BIOFUEL PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

S Moodley

UNDERGRADUATE SEMINAR

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of BSc Eng

Bioresources Engineering

School of Engineering

University of KwaZulu-Natal

Pietermaritzburg

November 2020
 PREFACE

I, Sajayen Moodley declare that:

(a) The research reported in this document, except where otherwise indicated, is my
original work.
(b) This document has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other
university.
(c) This document does not contain text, data, figures, pictures, graphs or tables from
another document, unless it is specifically acknowledged as being sourced the original
document. Where other sources have been quoted, then:
(i) their words have been paraphrased/re-written, and the general information
attributed to them has been referenced, and
(ii) where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside
quotation marks, and referenced.
(d) Where I have reproduced a publication, of which I am an author, co-author or editor, I
have indicated, in detail, which part of the publication was actually written by myself
alone and I have fully referenced such publications.
(e) This document does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the
Internet, unless they are specifically acknowledged and the source is detailed, both in
the document and in the References section.

Signed: Sajayen Moodley Date: 26/11/2020

ii
 ABSTRACT

The establishment of a biofuels sector in South Africa is key to improving the energy supply
and the alleviation of poverty. South Africa not only has many viable sources for biomass
feedstock such as; maize, sugarcane, sorghum and organic waste; but it also has a well-
developed infrastructure. Currently in South Africa, simple forms of biofuels are used
extensively in rural areas by means of direct combustion. Most forms of biofuels are
produced by biochemical and thermochemical processes. The most popular application of
biofuels is found in the transport sector in the forms of bioethanol and biodiesel. Biogas is
another biofuel with the potential to decrease South Africa’s reliance on fossil-based fuels for
the generation of electricity. Investing in biofuels poses possible challenges of decreased food
security, environmental degradation and socio-economic concerns. South African
government has been active in exploring the biofuels sector through policy-making.
However, many of these policies have stalled due to issues raised by key stakeholders. South
African government has the means and motivation to push for the development of a biofuels
sector. Stakeholders and policy-makers should use the delays to conduct further research to
develop solutions to the challenges raised by developing biofuels. This will help to push out
these policies and mandates faster.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................iii

LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................vi

LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................vii

1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1

1.1 Structure of the Seminar Paper................................................................................2

2. BIOMASS RESOURCES IN SOUTH AFRICA.............................................................3

2.1 Crop Feedstocks.......................................................................................................3

2.1.1 Sugarcane.....................................................................................................3

2.1.2 Maize............................................................................................................4

2.1.3 Sorghum.......................................................................................................4

2.2 Food Waste and Other Waste...................................................................................4

3. BIOFUEL PROCESSING................................................................................................5

3.1 Biochemical Processes.............................................................................................5

3.1.1 Anaerobic digestion......................................................................................5

3.1.2 Fermentation.................................................................................................6

3.2 Thermochemical Processes......................................................................................7

3.2.1 Pyrolysis.......................................................................................................7

3.2.2 Gasification..................................................................................................8

4. APPLICATION, OPPORTUNITIES, AND CHALLENGES FOR BIOFUEL IN

SOUTH AFRICA.............................................................................................................9

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 4.1 Applications of Biofuels..........................................................................................9

4.1.1 Bioethanol....................................................................................................9

4.1.2 Biodiesel.......................................................................................................9

4.1.3 Biogas.........................................................................................................10

4.2 Opportunities for Biofuel Adoption in South Africa.............................................10

4.2.1 Sources.......................................................................................................10

4.2.2 Production of renewable energy.................................................................11

4.2.3 Rural development.....................................................................................11

4.2.4 Job creation.................................................................................................11

4.3 Challenges Facing the Adoption of Biofuels in South Africa................................11

4.3.1 Food security..............................................................................................12

4.3.2 Environmental impact................................................................................12

4.3.3 Socio-economic implications.....................................................................12

4.3.4 Biofuels policies.........................................................................................13

5. DISCUSSION.................................................................................................................14

6. CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................15

7. REFERENCES...............................................................................................................16

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1 Most produced commodities in South Africa from 2010 to 2018 (FAO,
2020)........................................................................................................................3

Figure 3.1 Common batch digester (Marchaim, 1992).............................................................5

Figure 3.2 Ethanol production from sugars and starch (Chen et al., 2018)..............................6

Figure 3.3 Bio-oil producion by pyrolysis (Zafar, 2009).........................................................8

Figure 3.4 Updraught gasifier (Kjellström et al., 1986)...........................................................8

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 LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 4.1 Relevent biofuel energy policies in South Africa (after Prasad, 2010).................13

vii
 1. INTRODUCTION

The world is predominantly reliant on non-renewable resources for energy. Overdependence

on fossil-based fuels escalate the negative impacts of climate change. Thus, more focus
should be put on developing sustainable energy sources to mitigate climate change. More
emphasis has recently been placed on reusing, recycling, and processing more biomass into
biofuel to promote a sustainable future (Bisaria et al., 2014).

Biofuels can be used to reduce the dependence on fossil-based fuels and products. Biofuels is
a renewable energy source that is becoming more popular as a sustainable method to meet the
demand for clean energy. Biofuels produced from; biomass specifically grown for fuel, waste
feedstock from plants and animals, and municipal solid waste. Sources of biomass include
agricultural crops such as sugarcane, soy beans and maize and associated residue, as well as
organic waste materials mainly municipal solid waste and food waste (Duku et al., 2011).
These materials are referred to as feedstocks in bio-refining and can be classified as first,
second, third, and fourth generation biomass feedstocks (Dutta et al., 2014).

The most popular biofuels are bioethanol and biodiesel (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014).
Bioethanol and biodiesel are popular for their use as a fuel source in cars and in electricity
generation. Bioethanol can be used independently in motor vehicles but it is usually mixed
with regular petrol in order to increase the octane rating of petrol while improving the quality
of emissions (Foong et al., 2014). The same can be done with biodiesel to increase the cetane
number (Hassan and Kalam, 2013). Biogas is another type of biofuel. Biogas is rich in
methane and easy to source on a commercial and household level (Ishola et al., 2013).

Research and development in biofuels will lower the reliance on oil-producing countries.
Both of these will increase the stability of the economy since the global oil market is highly
volatile and biofuel development will result in the job creation (NBTT, 2006). Biofuel
production supports the economy through job creation and a possible source of additional
income (Demirbas, 2008). Although biofuels have advantages; food security, increased
greenhouse gases and adequate infrastructure have been highlighted as the concerns for
biofuels (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). The potential impact on food security is due to
competition with food crops, the loss of biodiversity and arable land, environmental
degradation, high infrastructure costs and integration with the national grid (Pradhan and
Mbohwa, 2014).

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South Africa is riddled with an insufficient and unstable supply of electricity. The country’s
energy supply can be extended and diversified through the integration of biofuels. Biofuels
can lower the pollution levels and the need to import fossil-fuels. In 2012, South Africa was
the largest consumer of energy in Africa (Dudley, 2013). The CO2 emissions from South
Africa accounts for 40% of the total emissions from Africa’s (EIA, 2017). This is due to a
large dependence on coal-fired power stations and industrial processes within the country
(EIA, 2017). Therefore, it is necessary to move to more renewable and environmentally
sustainable sources of energy. Despite the government recognising this, legislature
surrounding biofuels has stalled due to many concerns (Ben-Iwo et al., 2016).

The aim of this report is to develop a basic understanding of biofuels and their applications.
The specific objectives are to:

i. investigate potential sources and feedstocks of biofuels that are readily available in
South Africa,
ii. determine the types of biofuels, their respective processing and viability,
iii. determine the applications of biofuels as an energy source and a commodity, and
iv. evaluate the concerns surrounding biofuels and food security and methods to address
them.

1.1 Structure of the Seminar Paper

Chapter 1 introduces the seminar topic and outlines the objectives of the report. Chapter 2
highlights the types of feedstocks that are available and viable within South Africa. Chapter 3
describes the techniques in processing and refining biofuels. Chapter 4 focuses on the uses of
biofuels in South Africa and any issues arising from the use of biofuel. Chapter 5 provides a
summary of the report.

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 2. BIOMASS RESOURCES IN SOUTH AFRICA

Biofuels are the solid, liquid and gas fuels produced from biomass. The etymological
definition of biomass means living matter, however the term is mostly used to describe the
materials derived from plant and animal tissue (Demirbas, 2008).

2.1 Crop Feedstocks

Sugarcane, cassava, sorghum and maize are sources that are rich in starch hence can
specifically be grown for feedstock (Huber et al., 2006). Sugarcane, cereals, maize and fruit
are the major crops produced in South Africa as shown in Figure 2.1 based on the statistics
from the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO, 2020).

Figure 2.1 Most produced commodities in South Africa from 2010 to 2018 (FAO, 2020)

2.1.1 Sugarcane

Using sugarcane to make ethanol is the most popular alternative to fossil fuels as it
significantly reduces the emissions of greenhouse gases (Ben-Iwo et al., 2016). Ethanol can
be produced using both the sugarcane and bagasse and may even be made from malt sugar
formed from the production of sugar crystals (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). South Africa is
already a huge producer of sugarcane (Figure 2.1) and has many established mills. Sugar
companies manufacture ethanol from sugarcane for uses such as alcohol on a limited scale
but not for biofuel (Prasad, 2010).

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1.1.1 Maize

Maize is a common feedstock that is high in starch and relatively easy to convert to ethanol
for ethanol production. Maize-based ethanol is expected to decrease greenhouse gas
emissions by 40% worldwide (Hayes, 2009). Maize would thrive as a feedstock for
bioethanol in South Africa since it is abundant, as shown in Figure 2.1, and water
conservative (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). Over the years, the area under maize cultivation
in South Africa has decreased while yield per unit area has almost doubled (Pradhan and
Mbohwa, 2014). Maize is an export crop so evaluation would be needed to determine if
surplus maize should be utilised for biofuel production or export.

1.1.2 Sorghum

Sorghum is regarded as an effective feedstock for the production of biofuel because the crop
has fermentable sugars that are easily accessible. Therefore, it is not necessary to
enzymatically convert starch to sugar, which grants sorghum a competitive advantage over
other starch-based crops (Ben-Iwo et al., 2016). In the past, sorghum was grown abundantly,
but production has declined as demand for sorghum decreased (Energy, 2013).

1.2 Food Waste and Other Waste

Food waste is generated throughout the food supply chain from primary agricultural activities
to manufacturing processes and then consumer level. Much of this organic waste ends up in
landfill sites. Organic waste usually includes sugars, carbohydrates and other organic material
(Ben-Iwo et al., 2016). Environmental contamination is caused by wastewater from the food
industry due to it being rich in nitrates resulting in eutrophication when washed into nearby
water sources (Ben-Iwo et al., 2016). Food waste comprises of urban waste (i.e. municipal
solid waste) and industrial waste. Food waste can be anaerobically digested for biogas
production, fermented for ethanol production and biodiesel by transesterification of fatty food
waste and used cooking oils (Shuang and Yang, 2016). Biogas is produced by the anaerobic
treatment of any biomass and is scalable. The manufacturing process generates methane
which can be used for heating and producing electricity. Methane is regarded as a significant
source of GHG from garbage deposited in dumpsites (Shuang and Yang, 2016). Liquid
fertiliser is also extracted which is a precious asset (Ishola et al., 2013).

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 2. BIOFUEL PROCESSING

About 97 % of total bioenergy is harnessed by direct combustion. It is the most prevalent

method of harvesting fuel. Several kinds of biomass sources can be used for direct
combustion, but this conversion method is not used for the production of biofuels or biogases
(Elbehri et al., 2013). The co-firing technique of biomass feedstock and a fossil fuel is a
modern method that allows for an economically viable and accessible entry point into the
energy industry and is a gain since the production of electricity is an output. (FAO, 1995).
Most biofuels are produced using biochemical and thermochemical processes.

2.1 Biochemical Processes

Biochemical processes use micro-organisms to breakdown the feedstocks. Three key

components may be used to describe biomass composition: cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin (Simonyan and Fasina, 2013). Two major pathways of biochemical conversion
are anaerobic digestion and ethanol fermentation.

2.1.1 Anaerobic digestion

In anaerobic digestion, bacteria convert high-moisture content biomass by breaking them

down enzymatically which releases a methane-rich biogas, carbon dioxide and residues of
other gases such as hydrogen sulphide. The reaction takes place in the absence of oxygen
(Simonyan and Fasina, 2013). Figure 3.1 is an illustration of a simple batch digester.
Feedstock is crushed and fed into an anaerobic digester with the most desirable feedstocks
being cereals, sugarcane and animal effluent (Marchaim, 1992). The leftover materials from
the fermentation process make for a good fertiliser as the biomass feedstock loses little of its
nitrogen during the digestion process (FAO, 1995).

Figure 3.2 Common batch digester (Marchaim, 1992)

5
2.1.2 Fermentation

Fermentation is an anaerobic process that is enzymatically controlled. The raw materials

needed for fermentation are sugars or starchy substances such as maize (Ben-Iwo et al.,
2016). Before fermentation, raw biomass undergoes pre-treatment and is then hydrolysed.
The purpose of pre-treatment is to increase the biomass surface area, lower the crystallinity of
the cellulose, remove the hemicellulose, and break the bonds of the lignin (Ben-Iwo et al.,
2016). This is done by a multitude of processes such as: (a) dilution to speed up fermentation,
(b) sedimentation to prevent clogging of pipes, (c) salt removal to keep osmotic pressure low,
and (d) microfiltration to remove the impurities that can hinder the reaction (Chen et al.,
2018)..

The bioethanol production process begins with the milling of the feedstocks to produce a
homogenous substrate. Water is added while heat is applied in a process called liquefaction to
remove bacteria. Saccharification adds enzymes, such as glucoamylase, which converts the
liquefied remains into fermentable sugars. The alcohol is then extracted from the mixture and
distilled to remove excess water (Chen et al., 2018). These processes are illustrated in Figure
3.2. The resulting recoverable products are alcohols and organic acids. More specifically,
ethanol is the most desirable product from these reactions but research is being conducted
into the viability of the other products for bioenergy and bioproducts. The major
advancements in fermentation techniques make ethanol production economically
efficient and environmentally friendly. Especially when used as a fuel replacement and fuel
enhancer (FAO, 1995).

Figure 3.3 Ethanol production from sugars and starch (Chen et al., 2018)

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2.2 Thermochemical Processes

Thermochemical conversion systems require more intense temperatures than those used in
biochemical conversion (Bisaria et al., 2014). These production treatments do not directly
generate useful energy in itself but rather use the biomass feedstock under controlled
conditions to turn it into more suitable types of gas or oil (FAO, 1995). The main
thermochemical processes are pyrolysis and gasification.

2.2.1 Pyrolysis

Biomass feedstock undergoes treatment at elevated temperatures and low levels of oxygen

thus reducing the optimum combustion reaction. Pyrolysis is typically carried out under
pressure (Simonyan and Fasina, 2013). There are three compounds formed by the process:
liquid fraction (e.g. bio-oil), solid fraction (e.g. ash) and gaseous fraction (e.g. CO 2, under
certain conditions) (Ben-Iwo et al., 2016). A common use of pyrolysis is the conversion of
biomass into solid residue and small quantities of liquid and gases. The solid residue is
organic and generally constituted of ash and carbon.

Depending on the processing times and temperatures of biomasses, there are three types of
pyrolytic reactions: (a) slow pyrolysis, (b) flash pyrolysis, and (c) fast pyrolysis. Slow
pyrolysis is described by low temperatures, slow biomass heating rates and long residence
times. Throughout this process as the biomass is slowly liquefied, tar and char are released
(Cheriyadath, 2020). Flash pyrolysis occurs rapidly with heating rates averaging between
400°C and 600°C. Flash pyrolysis produces lesser amounts of gas and tar when compared to
slow pyrolysis (Cheriyadath, 2020). Fast pyrolysis is used for bio-oil and gas production and
this process is illustrated in Figure 3.3. In this process, depending on the required amount of
bio-oil or gas products, the biomass is rapidly heated to temperatures between 650°C and
100°C (Cheriyadath, 2020). Some advantages of pyrolysis include being a simple and cheap
technology for processing, reduces waste-to-landfill and GHGs and reduces risk of water
pollution (Cheriyadath, 2020). The disadvantages include the complexity of the products
compared to other treatments and it is impossible to directly vent the product gases into the
cabin without further treatment (Serio et al., 2001).

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Figure 3.4 Bio-oil producion by pyrolysis (Zafar, 2009)

2.2.2 Gasification

Gasification is the partial oxidation, at high temperatures, of biomass into a combustible gas
blend known as "syngas" (Simonyan and Fasina, 2013). The accessibility and conversion
efficiency of the feedstocks make gasification extremely attractive (FAO, 1995). Drying is
the removal of moisture in the biomass as all moisture must be removed before moving onto
following processes. Combustion directly contributes to all of the heat that drives drying,
pyrolysis and reduction. Reduction deals with the stripping of the oxygen atoms from
combustion products in order break down molecules into forms that can burn again (Zafar,
2009). Advantages of gasification include it being economically and environmentally
friendly. The disadvantages include the possibility of operational and environmental
problems due to the release of tars, heavy metals, halogens and alkaline compounds (Admire,
2015). Heavy metals, which are toxic and will accumulate if exposed to the environment
(Zafar, 2009). Figure 3.4 depicts one type of gasifier called an updraught gasifier due to the
air entering from the bottom of the system.

Figure 3.5 Updraught gasifier (Kjellström et al., 1986)

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 3. APPLICATION, OPPORTUNITIES, AND CHALLENGES FOR
BIOFUEL IN SOUTH AFRICA

The introduction of a biofuels sector in South Africa is dependent on many factors such as
government policies, economic feasibility, and environmental and socio-economic impacts.
The government of South Africa has been engaged in studying the biofuels sector and policy-
making (Prasad, 2010). However, due to concerns posed by key stakeholders, these initiatives
have stalled (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). The most common use of biofuels in the
transportation industry is in the form of bioethanol and biodiesel (Ben-Iwo et al., 2016). The
applications, opportunities and concerns for biofuels in South Africa are discussed in the
following sections.

3.1 Applications of Biofuels

Both biofuels and conventional fossil-based fuels have a wide variety of applications.
However, the popular applications are ethanol for bioethanol and biodiesel production
(Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). Bioethanol and biodiesel can be used in vehicles and gas
turbines for the generation of power. Biogas is favoured for its ease of use in household
applications which can even then be extended to electricity generation.

3.1.1 Bioethanol

Through anaerobic fermentation, bioethanol is produced from sources, such as sugarcane,

maize, cassava and wheat (Hassan and Kalam, 2013).  Bioethanol can be used in motor
vehicles as a fuel source, but it is typically combined with petrol to improve octane ratings
thus enhancing emission efficiency (Foong et al., 2014). It is easy to blend about 30% ethanol
with petrol so that it may be used with current engines. Higher mixes may require engine
modification. Adding ethanol to petrol has a beneficial impact on air quality in heavily
polluted areas (Ishola et al., 2013). Bioethanol is mostly looked at in the context of being
mixed with petrol to form a hybrid mixture for the use in vehicles. Its use can also be
extended to fuel for electricity generation, feedstocks in the chemical industry and fuel cells
for thermochemical processes (Pirolini, 2015).

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3.1.2 Biodiesel

Biodiesel is produced by a thermochemical process such as the transesterification process

(Hassan and Kalam, 2013). Biodiesel, being a form of diesel, has the same applications of
fossil-based diesel but with more benefits. The major benefit being the higher cetane number
of biodiesel (Hassan and Kalam, 2013). A high cetane number is associated with faster
engine start and smoother combustion. A lower number of cetane suggests greater
degradation in combustion activity and greater emissions of exhaust gas. Biodiesel, in
general, has higher levels of cetane than fossil fuel (Hassan and Kalam, 2013).

3.1.3 Biogas

Biogas is a methane-rich gas produced through the anaerobic treatment of biomass. It is a

renewable fuel which may be used to generate electricity, heat or for use as vehicle fuel. Such
uses promote economic, environmental and climate benefits (Scarlat et al., 2018). The
application is simple and scalable and is suitable for both industrial and commercial use. It is
also viable for every national grid to be integrated. Biogas production results in a natural
fertiliser which is a desirable by-product (Ishola et al., 2013).

3.2 Opportunities for Biofuel Adoption in South Africa

South Africa is a water-stressed country and so the increased crop production may increase
the strain on the country’s water supply. However, maize, sugarcane, and sorghum are viable
sources that may not pose too much of a threat (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). The goal for
the development of renewable energy is to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels and to promote
a healthier and sustainable environment. The South African government has included
stimulating the economy through job creation, poverty alleviation and rural development as
their goals for a biofuel sector (Energy, 2007).

3.2.1 Sources

South Africa has the ability to produce ample quantities of maize from the available land.
Over the years, the area of maize cultivation has decreased while the yield per unit area has
almost doubled (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). There may be some challenges facing maize
as a feedstock for biofuel since South Africa exports maize and could result in trade industry
issues. Sorghum is drought-resistant and suitable for cultivation in vast regions of South
Africa, making it a promising crop for the production of biofuel (NBTT, 2006).

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3.2.2 Production of renewable energy

Biofuels are produced from a feedstocks that are renewable. Therefore, there is little to no net
carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere, rendering biofuel a source of energy that is
environmentally friendly (Pirolini, 2015). The need for the shift to using renewable sources
such as biofuels is to promote a cleaner energy which is synonymous with a cleaner
environment.

3.2.3 Rural development

In 2007, the Department of Minerals and Energy released the industrial strategy for South
Africa. Rural development was cited as the reason for the development in biofuel by
providing opportunities to the rural areas through creation of markets for their produce
(Department of Minerals and Energy, 2007). For the development of rural economies,
feedstock crops are necessary. They generate high volumes and have comparatively
lower risks.

3.2.4 Job creation

The emergence of ample opportunity for jobs is considered a major benefit for the

community. It is also a good source of motivation to the public for the development of
a biofuels sector.  A feasibility study conducted by the National Biofuels Task Force found
that in South Africa, the biofuel industry would generate at least 60 000 jobs, of which 86%
would be in the agricultural sector (NBTT, 2006).

3.3 Challenges Facing the Adoption of Biofuels in South Africa

Biofuels is a controversial topic. For all the good that it can do, there is still much debate on
the negative impacts that biofuels can create when implemented in South Africa. The biggest
topic for debate is the threat that a biofuels sector will pose to food security. Major biomass
feedstocks fall within the category of South Africa’s staple food crops such as maize (NBTT,
2006). Other major setbacks for the adoption of biofuels is South Africa’s water scarcity
issues and the possible environmental degradation (Energy, 2007). All of these have
obstructed the implementation of the proposed biofuels policies (Prasad, 2010).

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3.3.1 Food security

It is believed that the increase in biofuel development will introduce a competition between
feedstocks and food crops. One of the major concerns which makes the South African
government reluctant to approve commercial biofuel ventures is the effect of biofuels on food
security (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). These concerns have been posed by numerous
agricultural stakeholders who might be impacted (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). This is one
of the reasons why the industrial biofuels strategy for South Africa, has been halted (Prasad,
2010). Nonetheless, a study by Thompson (2012), found no clear link between increased
production of biofuels and increasing food prices.

The primary concern, in South Africa, about food security is the use of maize for the ethanol
production. Consequently, maize was omitted from the initial phases of production of
bioethanol in South Africa (Energy, 2007). This notion had come under fire from producers
of maize for being excluded from the strategy. South Africa is a net exporter of maize and
maize farmers stand to benefit greatly from the development of a biofuels sector (Pradhan
and Mbohwa, 2014).

3.3.2 Environmental impact

The development of biofuels reduces CO2 from the environment thereby reducing the
emissions of GHGs compared to fossil fuels. Due to the effects associated with land-use
transition, the environmental impacts of producing biodiesel are debatable. According to
Pradhan and Mbohwa (2014), the net carbon emissions generally increases during land use
changes. The South African industrial strategy proposes using homeland, which is otherwise
unused, to produce feedstock crops as this will mitigate the degradation imposed by land use
changes (Energy, 2007). South Africa is a water scarce country as defined by the United
Nations.

3.3.3 Socio-economic implications

The production of biofuels in the country can have many major social and economic impacts.
Amongst the benefits of rural economic growth, job creation and poverty alleviation (German
et al., 2011). In South Africa, the agricultural sector is plagued by socio-economic issues
such as exploitation of farm workers, child labour and illegal immigrant workers (Pradhan

12
and Mbohwa, 2014). The rise in agricultural activity from feedstock production could result
in a rise in such issues (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014).

3.3.4 Biofuels policies

The South African government has established many biofuel policies as listed in Table 4.1.
The Biofuels Industrial Strategy Guide was meant to jumpstart the development of biofuels
sector but the concerns raised by various stakeholders have kept the implementation in
constant turmoil (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014). Moreover, South Africa faces the delicate
balance of promoting economic growth while protecting the environment. Stakeholders
should use the delays in implementation to conduct further research into the potential
challenges and benefits of biofuels. This can help influence policy-makers to advance these
policies faster (Pradhan and Mbohwa, 2014).

Table 4.1 Relevent biofuel energy policies in South Africa (after Prasad, 2010)

Name of Policy Objectives related to Reference

biofuels
White Paper on the Energy Promote the establishment Department of Minerals and
Policy of the Republic of of renewable energy sector Energy (1998)
South Africa by promoting small-scale
and large-scale operations as
well the development of
codes of practice
White Paper on the Establishing a renewable Department of Minerals and
Renewable Energy energy goal to be reached in Energy (2003)
Policy of South Africa 2013 of which will be driven
by biofuels, solar energy and
small-scale hydropower
Biofuels Industrial Strategy Developing a biofuels sector Department of Minerals and
of the Republic by promoting development Energy (2007)
of South Africa in rural areas aimed at
poverty alleviation
Renewable Energy Feed-in Providing subsidies for National Energy Regulator
Tariff (REFIT) operations that feed-in of South Africa (2009)
Phase I and II renewable energy into the
national grid
Biofuels Pricing and Establishing an economic Department of Energy
Manufacturing Economics structure to promote the (2013)
adoption of biofuels on
small-scale

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 3. DISCUSSION

Sustainable production of biofuels can be accomplished with already available crops thus no
alternate crops and subsequent investment is needed. Biomass can be collected from a wide
range of sources: feedstock crops, residues of crops, urban waste and food waste. Maize and
sugarcane have been identified as viable sources of feedstocks in South Africa since they are
produced in surplus consistently. South Africa's initial development of the biofuel industry
will focus on first-generation technologies. Thus there is a need to maximise the effectiveness
of agricultural productivity. To do this, agricultural growth in the country will require more
investment and research so that more crop feedstocks are available for biofuel production.

Simple forms of biofuels are presently being used in rural regions in South Africa
through direct combustion. Biochemical and thermochemical processes generate most types
of biofuels. The resulting products from these processes are methane, ethanol, fertiliser,
syngas and combustible materials. Ethanol is the most popular form of refined biofuel due to
its possible application in the transportation sector. Research has revealed that the use of
ethanol for blending with vehicular fuel is possible with little to minor modifications to
current motor vehicles. However, there are not enough studies available to establish if crop
productivity can meet the demand of food crops and feedstock crops.

 In South Africa, the Biofuels Industrial Strategy has failed in stimulating the biofuels sector
due to the concerns raised against it. As a result of this, the production of biofuels in
South Africa is limited. A re-assessment of the framework is needed. For biomass feedstock
to work, policies and mandates are needed to ensure suitable levels of food security, land
impact changes, water security and that rural areas benefit greatly from such a venture. This
will satisfy the concerns surrounding the use of biofuels.

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 4. CONCLUSION

South Africa’s energy supply can be extended and diversified through the integration of
biofuels and it can lower the pollution levels and the need to import fossil-fuels. South Africa
is a net oil importer of crude oil. This lends the country to the volatility of the global oil
market and dependent on the foreign exchange prices. Biofuels is certainly an attractive and
viable source of renewable energy and the country certainly has the resources to establish, at
minimum, an entry-level biofuels sector. South Africa has undertaken feasibility studies and
has determined that a biofuel sector is vital to rural development, growth in the agricultural
sector, job creation and the promotion of a sustainable environment. Thus policies have been
established but are stalled due to major unaddressed issues. South Africa has not undergone
such rigorous studies. The delays in implementing the strategies should be used by
stakeholders to undertake more research into the future difficulties and benefits of biofuels.
This will help persuade government agencies to advance these strategies and alleviate some
of the uncertainty surrounding biofuels in South Africa.

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