Çengel

Boles
CHAPTER

7
Thermodynamics

Entropy:
A Measure
of Disorder

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 System Considered in the
6-1

Development of Claussius inequity

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Boles
Thermodynamics

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 The Entropy Change Between
6-2

Two Specific States

The entropy change between two specific states is the
same whether the process is reversible or irreversible

(Fig. 6-3)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 The Entropy Change of an Isolated
6-3

System
The entropy change of an isolated system is the sum of the entropy changes
of its components, and is never less than zero

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 The Entropy Change of a Pure
6-4

Substance
The entropy of a pure substance is determined from the tables, just as for
any other property

(Fig. 6-10)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Schematic of the T-s Diagram
6-5

for Water

(Fig. 6-11)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-6
System Entropy Constant During
Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) Process

(Fig.6-14)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Level of Molecular Disorder
6-7

(Entropy)
The level of molecular disorder (entropy) of a substance
increases as it melts and evaporates

(Fig. 6-16)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Net Disorder (Entropy) Increases
6-8

During Heat Transfer

During a heat transfer process, the net disorder (entropy) increases (the
increase in the disorder of the cold body more than offsets the decrease in
the disorder in the hot body)

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Heat Transfer for Internally
6-9

Reversible Processes
On a T-S diagram, the area under the process curve represents the
heat transfer for internally reversible processes

(Fig. 6-23)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 h-s Diagram for Adiabatic Steady-
6-11

Flow Devices
For adiabatic steady-flow devices, the vertical distance ²h on an h-s
diagram is a measure of work, and the horizontal distance ²s is a
measure of irreversibilities

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Schematic of an h-s Diagram for
6-10

Water

(Fig. 6-27)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-12

Entropy of an Ideal Gas

The entropy of an ideal gas depends on both T and P. The function
s° represents only the temperature-dependent part of entropy

(Fig. 6-33)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 The Isentropic Relations of Ideal
6-13

Gases
The isentropic relations of ideal gases
are valid for the isentropic processes of ideal gases only

(Fig. 6-36)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-14
Using Pr data to Calculate Final
Temperature During Isentropic Processes
The T-ebow of an ordinary shower serves as the mixing chamber
for hot- and cold-water streams.

(Fig. 6-37)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Reversible Work Relations for
6-15

Steady-Flow and Closed Systems

(Fig. 6-41)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-16
P-v Diagrams of Isentropic, Polytropic,
and Isothermal Compression Processes
P-v Diagrams of isentropic, polytropic, and isothermal compression
processes between the same pressure limits

(Fig. 6-45)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-17
P-v andT-s Diagrams for a Two-Stage
Steady-Flow Compression Process

(Fig. 6-46)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-18
The h-s Diagram for the Actual and
Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic Turbine

(Fig. 6-59)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-19
The h-s Diagram of the Actual and Isentropic
Processes of an Adiabatic Compressor

(Fig. 6-61)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-20
The h-s Diagram of the Actual and
Isentropic Processes of an Adiabatic Nozzle

(Fig. 6-64)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer
6-21

for a General System

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-22
A Control Volume’s Entropy Changes
with MassFlow as well as Heat Flow

(Fig. 6-73)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Entropy Generation During Heat
6-23

Transfer
Graphical representation of entropy generation during a heat
transfer process through a finite temperature difference

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-24

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles
• The second law of thermodynamics leads to the definition
Thermodynamics

of a new property called entropy, which is a quantitative

measure of microscopic disorder for a system.

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 6-25

Chapter Summary

• The definition of entropy is based on the Clausius inequality, given by

Çengel
Boles where the equality holds for internally or totally reversible processes and the inequality for irreversible processes.
Thermodynamics

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 6-26

Chapter Summary

Çengel • Any quantity whose cyclic integral is zero is a

Boles property, and entropy is defined as
Thermodynamics

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 6-27

Chapter Summary

Çengel • For the special case of an internally reversible,

Boles
isothermal process, it gives
Thermodynamics

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 6-28

Chapter Summary

• The inequality part of the Clausius inequality combined with the definition of entropy yields an inequality known as the increase of entropy
principle, expressed as

Çengel
Boles where Sgen is the entropy generated during the process.
Thermodynamics

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 6-29

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles • Entropy change is caused by heat transfer, mass flow, and irreversibilities. Heat
Thermodynamics

transfer to a system increases the entropy, and heat transfer from a system
decreases it. The effect of irreversibilities is always to increase the entropy.

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 6-30

Chapter Summary

• Entropy is a property, and it can be expressed in terms of more familiar properties through the Tds relations, expressed as

Çengel and
Boles
Thermodynamics

Tds = du +Pdv

Tds = dh - vdP

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 6-31

Chapter Summary

• These two relations have many uses in thermodynamics and serve as the starting point in
Çengel developing entropy-change relations for processes. The successful use of Tds relations
Boles depends on the availability of property relations. Such relations do not exist for a general pure
substance but are available for incompressible substances (solids, liquids) and ideal gases.
Thermodynamics

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 6-32

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

1. Pure substances:

Any process: s = s2 - s1 [kJ/(kg-K)]

Isentropic process: s2 = s1

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 6-33

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

2. Incompressible substances:

T2
Any process: s2 - s1 = Cav 1n
T1 [kJ/(kg-
K)]

Isentropic process: T2 = T1

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 6-34

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:
Çengel 3. Ideal gases:
Boles
a. Constant specific heats (approximate
Thermodynamics

treatment):
Any process:
T2 v2
s2 - s1 = Cv,av 1n T + R1n v [kJ/(kg-K)]
1 1

and
T2 P2
s2 - s1 = Cp,av 1n T1 + R1n P1 [kJ/(kg-K)]
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 6-35

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:
Çengel 3. Ideal gases:
Boles
a. Constant specific heats (approximate
Thermodynamics

treatment):
On a unit-mole basis,
T2 v2
s2 - s1 = Cv,av 1n T + Ru1n v [kJ/(kmol-K)]
1 1

and
T2 P2
s2 - s1 = Cp,av 1n T1 + Ru1n P1 [kJ/(kmol-K)]
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 6-36

Chapter Summary
3. Ideal gases:
a. Constant specific heats (approximate
treatment):
Isentropic process:
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-37

Chapter Summary
• The entropy-change and isentropic relations for a
process can be summarized as follows:
Çengel 3. Ideal gases:
Boles
b. Variable specific heats (exact treatment):
Thermodynamics

Any process,
P2
s2 - s1 = s2o - s1o - R1n [kJ/(kg-K)]
P1
or
P2
s2 - s1 = s o-
2 s o-
1 Ru1n P [kJ/(kmol-K)]
1
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 6-38

Chapter Summary
3. Ideal gases:
b. Variable specific heats (exact treatment):
Isentropic process,
Çengel P2
Boles s2 = s1 - R1n
o o [kJ/(kg-K)]
P1
Thermodynamics

where Pr is the relative pressure and vr is the

Third Edition
relative specific volume. The function so
depends on temperature only.
WCB/McGraw-Hill © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,1998
 6-39

Chapter Summary

• The steady-flow work for a reversible process can

Çengel
Boles be expressed in terms of the fluid properties as
Thermodynamics

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 6-40

Chapter Summary

• For incompressible substances (v = constant) steady-

Çengel
Boles flow work for a reversible process simplifies to
Thermodynamics

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 6-41

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles • The work done during a steady-flow process is proportional to the specific volume.
Therefore,
Thermodynamics

v should be kept as small as possible during a compression process to minimize the work
input and as large as possible during an expansion process to maximize the work output.

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 6-42

Chapter Summary

Çengel • The reversible work inputs to a compressor compressing an ideal gas from T1, P1,
Boles to P2 in an isentropic (Pvk = constant), polytropic (Pvn = con-stant), or isothermal
Thermodynamics

(Pv = constant) manner, are determined by integration for each case with the
following results:

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 6-43

Chapter Summary

• Isentropic:

Çengel
Boles (kJ/kg)
Thermodynamics

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 6-44

Chapter Summary

• Polytropic:

Çengel
Boles (kJ/kg)
Thermodynamics

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 6-45

Chapter Summary

• Isothermal:

Çengel
Boles (kJ/kg)
Thermodynamics

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 6-46

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles
• The work input to a compressor can be reduced by using multistage
Thermodynamics

compression with intercooling. For maximum savings from the work input,
the pressure ratio across each stage of the compressor must be the same.

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 6-47

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles
• Most steady-flow devices operate under adiabatic
Thermodynamics

conditions, and the ideal process for these devices is the

isentropic process.

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 6-48

Chapter Summary
• The parameter that describes how efficiently a device approximates a corresponding isentropic device is called isentropic or adiabatic efficiency. It is expressed for turbines, compressors, and nozzles as follows:

In the relations above, h2a and h2s are the enthalpy values at the exit state for actual and isentropic processes, respectively.

Çengel
Actual turbine work wa h1 - ~h2a
Boles = = =
Isentropic turbine work ws h1 - h2s
Thermodynamics

Isentropic compressor work ws ~ h2s - h1

= = =
Actual compressor work wa h2a - h1
Actual KE at nozzle exit V2a 2 ~h1 - h2a
= = =
Isentropic KE at nozzle exit 2 h1 - h2s
V2s

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 6-49

Chapter Summary

• The entropy balance for any system undergoing any

Çengel process can be expressed in the general form as
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-50

Chapter Summary

• The entropy balance for any system undergoing any

Çengel process can be expressed in the general rate form, as
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 6-51

Chapter Summary

• For a general steady-flow process the entropy

Çengel
Boles
balance simplifies to
Thermodynamics

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 Exercise Problems

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

Third Edition

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