Chapter 7

Titrimetric Methods
of Analysis

AC1_chap7 1
 Titrimetry - Any method in
Titration which volume is the signal NaOH (C)
(CNaOH = 0.1 M)

 Equivalent point -The point in Titrant

a titration where
stoichiometrically equivalent
amounts of analyte and titrant
react
HCl (X)
 The end point - The point in a
titration where we stop adding (VHCl = 50.0 ml) Analyte
titrant
 Titration curve A graph
showing the progress of a
titration as a function of the
volume of titrant added
AC1_chap7 2
 Titrations
Indicator - A colored compound whose
change in color signals the end point of a
titration
Indicator
Redox reactions
Acid – Base reactions
Precipitation reactions
Complexometric reactions

AC1_chap7 3
 Indicator
 Redox indicator Acid - Base indicator
The potential determines the The pH determines the ratio
ratio of the two colors of the two colors


InH 

ki
In  H
In( ox )  ne  In( kh )
0,059 [ In( ox ) ] [ In][ H  ]
E  Ei  0
lg ki 
n [ In( kh ) ] [ InH ]
0,059 [ In]
Ech / m  Ei 
0
pH  pki  lg
n [ InH ]
pH ch / m  pki  1

AC1_chap7 4
 Indicator
Complexometric indicator and precipitation
indicator
n m ( nm)
X In 
 XIn
m
1 [ XIn] [ In ]
 i  n   m  hay pX  lg  i  lg
[ X ] [ In ] [ XIn]
Tst  [ X ][ In] hay pX ch / m  pTst  lg[ In]

AC1_chap7 5
 Titrations
 How to determine the equivalence
point
 Using indicator
 Using titration curve
 Kinds of titrations
 Direct titrations
 Back titrations
 Indirect titrations
 Continuous titrations

AC1_chap7 6
 How to calculate results
 Liquid sample
C (standard) : the standard solution with known
concentration (Cc: normality); X (analyte): the
solution X with unknown concentration
V (mL) (sample dilute V1 (mL)
Vx (mL) (titration)

3 V 1 1000
X ( g / L )  C C  10  V C  equivalent X  
VX V

AC1_chap7 7
 Calculate the results
 Solid sample

m (g) (sample dilute V1 (mL)

Vx (mL) (titration)

3 V1 1000
X (%)  C C  10  V C  equivalent X  
VX m

AC1_chap7 8
 Calculations of the results

 Use Tc/x

-Tc/x: the number of grams or milligrams of X

reacts with 1 mL of the standard C (Cc:
normality of the solution C)
3
T C/X  C  10
C  equivalent X
TC / X
or C C   10 3
equivalent X

AC1_chap7 9
 Calculations of the results

 Use Tc/x
- Example
T HCl / NaOH  0 . 0401 g
TX /C 0 .0401
C HCl   10  3
 10 3  1 . 00 N
equivalent NaOH 4 0.1
T HCl / Na 2 CO 3  0 . 0530 g
T HCl / Na 2 CO 3 0 .0530
C HCl   10 
3
 10 3  1 . 00 N
equivalent Na 2 CO 3 106 / 2
0 . 05585
T KMnO 4 / Fe
 0 . 05585 g C KMnO 4   10 3  1 . 00 N
5 5.85/1
AC1_chap7 10
 Applications
 Redox titrations
 Permanganate (KMnO4) method
 Principle
 Conditions of reactions
 Standard potentials
 pH, t0, catalyst
…
 Dichromate (K2Cr2O7) method
 Iodimetry (I2: Iodine)
 Iodometry (I-: iodide ion)

AC1_chap7 11
 Permanganate (KMnO4) method

MnO4  8 H   5e  Mn 2  4 H 2O, E 0  1.51v

Direct titration
2CO2  2e  C 2O42 , E o  0.49 v
2 MnO4  5C 2O42  16 H   Mn 2  10CO2  8 H 2O
MnO4  2 H 2O  3e  MnO2  4OH  , E 0  0.60 v
MnO4  4 H   3e  MnO2  2 H 2O, E 0  1.69 v
KMnO4 (X) NO3  4 H   3e  NO  2 H 2O, E 0  0.96 v
Cl 2  2e  2Cl  , E 0  1.36 v

5.00 mL CN (KMnO4) = CN(H2C2O4) x V (H2C2O4) / V(KMnO4)

0.0200 N
H2C2O4
CN (KMnO4) = 5x CM (KMnO4)

Cg/l (KMnO4) = M (KMnO4) )x CM (KMnO4)

AC1_chap7 12
 Permanganate (KMnO4)
method
KMnO4 (X)

 The end point

5.00 mL of 0.0200 N
H2C2O4

The end point

AC1_chap7 13
 I 2  2e  2 I  , E 0  0.621v
Dichromate 
 2e  3I  , E 0  0.54 v
(K2Cr2O7) method
I 3

S 4O62  2e  2 S 2O32 , E 0  0.09 v

Cr2O72  14 H   6e  2Cr 3  7 H 2O, E 0  1.33 v

Cr2O72  9 I   14 H   2Cr 3  I 3  7 H 2O Indirect titration

I 3  2S 2O32  3I   S 4O62
Cr2O72 NO3  4H   3e  NO  2H2O, E 0  0.96v
I
I2 Cl2  2e  2Cl  , E 0  1.36v
S 2O32
Na2S2O3 (X) CN (Na2S2O3) = CN (K2Cr2O7) x V (K2Cr2O7) / V(Na2S2O3)

CN (Na2S2O3) = CM (Na2S2O3)
5.00 mL of 0.050 N
K2Cr2O7
Cg/l (Na2S2O3) = M (Na2S2O3) )x CM (Na2S2O3)
AC1_chap7 14
 Dichromate Titrating Na2S2O3 with
K2Cr2O7
(K2Cr2O7) method
 The end point
Starch indicator

The end point

AC1_chap7 15
 Acid – Base titration

 Titrating a strong acid with a strong base

 Reaction
 pH at the equivalence
 Indicator
 A weak acid with a strong base
 A weak base with a strong acid
 A polyprotic acid with a strong base
 A Polyprotic base with a strong acid
 A mixture of bases with a strong acid

AC1_chap7 16
 Acid – Base titration

 A strong acid with a strong base

0 H   OH   H 2O, pH eq  7
1
0
2
0
3
0 Burette
4
(NaOH)
(C)
0
5
0

Erlen
(HCl)
(X)

AC1_chap7 17
 Acid – Base titration
 Indicator
pH range (pH at Color (HIn Color (In
Indicator changes of colors) form) form)
Phenolphthalein 8.2-10 Colorless Pink
Bromothymol blue 6.0-7.6 Yellow Blue
Bromocresol green 3.8-5.4 Yellow Blue
Methyl orange 3.1-4.4 Orange Yellow
Methyl red 4.2-6.2 Red Yellow

AC1_chap7 18
 Acid – Base Indicator

AC1_chap7 19
 Acid – Base titration curves

AC1_chap7 20
 Acid – Base titration curves

AC1_chap7 21
 Acid – Base titration curves

AC1_chap7 22
 The end point

At the beginning The end point The excess point

AC1_chap7 23
 Titrating a polyprotic acid with a
strong base
H 3 PO4  H   H 2 PO4 , K a1 10 2.12 2V1 = V2: H3PO4
H 2 PO4  H   HPO42 , K a 2 10 7.21 2V1 > V2: Mixture of H3PO4 and
a strong acid
HPO42  H   PO43 , K a 3 10 12.38 2V1 < V2: Mixture of H3PO4 and
a weak acid
0

1
0
2
0
3
pH (OH   H 2 PO 4  HPO 24  H 2 O)
0 Burette
4
(NaOH)
(C)
0 Phenolphthalein
5 9.8 Colourless – Pink
0
(8.2 – 10.0)

4.7 Bromocresol green

Yellow – Blue
(HErlen
3PO4)
(X) (3.8 – 5.4)
(OH   H 3 PO 4  H 2 PO 4  H 2 O)
VNaOH, mL
V1 V2
AC1_chap7 24
 The end point

The first end point V1

The first end point V1

AC1_chap7 25
 The end point
The second end point V2

AC1_chap7 26
 Titrating a polyprotic base with a strong
acid CO 2  H   HCO  , pK 10.32
3 3 a2

HCO3  H   H 2CO3 , pK a1  6.35

HCl Alkalinity - A measure of a water’s
ability to neutralize acid.
Acidity - A measure of a water’s
pH ability to neutralize base.

Na2CO3
8.3 Phenolphthalein
Pink – Colorless
(10 – 8.2)
VM= 2 VP: CO32- 4
VM = VP: OH- Methyl orange
VP = 0; VM  0: HCO3- Yellow – Red
2VP > VM: OH-, CO32- (4.4 – 3.1)
VP VM VHCl, mL
2VP < VM: HCO3-, CO32-

( HCO3  OH   CO32  H 2O )
AC1_chap7 27
 Precipitation titrations

 Morh method
 Reactions
 Indicator
 Conditions
 pH
 t0
 Fajans method
 Volhard method

AC1_chap7 28
 Morh method

Ag   Cl   AgCl , Tst  10 9.75

Tst  s.s
0

1
s s
0
2
0  s  Tst  10  4.88 M  1.32 10 5 M
3
0 Burette
(C) +
4
0 Ag
2 Ag   CrO42  Ag 2CrO4 , Tst  10 11.95
5
0

Tst
s 3  1.63 10  4 M
Erlen
(X)- 4
Cl
K2CrO4 pH7 Direct titration
AC1_chap7 29
 Morh method

 The end point

The end point

AC1_chap7 30
 Volhard method
Cl-
Ag+
SCN-

0 0 Ag   Cl   AgCl , Tst  10 9.75

1
0
1
0 Ag   SCN   AgSCN , Tst  10 11.97
2 2
0 0

Fe3  SCN   FeSCN 2 

3 3
Burette Burette-
0
Ag + 0
SCN
(C)
4 (C) 4
0 0

5 5
0 0

Back titration
Erlen Erlen
AgCl (s),
(X)-
Cl (X)
Ag+

pH = 2

AC1_chap7 31
 Volhard method  The end point

AC1_chap7 32
 Complexometric titrations

 Reaction
 Conditions
 Applications
 Determine concentratons of Ca2+,
Mg2+ or mixture of Ca2+ + Mg2+ in
water (water hardness)
 Determine concentrations of Al3+,
Fe3+ or mixture of Al3++ Fe3+ in water

AC1_chap7 33
 Determine Al3++ Fe3+ in water

HO2CCH2 CH2CO2H
EDTA: ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
NCH2CH2N
H4Y or Y4-
HO2CCH2 CH2CO2H
Na2H2Y

Y4- Fe 3  Y 4  FeY  ,  FeY

'
 1012.7 TFe (OH )3  10 35
Al 3  Y 4  AlY  ,  AlY
'
 10 4.2 [ Fe 3 ]  10 3 M
Fe3+, Al 3+
Acid Salicilic Fe3+ , Al 3+
Fe3  Y 4  FeY 
pH 2.5 FeIn FeIn  Y 4  FeY   In 
AC1_chap7 34
 Determine Al3++ Fe3+ in water
 The end point

The end point

AC1_chap7 35
 Determine Al3++ Fe3+ in water
3 4 
 FeY
'
 1014.8
Al Y  AlY ,  AlY
'
 10 9. 6
Continuous titration
 NiY
'
 1012
2
Al 3+
Y 4- Back titration  PbY
'
 1011.4
2
AlY-
Cu 2+ Cu2+  FeY
'
 107.7
2

Y4-
 ZnY
'
 109.9
2

FeY - , AlY- , Y 4-, P.A.N

FeY -, Al3+
Cu 2  Y 4  CuY 2
FeY - , AlY- , Y4-
Cu 2  In   CuIn
pH 2.5 NH4OH pH 5, 80 oC, 2 mL of buffer pH 5
Yellow Pink
Bromocresol green Green Violet
Yellow Blue Blue Blue
AC1_chap7 36
 Determine Al3++ Fe3+ in water

Before the titration (the color of the sample solution at

pH  5 with bromocresol green)
AC1_chap7 37
 Determine Al3++ Fe3+ in water

The end point

The color of the
sample solution after
adding P.A.N
(indicator) at pH 5.
AC1_chap7 38
 Complexometric  Determine Ca2+, Mg2+ or
mixture of Ca2+ + Mg2+ in
titrations water
Titration of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ with EDTA, pH = 10

K sp Ca ( OH )  10 5.26
Ca2  Y 4  CaY 2 , CaY
'
 1010.2 2

2
Mg  Y 4
 MgY , 
2 '
 10
8.2 K sp Mg ( OH )  10 9.22
MgY 2

Y4- CaIn  Y 4  CaY 2  In 

MgIn  Y 4  MgY 2  In 

Ca 2+, Mg 2+

Indicator Ca 2+ , Mg 2+
(Eriochrome Black T) CaIn, MgIn
HIn, pH 10
AC1_chap7 39
 Determine Ca2+ and Mg2+ in water
Titration of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ bằng EDTA, pH = 10

The end point

AC1_chap7 40
 Determine Ca2+ + Mg2+ in water
Titration of Ca 2+ with EDTA, pH = 12.5

Ca2  Y 4  CaY 2 , CaY

'
 108.2 K sp Ca ( OH )  10 5.26
2

Mg2  Y 4  MgY 2 ,  MgY

'
 1010.7 K sp Mg ( OH )  10 9.22
2

pH  12.5  [OH  ]  10 1.5 M

[ Mg 2 ][OH  ]2  10 3  (10 1.5 ) 2  10 6 10 9.22
 Mg (OH ) 2 
Y4-

CaIn  Y 4  CaY 2  In 
Ca 2+, Mg 2+

Indicator Ca 2+ ,
(Fluorexone) HIn Mg(OH)2 CaIn
AC1_chap7 41
 Determine Ca2+ + Mg2+ in water
Titration of Ca 2+ with EDTA, pH = 12.5

The end point

AC1_chap7 42
 Determinate error in a titration

 Titration error -The determinate error in a

titration due to the difference between the end
point and the equivalence point
 Titration error
 Equilibrium constant of the reaction
 Chemicals, equipment
 Indicator error

AC1_chap7 43
 Characterizing Experimental Errors

 Accuracy
 Accuracy is a measure of how close a measure
of central tendency is to the true, or
expected value
 Precision
 Precision is a measure of the spread of data
about a central value

AC1_chap7 44
 Accuracy

 Determinate error (identifiable sources) - Any

systematic error that causes a measurement
or result to always be too high or too small
 Sampling error- An error introduced during the
process of collecting a sample for analysis
 Method error - An error due to limitations in the
analytical method used to analyze a sample
 Measurement error - An error due to limitations in
the equipment and instruments used to make
measurements

AC1_chap7 45
 Accuracy

 Determinate errors
 Tolerance -The maximum determinate
measurement error for equipment or instrument as
reported by the manufacturer.
 Personal error - An error due to biases introduced
by the analyst

AC1_chap7 46
 Indicator error
milliequivalent X left (or excess milliequivalent C)
%  100
original milliequivalent X

Vx CC milliequivalent C
F 
VX C X milliequivalent X

 %  x  1  100

AC1_chap7 47
 Indicator error – Redox titrations

 X: analyte (CX), C : standard (CC)

ox X / khX , oxC / khC

 m
EC0  E X0  n X oxC  nC khX  mH 
 n X khC  nC ox X  H 2O
k
2
 m
0. 059 [ ox ] 0.059 [ox ][H ]
E  EX  (1) E  EC 
0 0
lg X lg C
(2)
nX [khX ] nC [khC ]
 At time x
C XV X C CV x
n X [khX ]  n X [ox X ]  (3) nC [khC ]  nC [oxC ]  (4)
VX  Vx VX  Vx
nC [khC ]  n X [ox X ] (5)

AC1_chap7 48
 Indicator error - Redox titrations
 X = 0 (khX) C = nX[khX] E at the beginning
 X = 1 (oxX, khC)

nC [oxC ]  n X [khX ] hay nC [khC ]  n X [ox X ]

n X E  nC E
0 0
0.059  m
Etd  X

C
lg[ H ]
n X  nC n X  nC

AC1_chap7 49
 Indicator error - Redox titrations
 X < 1 (khX,oxX and khC)

[khX ] C XV X
(3)    1 (6)
[ox X ] (V X  V x )n X [ox X ]
C CV x
[oxC ]  0 (4)  nC [ khC ] 
VX  Vx
[khX ] C X V X 1 1 x
(5), (6)   1  1 
[ox X ] C CV x x x

0.059 [ox X ] 0.059 x

EE  0
lg  EX 
0
lg
1 x
X
nX [khX ] nX
AC1_chap7 50
 Indicator error - Redox titrations
 Before the equivalence Ef < Eeq

0.059 [ox X ] f
Ef  E  0
lg
n X [khX ] f X
nX [khX ] f
%  100
n X [khX ]0  n X ( E f  E X0 )
[khX ] f
n X [khX ]0  n X [ox X ] f   10 0.059
[ox X ] f
n X [khX ] f
 %  100  n X ( E f  E X0 )
n X [ox X ] f %  10 0.059
100

AC1_chap7 51
 Indicator error - Redox titrations
 X > 1 (khC,oxC and oxX)

[oxC ] C CV x
( 4)    1 (7)
[khC ] (V X  V x ) nC [khC ]
C XV X
[khX ]  0 (3)  n X [ox X ] 
VX  Vx
[oxC ] C CV x
(5), (7)   1  x 1
[ khC ] C X V X
 m
0. 059 [ ox ][ H ] 0.059
E  EC 
0
lg C
 EC 
0
lg( x  1)[ H  ]m
nC [khC ] nC

AC1_chap7 52
 Indicator error - Redox titrations
 After the equivalence Ef > Eeq

nC [oxC ] f
%  100 0.059 [oxC ] f
n X [khX ]0 Ef  E  0
C lg
nC [khC ] f
n X [khX ]0  n X [ox X ] f
nC ( E f  EC0 )
[oxC ] f
 nC [khC ] f   10 0.059
[khC ] f
nC [oxC ] f
 %  100 nC ( E f  EC0 )
nC [khC ] f
%  10 0.059
 100

AC1_chap7 53
 Indicator error - Redox titrations

 E0X > E0C

Before the equivalence After the equivalence

n X ( E f  E X0 )  nC ( E f  EC0 )

%  10 0.059
100 %  10 0.059
100

AC1_chap7 54
 Indicator error - Redox titrations
Example
 Titration of Fe2+ (E0X=0.77V) with Ce4+ (E0C=1.44V)
 (a) using Erio glaucin E0In = 1.00V n=1
 (b) using 5-nitroso-1,10-phenantroline E0In = 1.25V n=1

(a) Ce 4  Fe 2  Fe 3  Ce 3 (b) 0.77  1.44

 Etd   1.10V
11
0.059 0.059
Ech / m  1.00  V Ech / m  1.25  V
1 1
0.94V  Ech / m  1.06V 1.19V  Ech / m  1.31V
E f  1.06V  before the equivalence E f  1.31V  after the equivalence
E X0  EC0 E X0  EC0
1(1.06  0.77 )
1(1.311.44 )
%  10 0.059
100  0.001% %  10 0.059
100  0.63%

AC1_chap7 55
 Indicator error - Other titrations
 Complexometric titration  Precipitation titration

[ In] pX ch / m  pTst  lg[ In]

pX ch / m  lg  i  lg
[ XIn]

 Acid – Base titration

[ In]
pH ch / m  pk i  lg
[ HIn]
pH ch / m  pk i  1

AC1_chap7 56
 [ X ]left
Indicator error - Other titrations%   100 (2)
X  C  XC [ X ]0
[ XC]eq [ X ] f  [ X ]left  [ X ]dissociation
XC 
At the equivalence [ X ]eq[C]eq
[ X ]dissociation  [C ]dissociation  [C ] f
[ XC ]eq [ X ]0
[ X ]eq  [C ]eq 
2 2
 (1)
 XC  XC
 [ X ]left  [ X ] f  [C ] f
1
or pX td  ( pX 0  lg  XC ) (1' ) [ X ] f  [C ] f
2 [X ]f %  100 (3)
pX  pX eq  pX f   lg[ X ]eq  lg[ X ] f  lg [ X ]0
[ X ]eq
 [ X ] f  [ X ]eq .10 pX (4) and [C ] f  [C ]eq .10 pC (5)
pX   pC (6) and [ X ]eq  [C ]eq (7)
From (4) (5) (6) and (3)
[ X ]eq [10 pX  10  pX ]
%   100 (8)
[ X ]0
AC1_chap7 57
 Indicator error - Other titrations

 Complexometric reaction Precipitation reaction

[ X ]eq  [C ]eq  (Tst )1/ 2
10 pX  10  pX
%  100 (9)
([ X ]0  XC )1/ 2
10 pX  10  pX
%  2 1/ 2
100 (10)
([ X ]0 / Tst )
 Acid – Base titration
X : weak acid, C : strong base   XC   A
X : weak base, C strong acid   XC   HA
pX  pH  ( pH eq  pH f ) , use (9)

AC1_chap7 58
 Indicator error -
Other titrations

Use the error graph

AC1_chap7 59
 Indicator error - Other titrations
Example 1
Titration of 0.100 M CH3COOH (pKa = 4.76) with 0. 100 M NaOH, the end
point pH = 8

CH 3COOH  NaOH  CH 3COONa  H 2O

14
10
pK a  4.76  K b   4.76  10 9.24   CH 3COONa  109.24
Calculate pH
10
eq

 9.24 5.27
[OH ]  K b  Cb  10  0.05  10  pH td  8.73
pH f  8
pH td  8.73  pH  0.73 %  0.06%
log( X 0   XC )  log(0.05 109.24 )  7.94

AC1_chap7 60
 Indicator error - Other titrations
Example 2
Titration of 0.100 M NaCl with 0.100 M AgNO3 (TAgCl = 10-10) , the
end point pAg = 4.3

pCleq  pAg eq  5 ; pAg f  4.3 pCl  5.7  pCl  5.0  5.7  0.7
10 1 2
( )  0.7
[ X 0 ]2 10 8
10 0.7
 10
lg  lg 210  lg  7.4 ; %  1
100  0.096%
Tst 10 4 10 2
[( ) / 10 10 ]1/ 2
2
or after the equivalence (Ag  in excess)
10  4.3 10  4.3  2v
%  1 100  0.1% or %  1
 100  0.1%
10 / 2 10  v
10-1 2
( )
Or pCl  0.7 lg 210  7.4  %  0.1%
10
AC1_chap7 61
 Indicator error - Other titrations
Example 3
 Titration of 10-2 M Mg2+ with 10-2 M EDTA using Erio Black T
indicator
 MgY  108.7 ,  Mg  In  107.0 , lg  In ( H )  1.6, lg  Y ( H )  0.5,  Mg (OH )  1
 ' MgY  108.2 ,  Mg
'
 In  10 5 .4

pMg ch / m  lg  Mg
'
 In  lg 3  5.4  0.5 ( 4.9  pMg  5.9)

or pMg f  5.9
2
1 1 10
pMg eq  ( pMgY  lg  ' MgY )  ( lg  8.2)  5.25
2 2 2
pMg  pMg eq  pMg f  5.25  5.9  0.65
10 0.65  10 0.65
%  2
 100  0.48%
10
(  108.2 )1/ 2
2
AC1_chap7 62
 Indicator error
- titrating a strong acid with a strong base NaOH

CXVX: milliequivalent X
CCVf: milliequivalent C HCl

pT<pHeq: before the

equivalence, H+ in excess
C X V X  C CV f 10  pT  [ H  ]excess
%  100 C X VX  CCV f
VX C X 
10  pT (V X  V f ) VX  V f
  100
VX C X  C X VX  CCV f  10  pT (VX  V f )
Near the equivalence
VX V f VX  V f VX  V f CC  C X
C X V X  C CV f     
CC C X C X  CC VX CC
10  pT (C C  C X )
%  100
AC1_chap7
CC C X 63
 Indicator error
- titrating a strong acid with a strong base NaOH

CXVX: milliequivalent X
HCl
CCVf: milliequivalent C
pT > pHeq: after the
equivalence, OH- in excess 10 14 
 pT
 [OH ]eq
C CV f  C X V X 10
%  100 CCV f  C X VX
VX C X 
10 pT 14 (V X  V f ) VX  V f
 100
VX C X  CCV f  C X VX  10 pT 14 (VX  V f )
Near the equivalence
VX V f VX  V f VX  V f CC  C X
C X V X  C CV f     
CC C X C X  CC VX CC
10 pT 14 (C C  C X )
%  100
AC1_chap7
CC C X 64
 Indicator error
- titrating a strong acid with a strong base
NaOH

10 pH1 (C C  C X )
%  100 HCl
CC C X

10 pH 2 14 (C C  C X )
%  100
CC C X
pH2

pH1

AC1_chap7 65
 Indicator error
- titrating a strong acid with a strong base
Example
NaOH
Titrating 0.1 M HCl with 0.1 M
NaOH. Calculate the indicator error
(pH = 4 at the end point). HCl

10 pH1 (C C  C X )
%  100
CC C X

10 4 (10 1  10 1 )
%   100  0.2%
0.1 0.1

AC1_chap7 66