BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED

SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

College of Engineering and Architecture
City of Naga

Methods, Processes, and Equipment Involved

in Manufacturing Cements
(Cements)

Submitted by:
BLANDO, Mark Goldwyn E.

Submitted to:
Engr. Augusto A. Avanceña

BSME-5A
CONTENTS:
I. Introduction

II. Raw Materials Needed in Manufacturing of Cements

III. Processes Involved in Manufacturing of Cements

IV. Equipment Involved in Manufacturing of Cements

V. Significance of Cements in the Industry

VI. Safety Protocols

VII. References
 INTRODUCTION

A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to

other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand

and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry,

or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Concrete is the most widely used material in

existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-consumed resource.

Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime or calcium silicate based,

which can be characterized as non-hydraulic or hydraulic respectively, depending on the ability

of the cement to set in the presence of water.

Non-hydraulic cement does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it sets as it

dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting.

Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical

reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in

mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from

chemical attack. This allows setting in wet conditions or under water and further protects the

hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was found

by ancient Romans who used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).

The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term opus caementicium,

used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with

burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the

burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment,

and cement. In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as cements in concrete.
 World production is about four billion tonnes per year, of which about half is made in

China. If the cement industry were a country, it would be the third largest carbon dioxide emitter

in the world with up to 2.8 billion tonnes, surpassed only by China and the United States. The

initial calcination reaction in the production of cement is responsible for about 4% of global CO

2 emissions. The overall process is responsible for about 8% of global CO

2 emissions, as the cement kiln in which the reaction occurs is typically fired by coal

or petroleum coke due to the luminous flame required to heat the kiln by radiant heat transfer. As

a result, the production of cement is a major contributor to climate change.

In this term paper, various processes, significance, types, and safety protocols in

Manufacturing Cements will be given focus.

 RAW MATERIALS NEEDED IN MANUFACTURING CEMENTS

Chemically, cement is a mixture of calcium silicates and small amounts of calcium

aluminates that react with water and cause the cement to set. Calcium derives from limestone and

clay, mudstone or shale as the source of the silica and alumina. The mix is completed with the

addition of 5% gypsum to help retard the setting time of the cement.

Cement is manufactured through a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium,

silicon, aluminum, iron and other ingredients.

Common materials used to manufacture cement include limestone, shells, and chalk or

marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore. These

ingredients, when heated at high temperatures form a rock-like substance that is ground into the

fine powder that we commonly think of as cement.

The basic minerals used to make cement are the following:

Limestone;

 Cement producers usually locate their plants next to limestone deposits.

 Limestones of varying geological ages are distributed across the UK. They vary

considerably in their chemistry and thickness and their suitability for cement

manufacturing

 Carboniferous limestones are the major source of raw material in Britain. The other

main limestones are Cretaceous (Chalk) and Jurassic.

 Chalk is porous and often has high moisture content that leads it to its use in the

‘semi-dry/wet’ manufacturing process of making cement. This particular process

represents some 16% of total production. 

Shale; and

• Shale is a pure sedimentary rock made of very fine silt, clay and quarz.  Shale falls in

the category of mudstones. Its grain size is less than 1/256mm. Shale is distinguished

from other mudstones because it is fissile and laminated. Well into the 20th century, the

words shale and slate could be interchangeable.

• Clays, mudstones and shales are very widely distributed in the UK. They occur in

formations that may be several hundred metres thick. ( British Geological Survey

CR/03/281N) 

Gypsum.

• Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dehydrate

• The largest and commercially most important deposits of gypsum and anhydrite occur

as beds, which may persist over considerable areas with little change in quality or

thickness. They are frequently interbedded with limestones, shales, mudstones, clays,

dolomite, rock salt and locally sylvite.

• Although gypsum is widely distributed throughout England, and has historically been

exploited in a large number of locations, mining now occurs in Cumbria, Staffordshire;

Nottinghamshire (open cast), Leicestershire and East Sussex;

• About 20% of gypsum goes towards cement production.

 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MANUFACTURING OF CEMENTS

The most common way to manufacture portland cement is through a dry method. The

first step is to quarry the principal raw materials, mainly limestone, clay, and other materials.

After quarrying the rock is crushed. This involves several stages. The first crushing reduces the

rock to a maximum size of about 6 inches. The rock then goes to secondary crushers or hammer

mills for reduction to about 3 inches or smaller.

The crushed rock is combined with other ingredients such as iron ore or fly ash and

ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln.

The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit in huge

cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as 12 feet

in diameter—large enough to accommodate an automobile and longer in many instances than the

height of a 40-story building. The large kilns are mounted with the axis inclined slightly from the

horizontal.

The finely ground raw material or the slurry is fed into the higher end. At the lower end is

a roaring blast of flame, produced by precisely controlled burning of powdered coal, oil,

alternative fuels, or gas under forced draft.

As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are driven off in the form of

gases. The remaining elements unite to form a new substance called clinker. Clinker comes out

of the kiln as grey balls, about the size of marbles.

Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and generally is brought

down to handling temperature in various types of coolers. The heated air from the coolers is

returned to the kilns, a process that saves fuel and increases burning efficiency.
 After the clinker is cooled, cement plants grind it and mix it with small amounts of

gypsum and limestone. Cement is so fine that 1 pound of cement contains 150 billion grains.

The cement is now ready for transport to ready-mix concrete companies to be used in a variety of

construction projects.

STEPS:

1. Extraction - Materials are extracted / quarried / recovered and transported to the cement

plant.

2. Crushing and milling - The raw materials, limestone, shale, silica and iron oxice are

crushed and milled into fine powders.

3. Mixing and preheating - The powders are blended (the ‘raw meal’) and preheated to

around 900° C using the hot gases from the kiln. The preheating burns off the impurities.

4. Heating - Next the material is burned in a large rotary kiln at 1500° C. Heating starts the

de-carbonation where CO2 is driven from the limestone. The partially fused resulting is

known as clinker. A modern kiln can produce around 6000 tons of clinker a day.

CaCO3 (limestone) + heat -> CaO (lime) + CO2 

5. Cooling and final grinding - The clinker is then cooled and ground to a fine powder in a

tube or ball mill. A ball mill is a rotating drum filled with steel balls of different sizes

(depending on the desired fineness of the cement) that crush and grind the clinker.

Gypsum is added during the grinding process to provide means for controlling the setting

of the cement.

The cement is bagged transported for concrete production.

EQUIPMENTS INVOLVED IN DRYING PROCESS IN INDUSTRIAL AND

MANUFACTURING PLANTS

Cement crusher. As we all know, the first step of the cement production line is raw

material preparation. Cement crusher is the main equipment of this step. The raw materials are

fed into cement crusher by vibratory feeder; the breaking material is transported by the belt

conveyor to the impact crusher for further crusher. cement crusher There are various types of

cement crusher on the market, including jaw crusher, cone crusher, hammer crusher, impact

crusher, and etc. AGICO Cement can provide all types of cement crusher. Our cement crusher

can fully crush the raw material, reduce feed size into the mill, and increase the reaction of raw

material in the following cement manufacturing process, reduce the energy consumption of the

whole cement production line.

Cement mill is another necessary cement equipment of the cement plant. After raw

material crushing, cement mill plays vital role in the further cement manufacturing

process. Cement ball mill, vertical cement mill, and cement roller press are common types

of cement grinding plant. Cement mill has two functions of the cement production line. Firstly,

cement mill is used to grind the crushed material into fine size before clinker production. A

cement mill is also applied for grinding clinker into finished cement. The cement clinker

grinding is the last step of the cement manufacturing process, in this step, cement mill grinds

cement clinker, gelatinizing agent and other materials into the required size, which can meet the

requirement of cement.

Cement kiln is used to make cement clinker, and it is the core equipment of cement

production line; usually, apply for dry method cement production. There are two main kinds of

cement kiln to manufacture cement clinker. One is the cement rotary kiln, and it is horizontal
and can rotate. Rotary kiln is widely applied to the cement clinker production. Another one is

vertical and fixed kiln, so it is called as a vertical kiln.

Clinker cooler and dryer are two necessary parts of cement clinker production.

The dryer produced by AGICO can apply for various raw materials and easy to adjust. During

the operation, the dryer supplies heat stably, ensures the drying quality and cement quality.

The cement cooler is also used for clinker production. Using blower blowing cold air, quench the

cement clinker that laid on the grate plate, decrease the temperature of clinker from 1200℃ to

100℃ and below, the cooling exhaust gas enters into the kiln as secondary air.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF CEMENTS IN THE INDUSTRY

Cement is a major component of building materials, cement is an extremely important

construction material. It is used in the production of the many structures that make up the

modern world including buildings, bridges, harbours, runways and roads. It is also used for

facades and other decorative features on buildings. The constant demand for all of these

structures, increasingly from the developing world, means that cement is the second most

consumed commodity in the world after water.

Cement is now used in many construction trade items like plain cement concrete,

reinforced cement concrete, mortar, plaster, grouts, paints and in pre-cast elements.

One of the characteristic of a developed country is its growing infrastructure and hence

cement is an important element for the development of country and its economy.

As on date natural materials like lime has many limitations, while modern binder

materials like polymers, epoxy etc. are very costly and hence cement is the best alternative. Thus

polymer and epoxy have solved many limitations of cement as a binding material.

Some of the reasons for its popularity and universal acceptance are listed below:

1. Cement can be produced in large volumes in controlled condition, packed and transported

over long distances.

2. Cement is several times stronger binding material than lime and clay.

3. It can be mixed and used at will with locally available materials at site.

4. When stored properly in ordinary atmosphere does not deteriorate or react for reasonably

longer time.

5. When mixed with water, starts setting very early and acquires sufficient strength in a day

or two, where as other binding materials require much longer time.

6. When water is added to quick lime, lot of head is generated, but in case of cement, heat

generated is unnoticeable and much lesser.

7. It can withstand compressive stresses well. Where tension and shear stresses occur it

gives good bond to steel reinforcement and transfers excess stresses to steel.

8. It is produced from the materials like limestone, hematite, bauxite, clay etc which are

abundantly available in upper crust of the earth.

 SAFETY PROTOCOLS

Manufacturing concrete can pose health and safety risks for the worker. For concrete

manufacturing, the 10 OSHA standards most frequently included in the agency's citations were:

1. Hazard communication

2. Lockout/tagout

3. Confined spaces

4. Respiratory protection

5. Guarding floor & wall openings and holes

6. Electrical wiring methods

7. Noise exposure

8. Forklifts

9. Electrical systems design

10. Machine guarding

 Cement Dust

Hazard: Exposure to cement dust can irritate eyes, nose, throat and the upper respiratory

system. Skin contact may result in moderate irritation to thickening/cracking of skin to severe

skin damage from chemical burns. Silica exposure can lead to lung injuries including silicosis

and lung cancer.

Solutions:

 Rinse eyes with water if they come into contact with cement dust and consult a physician.

 Use soap and water to wash off dust to avoid skin damage.

 Wear a P-, N- or R-95 respirator to minimize inhalation of cement dust.

 Eat and drink only in dust-free areas to avoid ingesting cement dust.

Wet Concrete

Hazard: Exposure to wet concrete can result in skin irritation or even first-, second- or

third-degree chemical burns. Compounds such as hexavalent chromium may also be harmful.

Solutions:

 Wear alkali-resistant gloves, coveralls with long sleeves and full-length pants, waterproof

boots and eye protection.

 Wash contaminated skin areas with cold, running water as soon as possible.

 Rinse eyes splashed with wet concrete with water for at least 15 minutes and then go to

the hospital for further treatment.

 Machine Guarding

Hazard: Unguarded machinery used in the manufacturing process can lead to worker

injuries.

Solutions:

 Maintain conveyor belt systems to avoid jamming and use care in clearing jams.

 Ensure that guards are in place to protect workers using mixers, block makers, cubers and

metalworking machinery such as rebar benders, cutters and cage rollers.

 Establish and follow effective lockout/tagout procedures when servicing equipment.

 Be sure appropriate guards are in place on power tools before using them.
 Falling Objects

Hazard: Workers may be hit by falling objects from conveyor belt systems, elevators or

concrete block stacking equipment.

Solutions:

 Avoid working beneath cuber elevators, conveyor belts and stacker/destacker machinery.

 Stack and store materials properly to limit the risk of falling objects.

 Wear eye protection when chipping and cleaning forms, products or mixers.

Poor Ergonomics

Hazard: Improper lifting, awkward postures and repetitive motions can lead to sprains,

strains and other musculoskeletal disorders.

Solutions:

 Use handtrucks or forklifts when possible.

 Lift properly and get a coworker to help if a product is too heavy.

 Avoid twisting while carrying a load. Shift your feet and take small steps in the direction

you want to turn.

 Keep floors clear to avoid slipping and tripping hazards.

 Avoid working in awkward postures.

 Confined Spaces

Hazard: Mixers and ready-mix trucks have confined spaces that pose safety risks for

workers.

Solutions:

 Follow established procedures for confined space entry and work to assure safety.

 Guard against heat stress when cleaning truck mixer drums.

 Wear appropriate protective equipment to avoid silica exposure when removing concrete

residues from inside truck mixer drums.

Vehicles

Hazard: Poorly maintained or improperly handled vehicles can lead to crushing injuries

at the plant site or other injuries for truck drivers.

Solutions:

 Make sure back-up alarms on all vehicles are functioning.

 Avoid overloading cranes and hoists.

 Use care with the load out chute on concrete mixers to avoid injuries to hands and

fingers.

 Beware of hot surfaces on equipment and truck components.

 Guard eyes against splashes of aggregate materials during loading and unloading.
 Use hearing protection if needed to guard against excessive noise exposure during cement

loading/unloading and while using pneumatic chippers inside truck mixer drums.
REFERENCES:

https://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-applications/how-cement-is-

made#:~:text=Common%20materials%20used%20to%20manufacture,silica

%20sand%2C%20and%20iron%20ore.

http://www.cement-plants.com/cement-making-machine-overview/

https://civilsnapshot.com/importance-of-cement-in-construction/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement

https://gharpedia.com/blog/why-cement-important-construction-material/

https://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/cement-materials-and-manufacturing-

process/

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/concrete_manufacturing.html