1

Computer network

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers

and devices connected by communications channels that facilitates communications
among users and allows users to share resources with other users. Networks may be
classified according to a wide variety of characteristics

Introduction

A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among devices

connected to the network. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the
design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) for the United
States Department of Defense. It was the first operational computer network in the world.
[1]
Development of the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the
1960s. For a history see ARPANET, the first network.

Purpose

• Facilitating communications
• Sharing hardware.
• Sharing files, data, and information.
• Sharing software.

Network classification

The following list presents categories used for classifying networks.

Connection method

Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software technology
that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as optical fiber,
Ethernet, Wireless LAN, HomePNA, Power line communication or G.hn.

Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Frequently deployed devices include
hubs, switches, bridges and/or routers. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect
devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a
transmission medium. ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable,
phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.

Wired technologies

• Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication.
Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated
copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission.
The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and
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electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per
second to 100 million bits per second.

• Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and
other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum
wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high
dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers
of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range
from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.

• Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in
protective layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances
without signal loss. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic
radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The
transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial
cables and thousands of times faster than for twisted-pair wire.

Wireless technologies

• Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and

receiver. The equipment look similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves
use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path
between relay stations spaced approx. 30 miles apart. Microwave antennas are
usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.

• Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave radio as their

telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere.
The satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles (for geosynchronous
satellites) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of
receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

• Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio communications technologies. The
systems are divided to different geographic area. Each area has low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next
area.

• Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio

technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology.
Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication
between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of open-standards
wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE 802.11b.

• Bluetooth – A short range wireless technology. Operate at approx. 1Mbps with

range from 10 to 100 meters. Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for data
exchange over short distances.
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• The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of the World Wide Web
through equipments like cellular phones, pagers,PDAs, and other portable
communications devices. The wireless web service offers anytime/anywhere
connection.

Functional relationship (network architecture)

Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which

exist among the elements of the network, e.g., active networking, client-server and peer-
to-peer (workgroup) architecture.

Types of networks

Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some
examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax
machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may
include wired and wireless connections between devices. The reach of a PAN typically
extends to 10 meters.[2] Wired PAN network is usually constructed with USB and
Firewire while wireless with Bluetooth and Infrared.[3]

Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or
closely positioned group of buildings.

Home area network

A home area network is a residential LAN which is used for communication between
digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal
computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important
function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a CATV or
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider.

Campus area network

A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network made up of an interconnection of

local area networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area. It can be considered one
form of a metropolitan area network, specific to an academic setting. In the case of a
university campus-based campus area network, the network is likely to link a variety of
campus buildings including; academic departments, the university library and student
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residence halls. A campus area network is larger than a local area network but smaller
than a wide area network (WAN) (in some cases).

Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more local area
networks or campus area networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of
the immediate town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a
metropolitan area network.

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area
such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications
channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air
waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as
telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of
the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile communications
across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key
challenge in mobile communications is handing off the user communications from one
local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of
terrestrial WIRELESS local area networks (WLAN).[6]

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links
between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network
(e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires.

Internetwork

An Internetwork is the connection of two or more distinct computer networks via a

common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork (often shortened to
internet). Two or more networks connect using devices that operate at the Network Layer
(Layer 3) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection
among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may
also be defined as an internetwork.
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Basic hardware components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network
nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In
addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the
form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave
links (as in IEEE 802.12) or optical cable ("optical fiber"). An Ethernet card may also be
required.

Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer
hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It
provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level
addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.

Repeaters

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it from the unnecessary
noise, regenerates it and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an
obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most
twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable which runs longer
than 100 meters. Repeaters work on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.

Hubs

A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied
unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame
is not changed to a broadcast address.[7] It works on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.

Bridges

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of
the OSI model. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the
broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports,
as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once
the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port
only.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of
frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source
address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port.
The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will
forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

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• Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)

• Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between
LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end
networks, largely have been replaced with routers.
• Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs

Switches

A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunk of
data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in
the packets.[8] This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports
involved in the communication rather than all ports connected

Routers

A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks using

information in protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine the best next router
for each packet.

Exceptions

UnknownHostException Java 1.0

java.net serializable checked PJ1.1

Signals that the name of a specified host could not be resolved.

Hierarchy: Object-->Throwable(Serializable)-->Exception--
>java.io.IOException-->java.net.UnknownHostException

Thrown By: InetAddress.{getAllByName(), getByName(), getLocalHost()},

Socket.Socket()

UnknownServiceException Java 1.0

java.net serializable checked PJ1.1

Signals an attempt to use an unsupported service of a network connection.

Hierarchy: Object-->Throwable(Serializable)-->Exception--
>java.io.IOException-->UnknownServiceExceptio

BindException Java 1.1

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java.net serializable checked PJ1.1

Signals that a socket cannot be bound to a local address and port. This often means that
the port is already in use.

Hierarchy: Object-->Throwable(Serializable)-->Exception--
>java.io.IOException-->SocketException-->BindException

ConnectException Java 1.1

java.net serializable checked PJ1.1

Signals that a socket cannot be connected to a remote address and port. This means that
the remote host can be reached, but is not responding, perhaps because there is no process
on that host that is listening on the specified port.

Hierarchy: Object-->Throwable(Serializable)-->Exception--
>java.io.IOException-->SocketException-->java.net.ConnectException

NoRouteToHostException Java 1.1

java.net serializable checked PJ1.1

This exception signals that a socket cannot be connected to a remote host because the
host cannot be contacted. Typically, this means that some link in the network between the
local machine and the remote host is down or that the host is behind a firewall.

Hierarchy: Object-->Throwable(Serializable)-->Exception--
>java.io.IOException-->SocketException-->NoRouteToHostException

ProtocolException Java 1.0

java.net serializable checked PJ1.1

Signals a protocol error in the Socket class.

Hierarchy: Object-->Throwable(Serializable)-->Exception--
>java.io.IOException-->ProtocolException

Thrown By: HttpURLConnection.setRequestMethod()

SocketException Java 1.0

java.net serializable checked PJ1.1
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Signals an exceptional condition while using a socket.

Hierarchy: Object-->Throwable(Serializable)-->Exception--
>java.io.IOException-->SocketException

Subclasses: BindException, java.net.ConnectException,

NoRouteToHostException

Thrown By: Too many methods to list.

Common port numbers

Main article: List of TCP and UDP port numbers

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for the global
coordination of the DNS Root, IP addressing, and other Internet protocol resources. This
includes the registration of commonly used port numbers for well-known Internet
services.

The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the well-known ports, the registered
ports, and the dynamic or private ports. The well-known ports are those from 0 through
1023. Examples include:

• 23: Telnet
• 53: Domain Name System
• 80: World Wide Web HTTP
• 119: Network News Transfer Protocol
• 443: HTTP over Transport Layer Security/Secure Sockets Layer
• 445: microsoft-ds, Server Message Block over TCP

The registered ports are those from 1024 through 49151. A list of registered ports may be
found on the IANA Website.[1] The dynamic or private ports are those from 49152
through 65535.

TELNET (TErminaL NETwork) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area
networks to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communications facility via a
virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with TELNET control
information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system for computers,
services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates
various information with domain names assigned to each of the participants.

The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known as The Web, is a
system of interlinked hypertext documents contained on the Internet. With a web
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browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other
multimedia and navigate between them by using hyperlinks.

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an Application Layer protocol for

distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.[1]

HTTP is a request-response standard typical of client-server computing. In HTTP, web

browsers or spiders typically act as clients, while an application running on the computer
hosting the web site acts as a server. The client, which submits HTTP requests, is also
referred to as the user agent. The responding server, which stores or creates resources
such as HTML files and images, may be called the origin server.

The Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is an Internet application protocol used
for transporting Usenet news articles (netnews) between news servers and for reading and
posting articles by end user client applications.

Transport Layer Security (TLS) and its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), are
cryptographic protocols that provide security for communications over networks such as
the Internet. TLS and SSL encrypt the segments of network connections at the Transport
Layer end-to-end.

In computer networking, Server Message Block (SMB, also known as Common

Internet File System, CIFS) operates as an application-layer network protocol[1] mainly
used to provide shared access to files, printers, serial ports, and miscellaneous
communications between nodes on a network. It also provides an authenticated inter-
process communication mechanism.

Port:

On computer and telecommunication devices, a port (noun) is generally a specific place

for being physically connected to some other device, usually with a socket and plug of
some kind. Typically, a personal computer is provided with one or more serial ports and
usually one parallel port. The serial port supports sequential, one bit-at-a-time
transmission to peripheral devices such as scanners and the parallel port supports
multiple-bit-at-a-time transmission to devices such as printers.

What is socket and port?

Socket is generally a software component that is used to connect a computer to the

internet sites or to communicate with other computers. It contains address of the other
side computer as well as the port number. Port number is the number that specify a
particular process on that machine. As so many processes can be running on machine
some time it is needed to specify a port. Many time it is optional.

IP Address: An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to

devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet
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What is DNS?

What does actually stand behind that almighty 3-letter abbreviation - DNS? DNS refers
to Domain Name System and represents a powerful Internet technology for converting
domain names to IP addresses. Its special mission is to be a mediator between the IP
addresses, the system-side names of the websites and their respective domains, and their
user-side alpha-numeric titles. Another important function of the DNS is to control the
delivery of email messages.

How does DNS work?

A DNS program works like this - every time a domain name is typed in a browser it is
automatically passed on to a DNS server, which translates the name into its
corresponding IP address (e.g. the domain name NTC Hosting.com is translated to
66.40.65.49). Thanks to the DNS, we do not need to bother to remember complicated
numeric combinations to reach a certain website - we can use its meaningful and much
easier to remember domain name instead.

Difference between TCP and UDP

TCP UDP
Reliability: TCP is connection-oriented Reliability: UDP is connectionless protocol.
protocol. When a file or message send it will When you a send a data or message, you
get delivered unless connections fails. If don't know if it'll get there, it could get lost
connection lost, the server will request the on the way. There may be corruption while
lost part. There is no corruption while transferring a message.
transferring a message.
Ordered: If you send two messages along a Ordered: If you send two messages out, you
connection, one after the other, you know the don't know what order they'll arrive in i.e. no
first message will get there first. You don't ordered
have to worry about data arriving in the
wrong order.
Heavyweight: - when the low level parts of Lightweight: No ordering of messages, no
the TCP "stream" arrive in the wrong order, tracking connections, etc. It's just fire and
resend requests have to be sent, and all the forget! This means it's a lot quicker, and the
out of sequence parts have to be put back network card / OS have to do very little
together, so requires a bit of work to piece work to translate the data back from the
together. packets.
Streaming: Data is read as a "stream," with Datagrams: Packets are sent individually
nothing distinguishing where one packet ends and are guaranteed to be whole if they
and another begins. There may be multiple arrive. One packet per one read call.
packets per read call.
Examples: World Wide Web (Apache TCP Examples: Domain Name System (DNS
port 80), e-mail (SMTP TCP port 25 Postfix UDP port 53), streaming media applications
MTA), File Transfer Protocol (FTP port 21) such as IPTV or movies, Voice over IP
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and Secure Shell (OpenSSH port 22) etc. (VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP) and online multiplayer games etc

Definitions of Server socket on the Web:

• In computer networking, an Internet socket or network socket is an endpoint of a

bidirectional inter-process communication flow across an Internet ...

Flow control:
In computer networking, flow control is the process of managing the rate of data
transmission between two nodes to prevent a fast sender from outrunning a slow receiver.
It provides a mechanism for the receiver to control the transmission speed, so that the
receiving node is not overwhelmed with data from transmitting node. Flow control
should be distinguished from congestion control, which is used for controlling the flow of
data when congestion has actually occurred [1]. Flow control mechanisms can be
classified by whether or not the receiving node sends feedback to the sending node.

Hamming code:
In telecommunication, a Hamming code is a linear error-correcting code named after its
inventor, Richard Hamming. Hamming codes can detect up to two simultaneous bit
errors, and correct single-bit errors; thus, reliable communication is possible when the
Hamming distance between the transmitted and received bit patterns is less than or equal
to one. By contrast, the simple parity code cannot correct errors, and can only detect an
odd number of errors.
.

Network topology

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the
network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, star-
bus network, tree or hierarchical topology network. Network topology is the coordination
by which devices in the network are arrange in their logical relations to one another,
independent of physical arrangement. Even if networked computers are physically placed
in a linear arrangement and are connected to a hub, the network has a star topology,
rather than a bus topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a
network are distinct. Networks may be classified based on the method of data used to
convey the data, these include digital and analog networks.

Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

It is easy to handle and implement.
It is best suited for small networks.
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Disadvantages of Bus Topology

The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations that can be connected.
This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.

Ring Topology

Advantage of Ring Topology

The data being transmitted between two nodes passes through all the intermediate nodes.
A central server is not required for the management of this topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to fail.
The movement or changes made to network nodes affects the performance of the entire
network.

Mesh Topology

Advantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data from one
node to many other nodes at the same time.

Disadvantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of the
network, many of the connections serve no major purpose. This leads to the redundancy
of many of the network connections.

Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

Due to its centralized nature, the topology offers simplicity of operation.
It also achieves an isolation of each device in the network.

Disadvantage of Star Topology

The network operation depends on the functioning of the central hub. Hence, the failure
of the central hub leads to the failure of the entire network.

Exception handling is a programming language construct or computer hardware

mechanism designed to handle the occurrence of exceptions, special conditions that
change the normal flow of program execution

OSI MODEL

OSI Model
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Data unit Layer Function

7. Application Network process to application

Data 6. Presentation Data representation,encryption and decryption

Host
layers
5. Session Interhost communication

Segments 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability,Flow control

Packet 3. Network Path determination and logical addressing

Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers

Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission

The fundamental difference between dialup and broadband connections is the

manner in which the connection is made from PC to the Internet.

A dialup service connects to the Internet through a phone line with a maximum
speed of 56kbps.

Broadband refers to a connection that has capacity to transmit large amount of data
at high speed. Presently a connection having download speeds of 256kbps or more is
classified as broadband.

Broadband comes in a number of forms - depending how the data is delivered - for
example via cable, satellite and most commonly using a telephone line where as a
dialup service always connects to the Internet through a phone line.

PROTOCAL:

The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the
network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is
called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring
network .

Common types of protocols

• IP (Internet Protocol)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
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• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

• Telnet (Telnet Remote Protocol)
• SSH (Secure Shell Remote Protocol)
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol)
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• RFB (Remote Framebuffer Protocol)

UDP:
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the Internet Protocol
Suite, the set of network protocols used for the Internet. With UDP, computer
applications can send messages, in this case referred to as datagrams, to other hosts on an
Internet Protocol (IP) network without requiring prior communications to set up special
transmission channels or data paths. UDP is sometimes called the Universal Datagram
Protocol.

TCP:

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet
Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the two original components of the suite (the other
being Internet Protocol, or IP), so the entire suite is commonly referred to as
TCP/IP. Whereas IP handles lower-level transmissions from computer to
computer as a message makes its way across the Internet, TCP operates at a
higher level, concerned only with the two end systems, for example a Web
browser and a Web server. In particular, TCP provides reliable, ordered delivery
of a stream of bytes from a program on one computer to another program on
another computer. Besides the Web, other common applications of TCP include
e-mail and file transfer. Among its other management tasks, TCP controls
segment size, flow control, the rate at which data is exchanged, and network
traffic congestion.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a computer networking protocol

used by hosts (DHCP clients) to retrieve IP address assignments and other configuration
information.

DHCP uses a client-server architecture. The client sends a broadcast request for
configuration information. The DHCP server receives the request and responds with
configuration information from its configuration database.
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In the absence of DHCP, all hosts on a network must be manually configured

individually - a time-consuming and often error-prone undertaking.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol:

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an Application Layer protocol for

distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.[1]

HTTP is a request-response standard typical of client-server computing. In HTTP, web

browsers or spiders typically act as clients, while an application running on the computer
hosting the web site acts as a server. The client, which submits HTTP requests, is also
referred to as the user agent. The responding server, which stores or creates resources
such as HTML files and images, may be called the origin server. In between the user
agent and origin server may be several intermediaries, such as proxies, gateways, and
tunnels.

File Transfer Protocol:

(FTP) is a standard network protocol used to exchange and manipulate files over a
TCP/IP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on a client-server
architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the client
and server applications. FTP is used with user-based password authentication or
with anonymous user access.

TELNET

(TErminaL NETwork) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks
to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communications facility via a
virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with TELNET
control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

INTERNET:
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a
network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of
electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of
information resources and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of
the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail.
EXTRANET:
An extranet is a private network that uses Internet protocols, network connectivity. An
extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside
the company, usually via the Internet. It has also been described as a "state of mind" in
which the Internet is perceived as a way to do business with a selected set of other
companies (business-to-business, B2B), in isolation from all other Internet users. In
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contrast, business-to-consumer (B2C) models involve known servers of one or more

companies, communicating with previously unknown consumer users.
INTRANET:
An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to
securely share any part of an organization's information or operational systems within
that organization. The term is used in contrast to internet, a network between
organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the term
refers only to the organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the
organization's information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private
websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal
communication and collaboration.
Ethernet:

Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area

networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. It defines a
number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI networking
model as well as a common addressing format and Media Access Control at the Data
Link Layer

There are several Internet socket types available:

• Datagram sockets, also known as connectionless sockets, which use User

Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Stream sockets, also known as connection-oriented sockets, which use
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP).

IP Address:

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices

participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication
between its nodes.[1] An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network
interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows:
"A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how
to get there."[2]