Manufacturing Processes

Casting
 It is a manufacturing process by which a liquid
material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and
then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out
of the mold to complete the process. Casting
materials are usually metals or various cold setting
materials that cure after mixing two or more
components together; examples are epoxy,
concrete, plaster and clay.
 Metal casting is one of the most common casting
processes. Metal patterns are more expensive but
are more dimensionally stable and durable.
Casting
The finished product is, unlike marble,
unattractive, lacking in transparency, and so it is
usually painted. Alternatively, the first layers cast
may contain colored sand so as to give an
appearance of stone.
By casting concrete, rather than plaster, it is
possible to create sculptures, fountains, or
seating for outdoor use. A simulation of high-
quality marble may be made using certain
chemically-set plastic resins.
Molding
 Molding is the process of manufacturing by shaping
pliable raw material using a rigid frame or model called
a pattern. A mold is a hollowed-out block that is filled
with a liquid like plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw
materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold,
adopting its shape. A mold is the counterpart to a cast.
 Typical uses for molded plastics include molded
furniture, molded household goods, molded cases, and
structural materials.
 Difference: Casting is a manufacturing process in which
a molten material is introduced into a solid mold and
allowed to solidify. Molding refers to shaping a material
that is soft but not fully liquid. (Think wet clay, for
instance)
Forming
 Forming, or metal forming, is the metalworking
process of fashioning metal parts and objects
through mechanical deformation; the workpiece is
reshaped without adding or removing material, and
its mass remains unchanged. It operates on the
principle where the physical shape of a material is
permanently deformed. Forming processes tend to
be typified by differences in effective stresses.
 Compressive forming involves those processes
where the primary means of plastic deformation is
uni- or multiaxial compressive loading. It includes:
Forming
 Rolling, where the material is passed through a pair
of rollers.
 Extrusion, where the material is pushed through an
orifice.
 Die forming, where the material is stamped by a
press around or onto a die.
 Forging, where the material is shaped by localized
compressive forces.
 Indenting, where a tool is pressed into the
workpiece.
Forming
Tensile forming involves those processes where
the primary means of plastic deformation is uni-
or multiaxial tensile stress. It includes:
Stretching, where a tensile load is applied along
the longitudinal axis of the workpiece
Expanding, where the circumference of a
hollow body is increased by tangential loading
Recessing, where depressions and holes are
formed through tensile loading
Bending
 Bending is a manufacturing process that produces
a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape along a
straight axis in ductile materials, most commonly
sheet metal.
 In press brake forming, a work piece is positioned
over the die block and the die block presses the
sheet to form a shape. Usually bending has to
overcome both tensile stresses and compressive
stresses. When bending is done, the residual stresses
cause the material to spring back towards its
original position, so the sheet must be over-bent to
achieve the proper bend angle.
Shearing
 This category of forming processes involves those
operations where the primary means of plastic
deformation is a shearing load.
In shear forming (also referred as shear spinning)
the area of the final piece is approximately
equal to that of the flat sheet metal blank. The
wall thickness is maintained by controlling the
gap between the roller and the mandrel (rod for
securing metal to be worked). In shear forming a
reduction of the wall thickness occurs.
Shearing
In shear forming, the starting workpiece can
have circular or rectangular cross sections. On
the other hand, the profile shape of the final
component can be concave, convex or a
combination of these two.
A shear forming machine will look very much like
a conventional spinning machine, except for
that it has to be much more robust to withstand
the higher forces necessary to perform the
shearing operation.
Machining
 Machining is any of various processes in which a piece
of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size
by a controlled material removal process.
 The many processes that have this common theme,
controlled material removal, are today collectively
known as subtractive manufacturing, in distinction from
processes of controlled material addition, which are
known as additive manufacturing.
 Among the traditional machining processes the
following can be mentioned: turning, boring, drilling,
milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planning, reaming,
and tapping.
Machining
 In these "traditional" or "conventional" machining
processes, machine tools, such as lathes, milling
machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a sharp
cutting tool to remove material to achieve a desired
geometry.
 Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal
products, but it can also be used on materials such as
wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites. A person who
specializes in machining is called a machinist.
 Much of modern day machining is carried out by
computer numerical control (CNC), in which computers
are used to control the movement and operation of the
mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.
Machining
 Turning operations are operations that rotate the
workpiece as the primary method of moving metal
against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal
machine tool used in turning.
 Milling operations are operations in which the cutting
tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear against the
workpiece. Milling machines are the principal machine
tool used in milling.
 Drilling operations are operations in which holes are
produced or refined by bringing a rotating cutter with
cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact with
the workpiece. Drilling operations are done primarily in
drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills.
Joining
 Welding is the fabrication or sculptural process that joins
materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing
coalescence. This is often done by melting the
workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of
molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a
strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction
with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. On the
picture the parts are: 1. Workpiece, 2. Strong Joint, 3.
Energy Source, 4. Filler Material
 This is in contrast with brazing and soldering, which
involves melting a lower-melting point material between
the workpieces to form a bond between them, without
melting the workpieces.
Joining
Many different energy sources can be used for
welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc,
a laser, an electron beam, friction, and
ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding may be performed in many different
environments, including open air, under water
and in outer space.
Welding is a potentially hazardous undertaking
and precautions are required to avoid burns,
electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of
poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to
intense ultraviolet radiation.
Brazing
Brazing is a metal-joining process whereby a filler
metal is heated above melting point and
distributed between two or more close-fitting
parts by capillary action. The filler metal is
brought slightly above its melting (liquidus)
temperature while protected by a suitable
atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the
base metal (known as wetting) and is then
cooled to join the workpieces together.
It is similar to soldering, except the temperatures
used to melt the filler metal are higher.
Brazing
 A variety of alloys are used as filler metals for brazing
depending on the intended use or application
method. In general, braze alloys are made up of 3 or
more metals to form an alloy with the desired
properties.
 The filler metal for a particular application is chosen
based on its ability to: wet the base metals, withstand
the service conditions required, and melt at a lower
temperature than the base metals or at a very
specific temperature.
 Some common types of filler metals include:
Aluminum-silicon, copper-silver, copper-zinc (brass),
gold-silver, nickel alloy.
Fastening
 A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically
joins or affixes two or more objects together. Fasteners
can also be used to close a container such as a bag,
a box, or an envelope; or they may involve keeping
together the sides of an opening of flexible material,
attaching a lid to a container, etc.
 There are three major steel fasteners used in
industries: stainless steel, carbon steel, and alloy steel.
 Some types of woodworking joints make use of
separate internal reinforcements, such as dowels,
which in a sense can be considered fasteners within
the scope of the joint system, although on their own
they are not general purpose fasteners.
Metrology
Metrology
 Metrology is the science of measurement. Metrology
includes all theoretical and practical aspects of
measurement.
 Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures (BIPM) as "the science of
measurement, embracing both experimental and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in
any field of science and technology.“
 A core concept in metrology is metrological traceability,
which is the property of a measurement result whereby
the result can be related to a reference through a
documented unbroken chain of calibrations, each
contributing to the measurement uncertainty.
Metrology
 The outstanding concepts of Metrology are summarized
as follows:
Term Meaning
Is the degree of exactness which the final product corresponds
Accuracy
to the measurement standard
Refers to the ability of a measurement to be consistently
Precision reproduced. This means that it refers to the closeness of two or
more measurements to each other.
Refers to the consistency of accurate results over consecutive
Reliability
measurements over time
Refers to the ongoing validations that the measurement of the
Traceability
final product conforms to the original standard of measurement.
It is the process where metrology is applied to measurement
equipment and processes to ensure conformity with a known
Calibration
standard of measurement, usually traceable to a national
standards board.
Metrology
Metrology is a very broad field and may be
divided into three subfields which are:
Legal metrology concerns regulatory
requirements of measurements and measuring
instruments for the protection of health, public
safety, the environment and consumers, for
enabling taxation, and for fair trade.
Industrial metrology concerns the application of
measurement science to manufacturing and
other processes and their use in society, ensuring
the suitability of measurement instruments, their
calibration and quality control of measurements.
Metrology
Scientific metrology concerns the establishment of
quantity systems, unit systems, units of measurement,
the development of new measurement methods,
realization of measurement standards and the
transfer of traceability from these standards to users in
society.
Standards and Standardization
Standards are objects or ideas that are designated as
being authoritative for some accepted reason.
Whatever value they possess is useful for comparison
to unknowns for the purpose of establishing or
confirming an assigned value based on the standard.
Standardization is the process of establishing a
technical standard, which could be a standard
specification, standard test method, standard
definition, standard procedure.
The existence of a published standard does not
necessarily imply that it is useful or correct.
Standardization is implemented greatly when
companies release new products to market.