CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

Conditional Statement – a statement that can be written as an “if-then” statement

Example: If today is Saturday, then we don’t have to go to school.

Hypothesis – the part of the conditional following the word “if” (underline once).
“today is Saturday” is the hypothesis.

Conclusion – the part of the conditional following the word “then” (underline twice).
“we don’t have to go to school” is the conclusion.

Notation – Conditional statement: p → q, where

P is the hypothesis and

Q is the conclusion.

Examples: Identify the hypothesis and conclusion:

1. If I want to buy a book, then I need some money.
2. If today is Thursday, then tomorrow is Friday.
3. Call your parents if you are running late.

To write a statement as a conditional, identify the sentence’s hypothesis and conclusion by figuring out which part of the
statement depends on the other.

Examples: Write a conditional statement:

Two angles that are complementary are acute
If two angles are complementary, then they are acute.
Even numbers are divisible by 2.
If a number is even, then it is divisible by 2.

As we saw with inductive reasoning, to prove a conjecture false, you just have to come up with a counterexample.

 The hypothesis must be the same as the conjectures and the conclusion is different.

Example: Write a counterexample to the statement, “if a quadrilateral has four right angles, then it is a square.”

A counterexample would be a quadrilateral that has four right angles (true hypothesis) but is not a square (different
conclusion). So a rectangle would work.

Each of the conjectures is false. What would be a counterexample?

If I get presents, then today is my birthday.
A counterexample would be a day that I get presents (true hyp.) that isn’t my birthday (different conc.), such as
Christmas.
If Noel is playing football tonight, then today is Friday.
Noel plays football (true hyp.) on days other than Friday (diff. conc.), such as games on Thursday.

Examples: Determine if each conditional is true. If false, give a counterexample.

1. If your zip code is 76012, then you live in Texas.
True
2. If a month has 28 days, then it is February.
September also has 28 days, which proves the conditional false.

Negation of P – “not p”

Notation: p

Example: The negation of the statement “Blue is my favorite color,” is “Blue is not my favorite color.”

Related Conditionals Symbols

Conditional p →q
Converse q →p
Inverse p →q
Contrapositive q →p
Example: Write the conditional, converse, inverse and contrapositive of the statement:

“A cat is an animal with four paws.”

Type Statement
Conditional (p →q) If an animal is a cat, then it has four paws.
Converse (q →p) If an animal has four paws, then it is a cat.
Inverse ( p → q) If an animal is not a cat, then it does not have four paws
Contrapositive ( q → p) If an animal does not have four paws, then it is not a cat

Example: Write the conditional, converse, inverse and contrapositive of the statement:

“When n2 = 144, n = 12”

Type Statement Truth Value

Conditional (p →q) If n2 = 144, then n = 12 F (n = -12)
Converse (q →p) If n = 12, then n2 = 144 T
Inverse ( p → q) If n2 ≠ 144, then n ≠ 12 T
Contrapositive ( If n ≠ 12, then n2 ≠ 144 F (n = -12)
q → p)

Biconditional – a statement whose conditional and converse are both true. It is written as “p if and only if q”, “p iff q”, or
“p↔ q”

To write the conditional statement and converse within the biconditional, first identify the hypothesis and conclusion,
then write p →q and q →p.

A solution is a base iff it has a pH greater than 7.

p →q: if a solution is a base, then it has a pH greater than 7.
q →p: if a solution has a pH greater than 7, then it is a base.

Writing a biconditional statement:

1. Identify the hypothesis and conclusion

2. Write the hypothesis, “if and only if”, and the conclusion.

Example: Write the converse and biconditional from:

If 4x + 3 = 11, then x = 2.
Converse: If x = 2, then 4x + 3 = 11
Biconditional: 4x + 3 = 11 iff x = 2.

VALID AND INVALID ARGUMENTS

Argument - An argument is a sequence of statements.

Argument Form - An argument form is a sequence of statement forms.

Premises - All statements in an argument and all statement forms in an argument form are called premises except for
the last one.

Conclusion - The final statement or statement form is called the conclusion.

Valid - If an argument form is valid that means no matter what particular statements are substituted for the statement
variable in its premises, if the resulting premises are all true, then the conclusion is true.

Testing an Argument for Validity

Identify the premises and conclusion of the argument form.

Construct a truth table showing the truth values of all the premises and the conclusion.

A row of the truth table in which all the premises are true is called a critical row.

A. If there is a critical row in which the conclusion is false, the argument form is invalid
 B. If the conclusion in every row is true, then the argument form is valid.

Example. Use truth tables to show that the following forms of arguments are invalid.

p →q
p
Therefore q
Premises Conclusion
p q p →q
p q
1 T T
2 T F

3 F T
4 F F

Valid Arguments Forms

The table below summarizes the rules of inference.

Name Example Name Example

Modus p →q Elimination p˅q
Ponens (mode p
that affirms) therefore, p
q Therefore, p
Modus p →q Transitivity p →q
Tollens (mode q →r
that denies) q therefore,
Therefore, p →r

p
Generalization p Proof by p →q
Therefore, division p →r
p˅q into cases q →r
therefore, r
Specialization p˄q
therefore,
p
Conjunction P
Q
Therefore,
p˄q

Examples

For the next three examples, use truth tables to show that the argument forms referred to are valid. Indicate which
column represents the premises and which represent the conclusion, and include a sentence explaining how the truth
table supports your answer. Your explanation should show that you understand what it means for a form of an
argument to be valid.

p ˄ q, therefore q

Premises Conclusion
p q p˄q q
1 T T
 2 T F
3 F T
4 F F

Example
p˅q
p, therefore q
Premises Conclusion
p q p˅q ~p q
1 T T
2 T F
3 F T
4 F F

Example
p˅q
p →r
q →r
therefore r

p q r p˅q p →r q →r r
1 T T T
2 T T F
3 T F T
4 T F F
5 F T T
6 F T F
7 F F T
8 F F F
Fallacies – Converse Error

This claim is most simply put as

p →q
q
therefore, p

It's a fallacy because at no point is it shown that p is the only possible cause of q; therefore, even if q is true, p can still
be false.

Example:

 If my car was Ferrari, it would be able to travel at over a hundred miles per hour.

 I clocked my car at 101 miles per hour.

Therefore my car is a Ferrari.

Here the fallacy is fairly obvious; given the evidence, the car might be a Ferrari, but it might also be a Bugatti,
Lamborghini, or any other model of performance car, since the ability to travel that fast is not unique to Ferraris.

Fallacies – Inverse Error

This claim is most simply put as

p →q
p
Therefore, q
It's a fallacy because replacement is not allowed because a conditional statement is not logically equivalent to its
inverse.

Example

 If I hit my professor with a cream pie, he will flunk me.

  I will not hit my professor with a cream pie.

Therefore he will not flunk me.

Again, it is intuitively obvious that this reasoning does not work. While many professors may consider being nailed with
a cream pie a sufficient reason to assign a grade of "F" to a student, there are an overwhelming number of other reasons
for which you might flunk (cheating, not studying, not showing up for tests, etc.).

Example

The argument might be valid or it might exhibit the converse or inverse error. Use symbols to write the logical form of
each argument. If the argument is valid, identify the rule of inference that guarantees its validity. Otherwise, state
whether the converse or inverse error is made.

 If this computer program is correct, then it produces the correct output when run with the test data my teacher
gave me.

 This computer program produces the correct output when run with the test data my teacher gave me.

Therefore, this computer program is correct.

2.3 Valid and Invalid Arguments

SET THEORY
SET
 A set is any collection of objects specified in such a way that we can determine whether a given object is or is not in the
collection
 In other words A set is a collection of objects
 These objects are called elements or members of the set

The following points are noted while writing a set.

 Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, S, etc. The elements of a set are usually denoted by small letters a, b, t, u, etc.
Examples: A = {a, b, d, 2, 4}
B = {math, religion, literature, computer science}

HISTORY OF SET
 The theory of set was developed by German mathematician Georg Cantor (1845 – 1918). A single paper, however, founded
set theory, in 1874 by Georg Cantor: “On a Characteristic Property of All Real Algebraic Numbers”.
 He first encountered sets while working on “problems on trigonometric series”
 Cantor published a six – part treatise on set theory from the years 1879 to 1884. This work appears in Mathematische
Annalen and it was a brave move by the editor to publish the work despite a growing opposition to Cantor’s ideas.
 The next wave of excitement in set theory came around 1900, when it was discovered that Cantorian set theory gave rise to
several contradictions
 Bertrand Russell and Ernst Zermelo independently found the simplest and best known paradox, now called Russell’s
Paradox: consider “the set of all sets that are not members of themselves”.
 The ultimate paradox was found by Russell in 1902 (and found independently by Zermelo). It simplify defined a set A = {X|
X is not a member of X}
 Russell used his paradox as a theme in his 1903 review of continental mathematics in his The Principles of Mathematics
 Zermelo in 1908 was the first to attempt an axiomatisation of set theory
 Godel showed, in 1940, that the axiom of Choice cannot be disproved using the other

DENOTING A SET AS AN OBJECT

Where it is desirable to refer to a set as an indivisible entity, one typically denotes it by a single capital letter. By convention,
particular symbols are reserved for the most important sets of numbers:

∅ - Empty set
∁ - Complex Numbers
N – Natural Numbers

Q – RaTional Numbers (from quotient)

R – Real Numbers

Z – Integers (from Zahl, German for Integer)

 TYPES OF SETS
 Empty Sets – a set that contains no members is callrd empty set or null set. The empty set is written as { } or ∅
 Finite Set – a set is finite if it consists of a definite number of different elements
If W be the set of people living in a town, then W is finite.
 Infinite Set – an infinite is a set that is not a finite set. Infinite sets may be countable or uncountable
The set of all integers, {…, -1, 0, 1, 2, …} is a count ably infinite set
 Equal Set – are sets which have the same members
If P = {1, 2, 3}, Q = {2, 1, 3}, R = (3, 2, 1} then P =Q = R
 Subsets – sets which are the part of another set are called subsets of the original set.
For example, If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 2} then B is a subset of A it is represented by ⊂
 Power Set – if A is any set then one set of all are subset of set A that it is called a power set
Example: if S is the set of {x, y, z} the power set S is [{}, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}]
 Universal Set – is a set which contains all objects, including itself.
Example: A = {12345678} B = {1357} C = {2468} D = {2367}. Here A is a universal set and is denoted by U

OPERATION OF SETS

UNION OF SET

 The union of two sets would be wrote as A ∪ B, which is the set of elements that are members of A or B, or both too.

Example:

S1 S2 S1 ∪ B

sid sname rating age sid sname rating age

22
28 dustin
yuppy 97 45.0
35.0 22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 28 yuppy 9 35.0
58
44 rusty
guppy 510 35.0 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0 44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0

INTERSECTION OF SET

 Intersection are written as A ∩ B, is the set of elements that are in A and B.

Example:

S1 S2 S1 ∩ B

sid sname rating age

22
31
28 dustin
lubber
yuppy 897 45.0
55.5
35.0
58
31 rusty
lubber 10
8 35.0
55.5
58
44 rusty
guppy 510 35.0 COMPLEMENTS
58 rusty 10 35.0
 If A is any set which is the subset of a given universal set then its complement
is the set which contains all the elements that are in but not in A.

S1 S2 S1 – S2

sid sname rating age

22
28 dustin
yuppy 79 45.0
35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58
44 rusty
guppy 510 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
VENN DIAGRAM

 Venn Diagrams are named after an English logician, John

Venn
 It is a method of visualizing sets using various shapes
 These diagrams consist of rectangles and circles

----------------------------------------------------------- End of
Lesson 5 ---------------------------------------------------------
 LOGIC AND SET THEORY
Name: ____________________ Date: May 04, 2020
Section: ____________________ Score: __________

THE SET THEORY

Activity 4
Problem:

Out of Forty students, 14 are taking English Composition and 29 are taking Chemistry.

a. if five students are in both classes, how many students are in neither class?

b. How many are in either class?

c. what is the probability that a randomly chosen student from this group is taking only the Chemistry class?

LESSON 6: SET IDENTITIES

IDENTITY LAW

A ∩U =A A ∪ ∅= A
DOMINATION LAW

A ∪ U=U A ∩∅=∅
IDEMPOTENT LAW

A ∪ A= A A ∩ A=A
COMPLEMENTATION LAW
´
( A)= A
COMMUTATIVE LAWS

A ∪ B=B ∪ A A ∩ B=B ∩ A
ASSOCIATIVE LAWS

A ∪ ( B ∪ C )=( A ∪ B ) ∪C A ∩ ( B∩ C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∩C
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS

A ∪ ( B ∩C )=( A ∪ B ) ∩( A ∪C) A ∩ ( B∪ C )=( A ∩ B ) ∪( A ∩C)

DE MORGAN’S LAWS
´ B= Á ∩ B́
A∪ ´ B= Á ∪ B́
A∩
(The compliment of the intersection of 2 sets is the union of the compliments of these sets)
ABSORPTION LAWS

A ∪ ( A ∩B )= A A ∩ ( A ∪ B )= A
COMPLEMENT LAWS

A ∪ Á=U A ∩ Á=∅
PROVING SET IDENTITIES
Different Ways to Prove Set Identities:
1. Prove each set (side of the identity) is a subset of the other
2. Use set builder notation and propositional logic
3. Membership Tables: Verify that elements in the same combination of sets always either belong or do not belong to the
same side of the identity. Use 1 to indicate it is in the set and 0to indicate that it is not.