Anatomy of a

Technical Report
Westinghouse Research Laboratories
Forward

The report is the major means of passing on accumulated ideas and facts from one person to
others, who need the information to carry on their work. At a research laboratory, it is actually
the major product of all R&D effort.
As a scientist or engineer, your value to your company and your profession depends to a large
extent on your reporting. Of course, no report can make poor engineering valuable. But, first rate
engineering can be rendered ineffective by poor reporting or even late reporting.
The primary responsibility for reporting must rest with the engineer who has done the work,
for he, better than anyone else, is aware of the subject. He has studied the details, thought out
the implications, sensed the importance. Supervisors can help him clarify his thinking and his
writing, but no one else can describe the work as well as the one who did it.
To do its job well, a report must be efficient. Like other instruments, it is expected to perform
rapidly and accurately; none of the readers has much time to spend, and none wishes to be
confused, misled or delayed by the writing. Further, the report must be adaptable to the purposes
of different people, for the readers are not all equally familiar with the subject nor are they all
interested in the subject from the same point of view. Going from one extreme to the other, some
will read the abstract only, whereas others will study the report in detail.
The purpose of this document is to give you some guidelines on the organization of a report to
meet the readers’ needs. These rules are flexible, intended for modification to suit the occasion.
A results section might be added to the front matter; the recommendations section might be
dropped; a statement of coverage might replace the main idea; and so on. But, like the ideals of
100% efficiency, infinite life and perfect reliability in any environment, the discussed guidelines
provide the ideals by which to set practical objectives and measure success.
Each of the following sections of this document has the form of the comparable section in an
actual report. For example, the section on abstracts is a sample abstract, the section on tables of
contents is a sample contents page, the section on conclusions is a sample conclusions section,
etc. Appendices are included for greater detail on most of the topics.
Abstract

The abstract, a bird’s-eye view of the report, serves as a combination introduction/conclusion,

stating the problem, the approach to solving it, the main conclusions and the significance. Since
it may be read by people educated and trained in a variety of technical disciplines, the abstract
should not contain symbols, highly technical terms, unusual abbreviations or mathematics. It
should be limited to approximately 75 to 100 words to fit easily on a library card. For exception-
ally long reports, a longer summary may follow.

1
Contents

Abstract 1

1 Introduction 3

2 Conclusions 4

3 Recommendations 4

4 Body of Report 6
4.1 Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Designing the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Writing the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.4 Headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.5 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Appendices 11

Appendix A A Reader-Oriented Organization 11

Appendix B What’s in a Title? 13

Appendix C The Abstract . . . Moth or Butterfly? 16

Appendix D Put Action in Those Abstracts 20

Appendix E The Introduction: Well begun is half done 23

Appendix F A conclusion is a conclusion is a conclusion 25

Appendix G How to be objective without hedging 28

Appendix H To Recommend or Not to Recommend 31

Appendix I Pictures Speak Louder than Words 34

Appendix J Report Writing Checklist 37

Use of a contents page and a following list of illustrations depends on the number of pages
in the report. As an arbitrary rule of thumb, you may decide to include these if the report is over
seven pages.

2
1 Introduction
The introduction should give the reader the background information which he needs to understand
and evaluate the conclusions and recommendations which follow. In this section, you should
describe the technical problem, why it was investigated, and the scope of the effort, including the
procedures used.
Usually the introduction is about a page long, although the length varies considerably de-
pending on the program and the complexity of the background information.
Occasionally a subject pertinent to the introduction requires an extensive treatment: the his-
tory of the problem, the test equipment used, the characteristics of the specimens tested, and
the like. In this case, you may mention the matter briefly in the introduction and detail it in an
independent section following the conclusions and recommendations.
Since most of the people receiving the report will read the introduction, and of these some
will not be particularly familiar with the subject, you should avoid symbols and highly technical
terms.

3
2 Conclusions
1. A conclusion is stated in a single sentence if possible.

2. Conclusions are numbered and given in separate paragraphs.

3. Conclusions are neither results nor opinions; they are reasoned judgments based on the col-
lected facts or results.

4. Conclusions are written positively and not qualified with words like “it seems”, “probably”
and “it may be”.

5. No discussion or explanation appears in this section, although expressions such as “This study
shows”, “On the basis of basic information”, and “Until more accurate data are available” are
permissible.

6. When true conclusions are not possible, as for example in describing a newly developed ma-
terial, another section may replace this section: e.g. a “description of development” section, a
results section or a summary.

3 Recommendations
1. Use a single, numbered sentence for each recommendation.

2. Use either commands (as in this sentence) or “should” sentences (as in recommendation 3) or
“I recommend” sentences (as in recommendation 4), but don’t mix the three types.

3. Recommendations should be based on the collected facts or results and also on the author’s
applicable technical experience and/or knowledge of any special circumstances bearing on the
proposed action.

4. I recommend that you find out whether or not your supervisor wants you to make recommen-
dations, since they are not always necessary.

4
What Do Managers Read?

Abstract or Summary

Introduction

Conclusions and Recommendations

Discussion

Appendices

See Page B-1

5
4 Body of Report
4.1 Anatomy
The next sections in the report constitute the body of the report. They will vary considerably
with the report with one important stipulation: that a results section and a discussion section must
be included. As an example, they might be:
4. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
5. DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT
5.1 Specimens
5.2 Test Equipment
5.3 Experimental Procedures
6. RESULTS
7. DISCUSSION
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
You should start the body of the report with a technical background section if the introduction
does not give this material in adequate detail. In deciding what constitutes adequate detail, it is
always safe to assume that your readers do not know the area as well as you do, being educated
and trained in a different technical discipline. As aids to interested readers, cite other technical
reports, articles and hooks which supply pertinent information.
Next, detail what was done; what materials, equipment and procedures were used; and why
they were selected over obvious alternates. Include enough details here so that your results can
be duplicated. If the work was experimental, supply illustrations showing laboratory setups.
From there, you should summarize your results and illustrate the most significant ones, leav-
ing lengthy but substantiating data for the appendices. A successful results section hinges not only
upon a painstaking devotion to accuracy but upon your conditioning as to what to look for and
your familiarity with sound scientific procedure. The data must be complete enough to enable
meaningful conclusions and must be reliable, whether obtained by experimental or theoretical
means or from a secondary source. References to original figuring books should be included
when possible.1
If the report is lengthy, consider including a list of your major results placed either before or
after the conclusions and recommendations sections.
After reporting your data, you need to interpret it. You should justify your conclusions and
recommendations: analyze, evaluate, make comparisons and contrasts. Along with objectivity
and knowledge of the field, you need a logical mind at this point. You must take into account
all variables, identify and relate cause and effect, avoid non-sequiturs and false analogies, etc.
Base your discussion on facts and long-term experience, consistently avoiding unsubstantiated
opinions.
The suggested format for the discussion sections at first glance looks chronological: technical
background. . . methods and materials. . . results. . . interpretation of results. But, within each
part, the organization should be in order of importance, so that the readers will get the highlights
regardless of where they stop reading. Even when step-by-step procedures are called for, avoid
detailing false leads and dead ends.
1 In
the case of Westinghouse Research Laboratories’ research reports, these should be placed immediately fol-
lowing the reference section or, if there is no reference, after the last text section.
6
4.2 Designing the Report

The writing of a report can be thought of as a problem in design and construction. The design
is the planning and organization. The construction is the writing.
The first step in the design is to decide on the basic purpose of the report and select a main
idea to satisfy that purpose. For example,

Purpose: To evaluate capacitors for power plant use.

Main Idea: Capacitors are useful for correcting plant power factor and for protect-
ing motors from damage due to over voltages.

The next step is to select the material which will help make the main point, much as one
selects components in designing an engineering system. Extraneous material should be elimi-
nated ruthlessly. Material of secondary importance should be relegated to appendices. Along
with the completeness of the material, the order of its presentation is most important during the
design phase. The latter is governed by the needs of the readers, since you are writing the re-
port for them, not for yourself. First things come first, and the main points should come before
the details. A reader can better grasp details if they fit into an over-all frame of meaning which
he already understands than if they are gradually accumulated to reveal a general point not yet
stated.
The principle of emphasizing by placing first applies both on the level of the whole report, as
we have already seen; on the level of the section, where the first paragraph should summarize the
important points of the section; and on the level of the paragraph, where the topic sentence should
be placed first. There are of course exceptions to these rules, notably short sections requiring no
introduction and transitional paragraphs on two or more topics. Besides the beginning of sections
and paragraphs, emphatic positions include illustrations, captions and headings. Make a list of
your main points early in the planning stage and try to distribute them into these key positions.

7
4.3 Writing the Report

Many a well designed report is made ineffective by bad writing. On the other hand, everyone
can recall writing that he has found easy to follow. The words are either simple or carefully
explained. Sentences are economical and unambiguous. The rules of grammar are observed.
The short report derives its excellence primarily from simplicity and directness, as well as
message of course. As reports grow longer, continuity and plan become more and more impor-
tant, with placement of important material in emphatic positions ever increasing in importance.
But even the longest reports are bad without clarity and correct grammar.
Another aspect of report writing, which receives far too little attention, is the technical level
of presentation. Trite as it may sound, not only the organization but also the technical level and
detail at which a report should be written depend upon the readers. And since most readers are
interested only in the significant material and in the general concepts that grow out of detail,
there is seldom real justification for a highly technical and detailed presentation in the body of
the report.
However, highly technical, mathematical and other detailed material which supports the main
points of the report can be placed in appendices. Detailed specifications, lengthy tables of results,
complicated mathematical derivations, all belong in appendices.
The over-all report, then, goes from the general to the specific: from the highlights of who.
what, when, where and how. . . to more detailed results and discussion sections. . . to still more
detailed appendices.
Since the generalities are normally formulated from the details, rather than vice versa, the
report format reverses the usual order of report development. So the body of the report is usually
written first, the introductions to the sections in the body of the report next, the conclusions and
recommendations later, and the abstract last.

4.4 Headings

Headings serve two purposes in a technical report: they help the reader follow the plan and
they serve as guides for someone using the report as a reference. Since the text must not depend
on the headings, it is best to insert them after the report is written.
Within the main sections, subsections identified by headings should be used sparingly . . .
say not more than two or three per page. . . fewer if possible. Too many headings gives a choppy
effect. On the positive side, appropriate subheadings are generally less stereotyped than main
headings and they keep the reader from becoming discouraged by long stretches of unbroken
prose.
In any section of a report, one subdivision calls for a second subdivision of the same class. If
the subject matter being reported doesn’t require a second subdivision, the section title should be
sufficient to indicate the contents.
All headings and captions should be short but as specific as possible. One way of showing
the main outline and the specific slant at the same time is to use a two-part title like “Experiment
1: Effect of Increased Pressure”. Note the omission of “The” preceding “Effect”: this is standard
usage for technical reports.

8
4.5 Illustrations

Within limits, it is always best to make as many of your main points as possible by using
illustrations in the body of your report. Illustrations are easier to understand than words alone,
and they add emphasis. You should never publish a report with an important phase of your work
unillustrated when you can conceive of a graphical way of demonstrating that phase well.
Major limitations on the use of illustrations are only two. First, the feature of emphasis is
lost if there are too many illustrations, for the reader stops looking at them. At a maximum, there
should be no more than one illustration for each page of text so that it can face or immediately
follow the commentary; additional illustrations can be placed in appendices. Second, there is a
limit on how much illustrating can be done in a short time for one document, so that special items
like renderings must of necessity be chosen sparingly.
Plan your illustrations before you do any writing, because writing is not the same with or
without illustrations. You need fewer words when you can refer to a drawing or photograph.
Explain the significance of each figure and describe specific features which might not be
immediately clear to the less knowledgeable reader. If a figure illustrates a long description or
other lengthy passage, the figure should be mentioned early in the text (i.e. “See Fig. 3”) and
subsequently referred to from time to time.
Also, give specific captions to all illustrations so that the reader who is rapidly scanning the
text will get the utmost out of looking at just the pictures and not the text.

4.6 Bibliography
4.6.1 Technical Report Writing - Overall

(1) Joseph Nelson, Writing the Technical Report , McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940.
(2) Robert Rathbone, Communicating Technical Information, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, 1966.
(3) H.J. Tichy, Effective Writing for Engineers, Managers, Scientists, Wiley, New York, 1966.
(4) Joseph Ulman, Technical Reporting, Holt, New York, 1952.

4.6.2 Organization
(5) James Souther, Technical Report Writing, Wiley, New York, 1957.
(6) Robert Tuttle, Writing Useful Reports, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1956.

4.6.3 Style
(7) Robert Gunning, The Technique of Clear Writing, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
(8) William Strunk and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, MacMillan, New York, 1959.

4.6.4 Other
(9) E. Sick and M. Herwald, “An Annotated Bibliography on Technical Writing and Related Sub-
jects (Based on Books in the Research Library)"’, Westinghouse Research Laboratories Scien-
tific Paper 68-1R4-LIBRY-P1, August 21, 1968.

9
 APPENDICES

A. A Reader-Oriented Organization

B. What’s in a Title?

C. The Abstract. . .Moth or Butterfly?

D. Put Action in those Abstracts

E. The Introduction: "Well Begun Is Half Done"

F. A Conclusion Is a Conclusion Is a Conclusion

G. How To Be Objective without Hedging

H. To Recommend or Not To Recommend?

I. Pictures Speak Louder than Words

J. Report Writing Check List

10
Appendix A: A Reader-Oriented Organization

Several years ago, Westinghouse made a study to determine what management looks for in a
technical document. Nearly 100 managers were interviewed - at all levels from vice president to
section manager.
One of the questions asked each manager was what he reads in a report. Answers were as
shown in the bar chart.

WHY THIS OLD HISTORY?

Why this old history? First, because what managers read is vital to the progress of every
corporation and everyone in every corporation. Second, because the stress on titles, abstracts,
introductions, conclusions and recommendations in subsequent articles will be more readily un-
derstood.
To fully appreciate the abstract as a bird’s-eye view of the document, you need to realize that
nearly 50 percent of your management readers read nothing else. To fully appreciate the need
for detailed functional analysis of your raw material, you should know that 75 percent of your
management readers will miss any point which is not in the abstract, introduction, conclusions or
recommendations sections of your report. Knowing the emphasis placed on conclusions and rec-
ommendations also helps explain why it is so important to distinguish between them and results
(which involve no interpretation) and opinion (which is interpretation without substantiation).

11
 ORGANIZE FROM THE GENERAL TO THE SPECIFIC

The management survey also showed that sequence of reading usually corresponds with fre-
quency of reading, so that the order of report components shown in the chart became a standard
for report preparation in some company departments.
The report format thus established consists of three basic sections, each of increasing com-
plexity, so that a reader stopping at the end of any one of these sections has a unified view of the
subject. Of course, a reader stopping at the end of the first section does not have as much detailed
information as the reader who stops at the end of the second; and for full details, the reader must
finish the third.
The first section is the abstract. This is for the reader who wants to know whether the report
as a whole will be helpful or who wants only general information about what was done. As a
matter of fact, all readers will see the abstract. Those who read farther will find that the abstract
has provided them with the major outlines of the subject, enabling them to fit the more detailed
information of later sections into a general framework.
The second section consists of the introduction, the conclusions, and the recommendations, if
any are made. This section is for the reader who wants information about the problem, the reason
the work was done, the method of attack and the outcome of the work.
The third section presents the detailed story of the investigation. This section explains how
the conclusions were reached. The majority of the readers read only the first two sections. Those
who continue are likely to read on because they doubt one or more of the conclusions, have a
special interest in the subject, or are carrying on a related investigation.
As the readers move away from the front of the report, they find that they are coming to more
and more specialized information. The first two sections are written for all readers. The third
section is more technical and is written primarily for engineers in the same discipline.

A GOOD REPORT RESEMBLES A NEWS STORY

A well-organized technical report resembles a well-organized newspaper story. Both start by

telling who did what, when, where and how. And both go from the general to the specific so that
the reader may cut off or be cut off at any point. News reporters pay much attention to reader
interest; you should do so too.

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Appendix B: What’s in a Title?

A good title is a gem, precious and rare. It fulfills its function: to inform readers of the precise
subject matter of the document in as few words as possible. In addition, it includes key words
for easy indexing by libraries and indicates the author’s point of view on the subject to guide the
typical harried reader. Westinghouse examples are:
Peaking Plants Can Provide System Cost Reductions
Antithetic Variates: A Technique for Improving the Efficiency of PERT Network Sim-
ulations
Development of a Low-Cost Iron-Base Alloy To Resist Corrosion in Hot Sea Water

BE SPECIFIC
Poor titles are like leaves, found everywhere. The major problem is lack of specificity . . .
failure to distinguish the scope of the document from the scope of other documents on a similar
subject.

Consider the following titles:

Investigation of Superconducting Interactions
Investigation of Desalination by Freezing

These could just as easily read:

Elevated Superconducting Transition Temperatures in Rhenium Thin Films
Determination of the Partition Coefficient for HCl in the Water-Ice System

If the original titles must be used because they are project titles, how about two-part titles:
Investigation of Superconducting Interactions: Elevated Superconducting Transition
Temperatures in Rhenium Thin Films
Investigation of Desalination by Freezing: Determination of the Partition Coefficient
for HC1 in the Water-Ice System

13
 BE BRIEF

Note that the word “investigation” adds nothing to the two titles discussed above. The same
is generally true of “research”, “study”, “evaluation”, “analysis”, “report”, “consideration”, etc.
Words which are inappropriate for indexing should be kept to a minimum.
Computerized title lists, where meaningful words are successively aligned by computer, are
only as useful as the words in the title are specific. In the following list, note the uselessness of
the entries under “too”.

Image on Original is unclear;

shows a cool 1970's era
computer text printout.

To take some technical examples, here are a couple of report titles incorporating many unnec-
essary words:

A Method for the Prediction of the Effect of Impurities upon the Behavior of the
Low-Pressure Mercury-Vapor Fluorescent Lamp

Unit Costs Need Not Be Well Known To Do a Good Job of Minimizing Product Costs
Using Geometric Programming

How about these concise revisions:

Predicting Effect of Impurities on Low-Pressure Mercury-Vapor Fluorescent Lamp

Geometric Programming Minimizes Product Costs without Firm Unit Costs

Whenever possible, you should try to limit the number of words in a title to ten. But remember
that the narrower the study area the greater the number of words needed to describe it.

14
 INCLUDE POINT OF VIEW

Including the major conclusion through the use of evaluatory words is an additional bit of
human engineering too rarely found in technical titles. For examples, see the use of “cost re-
ductions”, “improving the efficiency”, “low-cost” and “resist corrosion” in the first three titles in
this article. Your reader wants to learn your point of view as soon as possible; he reads mystery
novels, not technical documents when he desires suspense. So why not give him what he will
most appreciate: a thesis title.

LIST OF DO’S

Here is a summary list of “do’s” for titles:

• Be specific.

• Be brief - ten words or less, preferably less.

• Include point of view.

• Use standard terminology. (avoid new acronyms like “RGT” for Resonant Gate Transistor).

• Keep titles unclassified and nonproprietary.

If you can’t fulfill all of these requirements, look for an effective trade-off

15
Appendix C: The Abstract . . . Moth or Butterfly?

Once upon a time, in the 17th and 18th centuries, an abstract was a lowly thing . . . a moth
in the midst of butterflies. Maybe because the scholar still had hopes of acquiring all significant
knowledge in his lifetime.
Today the abstract is perhaps the major means of communication with one’s scientific peers.
It is more often then not the only part of a report that is read. When informative, it can convey
knowledge as the honeybee conveys nectar; when uninformative it is still a moth.

EXTRACT THE ESSENCE

Only when you can call your abstract an epitome of your report should you be satisfied. It
should be the briefest possible condensation, yet extremely accurate. . . a distillation of the
whole.

In brief, it should serve the following purposes:

(1) State your main idea (core idea, thesis, etc.).

(2) Answer your reader’s questions:

(a) What is this report about?
(b) Why is it significant?
(c) What should I do about it?

(3) Serve as a combination introduction/conclusion

(4) Contain the essentials of our report in 75 to 150 words to fit easily on a library card.

16
 The essentials of your report which should be included are: (1) the reason the work was un-
dertaken, (2) key conclusions, (3) key recommendations, (4) enough about the scope of the work
(method and limits of investigation) to show the basis for your conclusions and recommenda-
tions, and (5) the significance or the work. If anything has to be omitted, give preference to items
1 and 2 and consider item 5 of least importance.

Your objectives and methods can often be covered in a phrase as a part of a conclusion. Here,
for example, is how one abstract began:

Metallographic examination of aluminum reflector sheet used by the Bedford Light-

ing Division indicates. . .

17
 SAMPLE ABSTRACTS - WHICH ARE MOTHS?

Following are four typical abstracts, each of which can be described by one of the following
phrases:

(a) Fulfills the requirements itemized above.

(b) Too short.
(c) Too long.
(d) Lacks explanation of why work was undertaken
(e) Doesn’t say what was done.
(f) Lacks key conclusions and recommendations.

Abstract No.1

The influence of dimensional and environmental factors on the superconductivity of

thin films is discussed with reference to our corporate program in this area.

This abstract is best described by (b), with (f) as a close runner-up.

How about your trying to grade the next three abstracts, using the above criteria? Then look
on the next page for the answers.

Abstract No. 2

Machining-type damage has been experienced on some main propulsion turbine

bearings on submarines as well as on other types of equipment. A series of tests
were run in order to duplicate this type of damage and to evaluate various materi-
als including carbon steel, chromium alloy steels, chrome-plate, and monel are to
their degree of susceptibility to machining-type wear. Two oils, 2190T-nonFP and
2190-FP, were also tested.

Abstract No. 3

An electron gun was set up which can fire a confined 6 kW beam of 140 kV electrons
under water at a welding or cutting specimen. A first set of tests showed that the
presence of the water does not interfere with the electron beam welding of steel and
copper, but aluminum could not be welded. Weld quality has not yet been assessed in
detail. It has also been demonstrated with this electron gun that a piece of rock, like
granite, can be cut under water, the beam producing a ????? about 2” deep and, in
addition, thermal stress cracking of the rock.

18
 Abstract No. 4

The fabrication of InAs TFT’s is described and the device characteristics are ana-
lyzed. The transistor is a depletion type device which requires -1 V, -4.5V gate voltage
for pinch-off. From this value a carrier concentration of ???? in the InAs film is de-
rived. With typical values for transconductance gm = 5.5 × 107 A·V and for dynamic
output resistance cds = 20 kΩ, a voltage amplification factor of 110 was obtained
although the following best individual values gm = 1.2 × 10− 2 A·V and rds = 40 kΩ
were achieved. From the transconductance and saturated drain current, a field-effect
mobility of 300 cm2 Vsec was deduced. The gain-bandwidth product was measured
and found to be 3 MHz. This result confirms the large value of the field-effect mo-
bility for an InAs TFT having a channel length of 10−2 cm if the gate capacitance of
200 pF is taken into account. Shortening the channel length to 5 × 10−3 cm yielded
a transconductance gm = .5 × 10−2 A/V from which field-effect mobility µF = 4000
cm2 Vsec was computed, hence assuring a gain-bandwidth product of 250 MHz. An
inverted TFT design, the feasibility of which is experimentally demonstrated, is nec-
essary to obtain a gain bandwidth product of 1 GHz since then the coarse crystalline
InAs films having Hall mobilities µH = 10,000 cm2 /Vsec can be used. Such TFT’s
do not require a channel length smaller than 2 × 10−3 cm, thus the drift mobility is
not field dependent, hence UHF TFT’s built with ease of fabrication can confidently
be expected.

My answers are:

2. (f) 3. (a) or (d) 4. (c)

If your answers are different, you may need to work on abstracts. Pull out a couple of your
own and ask your manager and coworkers what they think of them. And keep this in mind: an
abstract should be the epitome of your report.

19
Appendix D: Put Action in Those Abstracts

Human beings love action. The major action words are active verbs. Is it any surprise, then,
that active verbs are one criterion of a good style?

AN ABSTRACT IS AN EXCERPT NOT A COMMENTARY

Unfortunately, most of our technical abstracts are cluttered with passive verbs. The major
reason is that many authors think of the abstract incorrectly as a commentary on their report
instead of a selection from it. They start out with “this report presents” or “this paper presents”.
Then what happens?

This paper presents the derivation of the stiffness and mass matrices of a curved
triangular shell element on an arbitrary shell surface. The boundaries of the curved
element are defined in terms of the principal coordinates of the middle surface of the
shell. The characteristics of the middle surface of the shell are represented in the
equations by their radii of curvature and Lamé parameters. Numerical examples of
several shells under static loading are presented. Comparisons with classical results
are made.

To avoid undue repetition of “this report”, “this paper” or “it”, they switch to the passive voice
(e.g., ‘are defined”).
In many cases, the author does not even use an active verb in the first sentence but immediately
adopts the passive with “it is shown that” or some such weak expression.

20
 Definitions

Active verb Doer is subject.

We tested the part . . . The part broke.

Passive verb Doer is object of preposition or is not

expressed.
The part was tested [by the Mechanical
Evaluation Laboratory].

Linking verb There is a predicate adjective modifying

the subject or a predicate noun meaning
the same as the subject.
The part is strong enough . . . The first
phase will be a library search.

For comparison, let’s look at an abstract which is based upon excerpts from a report:

The massive steam injection gas turbine is attractive as a peaking-power generator

because of its low capital cost per kilowatt of installed power. This machine differs
from a dry gas turbine in that combustion is required with steam admission in the
secondary combustion zone. We have operated a small scale test generator with
good combustion efficiency, no smoke and no steam plume except on cold windless
days. The steam adequately cooled the secondary combustion wall.

There are no passive verbs at all, and the linking verb in the first sentence reads well as it is.

THE NONABSTRACT

When is an abstract not an abstract? When it’s a table of contents, a foreword or a summary.

The abstract which comments on the report lays still another trap for the unwary writer. It
often tricks him into writing a table of contents instead of a summary of the scope of the work
and the key conclusions and recommendations. The last sentence in the following abstract is a
particularly good example:

This report presents the combined l966 data on the operational analysis of the Clean-
life Disposal Company’s Portland, Maine, Composting Plant. The collected daily
data of 13 parameters is tabulated, statistical conclusions are made and chemical
analyses of samples from a 10 ton load through the 5 digesters is presented. Con-
clusions are made from the data and recommendations for improved sampling pro-
cedures and digestion process are presented.

21
 A commentary on the report may be necessary in special cases, but such a commentary is
called a foreword not an abstract. The following “abstract” is properly a foreword, but the
mislabeling is understandable since specifications and standards are generally not adaptable to
abstracting.

This paper was prepared for submission to the International Standards Organiza-
tion, ISO/TC85 SC3/WG6, for use in International Code for Reactor Vessels. In this
Code, as presently planned, the preliminary design will be covered by formulas and
charts for sizing the parts, and final acceptance will be dependent on a more detailed
design appraisal covering fatigue, fast fracture, excessive deformation, and elastic
instability. This report is a proposed section on fatigue for the design appraisal sec-
tion. It follows the basic principles used in Section III, Nuclear Vessels, of the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and is a revision of a first draft submitted by the
United Kingdom delegation.

When an abstract is too long to fit on a library card (say, over 175 words), it should be called
a summary and a shorter abstract should be written.
Incidentally, you may properly use all four elements - foreword, table of contents, abstract
and summary - in special cases, such as for long reports on continuing programs.

DIG OUT THOSE BURIED VERBS

When an abstract is written properly as a summary of excerpts from a report, the verbs will
generally have the same voice as in the report. If those are mostly passive, you still have a
problem.
A future article will deal with active verbs in greater detail. Suffice to say here that the
occasional use of “I” and ‘we’ is acceptable in technical reports and the best way to ferret out an
appropriate active verb is to look for “buried verbs’: that is, infinitives, participles, and nouns or
adjectives ending in such suffixes as:
ion, tion, ing, ment, ant, ent, ance, once, ancy, ency.

22
Appendix E: The Introduction: Well begun is half done

’The beginning, as the proverb says, is half the whole.’ (Aristotle)

The introduction is as important as the conclusions and recommendations. If well written, it

answers the question “Why?” and gives the essential “How’s”. It justifies the study and permits
the reader to skip the methods and materials sections.

WHAT, WHY AND HOW

In brief, the introduction should cover:

• Technical problem - “what”.

• Reason the work was undertaken - “why”.

• Scope of study - what is included, what is omitted and the procedures used - the essential
“how’s”.

• Author’s objectives in performing the study.

• Unique problems in planning, doing or interpreting the work.

• Unique approaches to the study.

Here is a sample introduction:

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 Sample Introduction

The Underseas Division is interested in the development of strong buoyant structural mate-
rials for its deep submergence programs. Composite structures of glass microspheres dis-
persed in an epoxy matrix have emerged as the most promising class of materials to meet
the rigid specifications of low density and high strength. Commonly called syntactic foams,
these materials are approximately two thirds the density of water, yet are able to withstand
the tremendous pressures encountered in deep submergence.
The hydrostatic strength of these foams is limited by the glass bubbles whose strengths are
approximately an order of magnitude lower than that of epoxy resins. The high strength of the
foam is due to that of the resin which supports most of the load and prevents transmission of
full pressure to the spheres. To yield further improvements in strength and in buoyancy, i.e.,
by use of lighter but weaker matrix materials, stronger microspheres are clearly necessary.
As a partial solution to this problem, the X Company recently supplied samples of new glass
microspheres “of identical glass type but having greater strength developed through special
fabrication techniques.” Physical properties of these materials were provided by the manu-
facturer and are summarized in Table I.
This report summarizes the results of a comparative analysis of these spheres. In addition,
techniques to further improve the strength of these spheres are proposed. Finally, evaluation
of other candidate microsphere materials is discussed.

In general, the first paragraph states the reason for the investigation, the second paragraph
details the technical problem, the third paragraph mentions a special aspect of the problem, and
the last paragraph summarizes the scope of the study. Note also that the final paragraph provides
a smooth transition into the body of the report, which follows the conclusions and recommenda-
tions.
ALL THE READER NEEDS TO KNOW
After reading the introduction, conclusions and recommendations, the reader should know:
• What the report is about.
• What it contributes.
• What action should be taken.
In general, those who read farther will do so because: (1) they are especially interested in the
subject; (2) they are deeply involved in the study; or (3) the urgency of the study requires it. If
any of your readers read farther because (4) they cannot understand your conclusions or (5) they
are skeptical of your conclusions, you may need two additional writing tips.
To help the reader understand your conclusions, write the introductory sections for someone
who does not know the technical area as well as you do, being educated and trained in a different
technical discipline. If you cannot do this within a reasonable space limit, also supply a technical
background section after the conclusions and recommendations.
To keep skepticism to a minimum, follow the suggestions in the article entitled ”How To Be
Objective without Hedging” on being at once positive and objective. In time your name will
acquire its own authority to vanquish the doubters. Until then, don’t worry if your manager is a
skeptic; keep in mind that he is merely doing his job.

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Appendix F: A conclusion is a conclusion is a conclusion

Have you ever stopped to think that you were hired to help management make decisions?
You are expected not only to do library research and to take meticulous notes while performing
an experiment but also to interpret the data you collect. You should offer conclusions based on
library research, experimental results or theoretical analysis every time you write a project report.
Interpretation is as fundamental to the technical document as the electric field is to the elec-
tronic system or motion to the mechanical system. A few of your readers with expertise in the
field under consideration and with adequate time to study a piece of informative writing may want
to draw their own conclusions. However, most of your readers will lean on you to demonstrate
significance and suggest the appropriate next step. Don’t ask your managers to do your work as
well as their own.

A HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE

Let us take a hypothetical case.

You are about to write a report on bandwidth compression techniques which might be suitable
for a particular application. You have made a literature survey and a mathematical analysis of var-
ious concepts, developing information on such factors as performance characteristics, reliability,
operability, miniaturization potential and state-of-the-art. Now what do you do?
The chances are that you are expected to provide answers to such questions as: Which concept
and hardware best suits the application technically? How long might it take to develop this
particular data link in comparison with other candidate systems? Would there be likely to be any
significant difference in development and manufacturing cost between the selected system and
the others? The answers to questions such as these are your conclusions.
You may also be expected to perform the tradeoff of performance, development time, cost,
etc., and give your recommendation on the best overall approach for development. Such recom-
mendations as whether to consider novel coding and storage techniques, whether to make or buy
particular subsystems, etc., may also be welcomed.
Don’t jump to the conclusion that this is all obvious. It it is obvious, why are there so few
reports with clear-cut conclusions and recommendations?

25
 A RESULT IS NOT A CONCLUSION

In the first place, there seems to be occasional confusion about the difference between a result
and a conclusion. So let’s start with definitions and examples:

• Result: Something obtained by calculation or investigation.

• Conclusion: A reasoned judgment: the necessary consequence of two or more proposition.

A typical use of results is this paragraph from the results section of a technical report:

Figure 1 illustrates the stress trajectory patterns for two parallel cracks with an
increasing overlap length. The stress trajectories are no longer symmetrical with re-
spect to each individual crack. As the overlap increases, the direction of the principal
tensile stress at the crack tips changes from a perpendicular direction (with respect
to an individual crack plane) when the overlap is zero, to nearly a parallel direction
for large overlap. This can be observed by following the change in direction of the
compressive stress trajectory which passes through the opposite crack tip, i.e., as the
overlap increases, it dips further towards the opposite crack.

A typical example of the use of interpretation of facts or results is the following paragraph
from a discussion section:

Diffusion of gases in metals is generally believed to occur through single crystal

grains as opposed to along grain boundaries. The present results support this view
since the permeation constants for tubes having grains of appreciably different size
agree within experimental accuracy. The good agreement between the permeation
constants for the tungsten tubes made in the two widely different fabrication pro-
cesses is good evidence that the value found for the permeation constant is an intrin-
sic property of pure, recrystallized tungsten.

26
 Now, if you understand the distinction between a result and a conclusion, can you say which
of the following statements belong in a conclusion section?

(a) The average bulk weight of the ground return was 14 lb/cu ft at 38% average moisture when
leaving the first grinder and entering the digestion process.

(b) Simple 180◦ wall motion was not and cannot be obtained in these samples by an application
of stress

(c) Liquid crystal inspection is considerably faster and less expensive than the present visual
inspection.

The answers are (b) and (c). Statement (b) actually combines a result (“was not”) with a
conclusion (“cannot”), but it would make an acceptable conclusion.

IS AN OPINION A CONCLUSION?

There also seems to be confusion among some technical authors on the difference between a
conclusion and an opinion. To me, a conclusion is substantiated; an opinion is not. The decision
as to whether the evidence justifies a conclusion can properly be made only by a competent
authority.
Too many opinions are being tailored to fit into the conclusions section of our reports by the
addition of “it seems”, “it appears”, “maybe”, etc. One topic of the next article is how to write a
conditional conclusion properly. . . that is without hedging.

27
Appendix G: How to be objective without hedging

There is no contradiction between being positive and being objective, as is sometimes thought
by the technical author. In fact, being both at once is a consummation devoutly to be wished.
Being objective and positive simultaneously requires sound thinking, honest statement of things
as they are, and strict avoidance of hedging.

Hedging of course means evading the risk of commitment by including “outs” such as:

Apparently, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, it appears, it may be, it is likely, it

seems, the chances are, there is reason to believe.
In some cases an author will employ more than one of these words in a double, or even triple,
hedge:

It seems likely that a double bond could possibly exist between the two atoms.

GOOD CONCLUSIONS HAVE NO "OUTS"

Here are a couple of conclusions which hedge:

For future models it seems reasonable to investigate the feasibility and economics
of designing the cabinet from the beginning with scaling the noise in as one of the
major design criteria.

The improvement in strength of the new "D" microspheres may be primarily due to
better control of sphere size and density parameters.
Such “conclusions” imply that there is a lack of substantiating evidence and that your state-
ments are mere speculations. However, the reader does not really know why you are not sure
enough to say, “For future models, we should investigate. . .” and “The improvement in strength.
. . is due to. . .” Maybe instead of having too few data, you are afraid that your data are
inaccurate? Or perhaps you are merely incapable of making a decision?

28
 If you hedged merely because of the usual limitation on the scope of the study and/or because
the state-of-the-art may change in the near future, why not say so?

This study indicates that we should investigate the feasibility and economics of de-
signing the cabinet tor future models with sealing the noise in as one of the major
design criteria.

On the basis of present information, the improvement in strength of the new “D” mi-
crospheres is primarily due to better control of sphere and density parameters.

IF A, THEN B

Conclusions which say, in effect. “If my data, other cited data and the pertinent physical
axioms are the only bases, then I conclude that. . .” are called conditional or “If A, then B”
conclusions.
Here’s how four scientists successfully handled “If A, then B” conclusions:

Simulation results indicate that a stopping method using acceleration as the control
reference signal was significantly less sensitive to instrument errors than a method
using speed as the control reference signal.

Until more accurate data on the latter phenomena are available, additional efforts
aimed at refinement of the computer program are not necessary.

The voltage waveforms confirm the presence of post arc current during the initial
recovery period.

Our present hypothesis is that imperfections introduced into a crystal lattice impede
the generation of new dislocations, upon which both the twinning and yielding phe-
nomena depend.

If you have several conclusions, instead of explaining the limiting condition in each conclu-
sion, you could preface them with. “The conclusions and recommendations are based upon the
study herein reported and are subject to the limitations in scope of that study.” This sentence
could be the last sentence in the introduction if you have an introduction before your conclusions
and recommendations.

29
 HOW SURE ARE YOU?

When your results are sets of numerical data, you can often help your reader still more by
making a quantitative statement of your confidence in each conclusion:

With 97% confidence, the median of the population of all measurements of break-
down voltage on this patch of oil is greater than 58 kV.

At 4800 rpm, we state, with confidence 97%, that at least 95% of all future stress
measurements made under the conditions of this test will not exceed 4879.

If you are not familiar with this useful technique for measuring the uncertainly of experimen-
tal results, your Mathematics or Statistics Department can advise you.

BE POSITIVE AND OBJECTIVE

Remember, the advantage of properly expressed conditional conclusions is not that they meet
a requirement of English composition but that they present the true situation to the reader. They
are at once positive and objective. If they later prove to be incorrect, there’s no harm, for the
state-of-the-art is always changing and men are after all fallible.

30
Appendix H: To Recommend or Not to Recommend

An earlier article made the point that the difference between a conclusion and an opinion is
the degree of substantiation. Supporting evidence for a conclusion must appear in a report.
A recommendation, on the other hand, is comparable to an opinion in required degree of
substantiation. It suggests a course of action on the basis of not only the results of the study
being reported upon but often other information, such as the writer’s experience or someone
else’s data. When the basis is is the writer’s experience, substantiating evidence generally does
not appear in the report.

WHAT TO RECOMMEND

There are three major types of study which may call for recommendations:

STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Tests and experiments Additional areas for study

2. Field trouble and specific Alternate design approach

design problems

3. Technical feasibility studies Pro or con of new development

and market appraisals

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 Typical examples of the three types of recommendations are:
1. Additional areas for study
Until more accurate data on the latter phenomena are available, additional
efforts aimed at refinement of the computer program do not seem necessary.
Comment: The hedge words “do not seem” should be eliminated in favor of a positive
approach. How about:
Until more accurate data on the latter phenomena are available, we should not
undertake additional efforts aimed at refinement of the computer program.
2. Alternate design approach
It is recommended that the small diameter holes be in a vertical position
where their ID is being plated.
Comment: “It is recommended that” should be changed to eliminate the impersonal
pronoun and to use an active verb. How about:
I recommend that the small diameter holes lie in a vertical position when their
ID is being plated.
3. Pro or con on on new development
Development of glass-ceramic and high modulus glass micro-spheres should
be initiated.
Comment: Good. It is not expected that all verbs be active.

HOW TO RECOMMEND

Note that two styles of recommendation are represented by these examples. The “should”
form and the “I recommend” form. Still a third form not shown is the imperative; e.g. “Do not
undertake addition efforts. . .” or “Locate small diameter holes. . .” Any one of these forms is
acceptable. But be sure to use the same one for all of your recommendations in any one report.

WHEN TO RECOMMEND

Over 200 years ago Thomas Fuller wrote:

“If thou art a person that hast good authority with the company, ’twere good to look
confidently, yet not scornfully, and then mildly say, ‘This is my opinion’.”
The advice still holds, even to the qualification.
If you are relatively inexperienced or a new employee, you may not be expected to supply
opinions and recommendations, but only results and conclusions. You need breadth in the area
under study before your opinions and recommendations are worth much. They are not an integral
part of a report. Be sure to ask your supervisor when in doubt about what is expected of you.

32
 WHERE TO RECOMMEND

Too many recommendations are lost in the discussion section, instead of being up front, where
everyone will see them. If you’re competent enough to write recommendations, you should be
confident enough to put them where they will be read.
Here’s a good report format arranged according to reader interest as established by personal
interviews. This arrangement will ensure that your recommendations will be read:

Abstract or Summary Method of Test, Materials

(or both) of Test, etc. (How?)

Introduction Results
Conclusions Discussion
Recommendations Appendices

33
Appendix I: Pictures Speak Louder than Words

“One picture is worth ten thousand words." Old Chinese proverb

When planning your report, even before you begin to write, you should decide on your illus-
trations. Then, when writing, you can refer to the illustrations in a few concise words instead of
using a detailed discussion, which only slows the reader down. Also, you can put your illustrator
and photographer to work at once to allow them adequate lead time.

PICTURES ELUCIDATE. . . ACCENTUATE. . . VALIDATE

Choose your illustrations for any one of four reasons: to clarify. . . to emphasize. . . to
familiarize. . . to verify.
People understand pictures better than words. Try interpreting the following description with-
out an illustration and when you’ve had enough, look at the drawing on the next page. Give your
reader a break when an explanation becomes unwieldy; substitute a picture for the words, even if
it takes a half hour longer to work up an illustration.

He drew a square and dissected it by a pair of crossed perpendiculars into two

squares and two equal rectangles. Then he drew diagonals in the rectangles, divid-
ing the rectangles into four equal right triangles. Thus the two squares were squares
on the two short sides (legs) of the triangles.
Next he took the four triangles and rearranged them round the original square so that
their right angles filled the corners of thy square and the hypotenuses looked inward.
The short sides of the triangles met on the sides of the square, forming in turn a
square on the hypotenuses of the triangles. Since the four triangles were equal to the
two rectangles of the original dissection, the square on the hypotenuse was equal to
the sum of the two squares into which the rectangle was first dissected.

34
 People look at pictures. Emphasis is the function most often over-looked in planning illus-
trations, yet the likelihood of the reader seeing an illustration is many times greater than that
his reading an explanation. As you pick your main points, always consider the possibility of
emphasizing them through appropriate illustrations.
People not only like to look at pictures but they remember them better than words. This is
because pictures are more concrete than words, and memory is a direct function of concreteness.
So always try to illustrate the points you’d most like the reader to become familiar with and
remember.
People believe photographs. When you need validation and the device is gone or the setup
disassembled, don’t despair. If you have any photograph, it may be made acceptable in the hands
of a clever illustrator. Or, if there is no photograph at all, the illustrator can prepare a line drawing
or rendering which will serve the purpose.

35
 MAKING THE MOST OUT OF YOUR PICTURES

Always use some words of direct reference to illustrations besides the laconic “See Figure
3”. An explanation of what the figure shows and its significance leads the reader to look at it a
second time and examine it more carefully than he otherwise would.
Illustrate as many of your important points as possible. Drawings can sometimes depict basic
mechanisms. You already realize that tables clarify data otherwise presented in sentence form,
but do you always remember that bar charts and graphs clarify tables? In some instances, the
entire central information of a report can be presented as a sequence of figures to which the text
serves as commentary.
When planning the location of illustrations, it is advisable to keep the number of illustrations
in the body of the report one half of the total number of pages. In this way, the illustration will
either face the pertinent text or follow on the next page. Also, the reader is more likely to look at
every illustration than if you include several continuous pages of graphs and photographs.
When you have more illustrations than the number of pages of text, consider placing those of
lesser importance in an appendix of additional results.

CAPTIONS, COPYRIGHTS AND OTHER MATTERS

Here are a few other tips on illustrations:

• Give every figure a short but specific caption to make it self-sufficient.

• Place the figures in the order in which they are mentioned in the text.

• Whenever possible, place the figures on the page so that the reader can study them without
turning the page. This is sometimes termed “right reading” position.

• Observe the margins established by the text.

• Acknowledge any illustration taken from a copyrighted source. It is not necessary to obtain
permission to use an illustration when it is clear that its use cannot impair the value of the
original by decreasing the demand for that work. That is considered fair use.

36
Appendix J: Report Writing Checklist
I. Conduct the investigation in such a way that the report writing will be as easy as possible.

A. Determine the purpose of the work to he reported.

1. Who wants to have the work done?
2. Why does he want it?
3. How will he use the information?
4. Does this reader make any special demands?
5. Who else will see the report?
6. How will these other readers use the information?
B. Determine the nature and extent of the investigation.
1. What is known and what is unknown?
2. Which aspects of the problem are important, and which are less significant?
3. Do any previous studies or reports bear in the problem?
4. Can anyone provide useful information?
5. What order should the investigation follow?
C. Write an outline of what is to be done. Delineate in detail the information that must
be obtained.
D. As the work proceeds, keep a neat, accurate and complete record of the experimental
results, of any unusual aspects of the procedure, and of any ideas or conclusions
which may occur to you. Do not entrust these matters to memory. The record should
constitute a sort of diary. If often helps to “break the ice” when the time comes to
write the report.

II. Organize the report.

A. Select a main idea. This should be a single sentence which states the essence of what
the report should communicate to the readers. (What should the reader be able to
remember from the report after he has forgotten the details?) If you cannot write this
sentence at this point, do so as soon as possible and start instead by classifying the
material.
B. Determine what parts of the material should be reported and what parts should be
dismissed as irrelevant to the main idea.
C. Determine what information can be placed in appendices.
D. Select the illustrations (including tables).
E. Outline the report into sections supporting the main idea. Include all headings and
subheadings insofar as they can be foreseen. List the appendices and the illustrations.

III. Prepare a rough draft of all missing tables, graphs, photographs and other illustrations.

IV. Prepare and arrange the appendices.

37
 V. Write the first draft of the report. Be sure to leave every second line blank and to use
generous margins so that room will be available for revisions and corrections.
A. Begin with whatever chapter of the report is most familiar to you. Do not feel that
the abstract and introduction must be written first merely because they will appear
first in the final report. In the text, be sure to discuss the tables, graphs, illustrations,
etc., whenever they will clarify the writing. The body of the report may be written as
follows:
1. Describe the theory, research equipment and materials tested, insofar as those are
significant to the investigation and meaningful to the reader. (If any of this infor-
mation is not of great importance, it may be omitted or placed in the appendices.)
2. Describe the experimental procedure.
3. Record the results.
4. Discuss, evaluate and interpret the results. (This section should explain the rea-
soning behind the conclusions and recommendations.)
5. If necessary, discuss costs and suggest further advisable investigation.
B. Write the conclusions, the recommendations (if any) and the introduction.
VI. Assemble the first draft and check its contents with the outline.
A. Arrange the parts in the following order:
Abstract
Introduction
Conclusions
Recommendations (if any)
Other chapters, such as procedure, results, discussion, etc.
Appendices (if any)
B. Make certain that every heading in the outline appears in its proper position in the
text.
C. Write additional material if the outline shows that anything essential has been over-
looked.
VII. Revise the first draft for technical accuracy, completeness and emphasis.
A. Check the report against the main idea to determine whether the draft has the proper
emphasis.
B. Look for any “holes” in the facts or in the technical reasoning from the facts.
C. Make certain that enough detailed facts are given to justify the conclusions.
D. Make certain that the information in the report does not include irrelevant detail which
obscures the important points.
E. Get rid of any unnecessary repetition or overlapping of technical information.
F. Make certain that the figures are adequately discussed and that the comments on them
are accurate. Be sure that your references are more helpful than the stereotyped “See
Figure 3”.

38
VIII. When the first draft is technically satisfactory, read it through three times in order to im-
prove the writing. Try to see the report through the eyes of its readers.

A. First, read it from beginning to end without stopping (or pause only to put checks
in the margin to indicate points which must later be considered more carefully) in
order to sense the continuity or “flow”) of the writing. Add any necessary transitional
material, or remove any “blocking” material.
B. Second, read each sentence carefully and revise where necessary.
1. Make certain that every paragraph begins with a sentence that clearly states the
over-all point of the paragraph.
2. Look for poor grammar and ineffectual punctuation.
3. Look for unnecessary wordiness.
4. Look for inaccurate words.
5. Look for pompous or unfamiliar words.
6. Look for abstract words which could be made more definite.
7. Make certain that the specific action of every statement is expressed by the main
verb.
8. Make certain that the conventions of formal technical style have been observed.
C. Third, read the report again from beginning to end to make certain that the revisions
have not spoiled the continuity.

39