronic components

Component function
Amplifier amplifies an electric current- that is, increases the
Amplitute ( wave height ) of the current.
Antena receives or transmits ( sends ) radio signals.
Battery several cells connected together.
Capacitor consists of two conductors which are separated
by a dielectric ( insulating ) material – allowa a
certain amount of electrical charge to be stored.
Cell an electrical storage device, containing chemicals
Which supplies a direct current.
Circuit-breaker a safety device which automatically switches off
a circuit.
Diode a device with two terminals which allows current
to flow in one direction only.
Fuse a thin conductor which burns and breaks at a
certain amperage, to protect a circuit.
Inductor a coil which is used to produce electromagnetic
Induction.
inverter converts direct current to alternating current.
Lamp produces light- often an incandescent lamp, which
Consists of a filament inside a glass bulb.
Potentiometer a variable resistor with three connections.
Rectifier converts alternating current to dirent

Making difinitions
A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
An insulator is a material which does not readily release electrons.
An alternating current is a current which flows first in one direction, then in the
other.
A direct current is a current which flows in one direction only.
A resistor is a device which impedes the flow of current in a circuit.
A conductor is a material which readily releases electrons.
A light meter is an instrument which measures light.
An ammeter is an instrument which measures current.
A volumeter is an instrument which measures voltage.
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical
A receiver is device which received radio frequency signals and converts
them into radio signals.
A transmitter is a device which generates and transmits radio frequencies.
An electric cell is device which converts chemical reactions into electrical
energy.

COMPARISONS

Comparison indicate degree of diffrence with adjectives and adverb, and may
be equal or unequal

EQUAL COMPARISONS
An equal comparison indicates that the two entities are ( or are not, if negative
) exactly the same. The following rule generally applies to this type of
comparison.

Subject + verb + as + adjective + as + noun

adverb pronoun

Note : Sometimes you may see so instead of as before the adjective or

adverb in negative comparisons

He is not as tall as his father

OR
He is not so tall as his father

NOTE : Remember that the subject form of the pronoun will always be used
after as in correct English.

Peter is as tall as I You are as old as she.

Examples of equal comparisons.
My book is as interesting as yours ( adjective )
His car runs as fast as a rase car ( adverb )
John sings as well as his sister ( adjective )
Their house is as big as that one ( adjective )
His job is not as difficult as mine ( adjective )

OR
His job is not so difficult as mine

They are as lucky as we ( adective )

The same idea can also be conveyed in another way.

Subject + verb + the same + ( noun ) + as + noun

Pronoun
Note : As high as means the same as the same height as.

My house is as high as her

My house is the same height as her.
Be sure that you know the following adjectives and their corresponding nouns

ADJECTIVES NOUNS
Heavy, light weight
Wide, narrow width
Deep, shallow depth
Long, short length
Big, small size

Note :Remember that the opposite of the same as is different from.NEVER

use diffrent than.

My nationality is different from hers.

Our climate is different from Canada’s.

Examples of the same as and different from.

These trees are the same as those.

he speaks the same language as she
His address is the same as Bill’s
Their teacher is diffrent from ours.
My typewriter type the same as yours
She take the same courses as her husband.

POLITE REQUESTS
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